Module 3 3rd Edition 2016 08 Oil Plam

Smallholder Oil Palm Handbook
Module 3:
Plantation Maintenance
Lotte Suzanne Woittiez

Haryono Sadikin
Sri Turhina
Hidayat Dani
Tri Purba Dukan
Hans Smit
Smallholder Oil Palm Handbook
Module 3: Plantation Maintenance
Lotte Suzanne Woittiez
Sadikin Haryono
Sri Turhina
Hidayat Dani
Tri Purba Dukan
Hans Smit
Photos and figures by Lotte Woittiez (unless otherwise indicated).
3rd Edition (English), August 2016
Published online by SNV International Development Organisation and

Wageningen University in 2016.
Correct citation: Woittiez, L.S., Haryono, S., Turhina, S., Dani, H., Dukan,
T.P., Smit, H. 2016. Smallholder Oil Palm Handbook Module 3: Plantation
Maintenance. 3rd Edition. Wageningen University, Wageningen, and SNV
International Development Organisation, The Hague. 53 pages.
All content of this document, including the figures, is licensed under the
Creative Commons license BY-NC-SA 3.0.
Module 3: Plantation maintenance
Module 3: Plantation Maintenance

GOAL: To manage the plantation effectively, efficiently, and sustainably
After this section, farmers should:
 Be able to identify the different parts of the oil palm

 Be able to discern beneficial and noxious weeds
 Know how to remove noxious weeds effectively
 Be able to create an efficient plantation layout including clean
harvesting paths and circles
 Know how to prune the palms and how to stack the pruned fronds
 Know how to implement basic soil conservation measures
Contents
1. IMPORTANT TERMS
2. GENERAL NOTES ON STORING AND SPRAYING CHEMICALS
3. COMMON NOXIOUS WEEDS IN OIL PALM
4. REMOVING NOXIOUS AND WOODY WEEDS
5. ESTABLISHING A COVER OF SOFT WEEDS
6. ACCESS AND HARVESTING PATHS
7. CIRCLE WEEDING
8. PRUNING
9. SOIL CONSERVATION
1
APPENDIX 1: PLANTATION MAPPING & PALM MARKING
List of figures
Figure 1: An oil palm

Figure 2: The oil palm trunk
Figure 3: Oil palm crown and bunches
Figure 4: Oil palm leaf
Figure 5: Male and female inflorescence
Figure 6: Plantation lay-out
Figure 7: Protective clothing for herbicide spraying
Figure 8: Knapsack sprayer
Figure 9: How to spray herbicides
Figure 10: Contact and systemic herbicides
Figure 11: Glyphosate
Figure 12: Triclopyr
Figure 13: Poorly weeded plantation
Figure 14: Cover crop Calopogonium caeruleum
Figure 15: Nephrolepis fern
Figure 16: Harvesting path
Figure 17: Foot bridge
Figure 18: Weeded circle
Figure 19: Manual circle cleaning
Figure 20: Poorly weeded circle with loose fruits
Figure 21: Leaf numbering
Figure 22: Over-pruning
Figure 23: Frond stacking in box shape
Figure 24: Terracing
Figure 25: Silt pit
Figure 26: Platform
Figure 27: Isometric paper
Figure 28: Plantation map
Figure 29: Marking sample palms
Error! Reference source not found.: Spirals to the left and right
Error! Reference source not found.: Identifying leaf 17
Error! Reference source not found.: Sample leaflets
List of tables
Table 1: Common herbicides

Table 2: Common noxious weeds
Table 3: Legume cover crops
Error! Reference source not found.: Critical nutrient values at >6 years
after planting
Error! Reference source not found.: Critical nutrient values at 1–6 years
after planting
2
1. IMPORTANT TERMS
Figure 1: Oil palm
In Figure 1 the following parts of the oil palm are indicated:

 The trunk
 The crown: all the leaves of the palm
 The leaves, also known as ‘fronds’ in the case of oil palm
 The young leaves: these appear from the growing point in the centre
of the top of the trunk
 The old leaves: these are found at the bottom of the crown
3
Figure 2: Oil palm trunk

 The trunk
 The base: the part of the trunk that is closest to the ground. The roots
grow from the bottom of the trunk base.
 The frond butts: these are pieces of leaves that remain behind after
the leaves are cut during pruning or harvesting. When the palm grows
older, the frond butts usually detach from the trunk, but this can take
10 to 15 years.
4
Figure 3: Oil palm crown with ripening fruit bunches

 The developing fruit bunches, also known as ‘black bunches’
 The oldest leaves
 The youngest leaves
 The petiole: the bottom part of the leaves, which has spines but no
leaflets
5
Figure 4: Oil palm leaf
Figure 4 shows a close-up of an oil palm leaf. The leaf is composed of a

central rachis with leaflets, also known as ‘pinnae’, on either side. When
collecting leaf samples (Appendix 1), usually both the rachis and the leaflets
are collected. Note that some of the leaflets point a bit more upwards and
others a bit more downwards. This is what gives oil palm leaves a ‘messy’
appearance, compared with for example coconut palm leaves, where the
leaflets are all set in one single plane.
6
Figure 5: Male inflorescence (left) and Female inflorescence

fenale inflorescence (right)
Figure 5 shows a male inflorescence (left) and female (right) inflorescence.
7
Figure 6: Plantation lay-out
Figure 6 shows the most efficient plantation layout. The plantation is divided
into the following areas:
 The weeded circle, 1.5–2 meters in diameter, around the palm trunk
 The harvesting path, every other row
 The frond stack, in a U-shape around the palm, every other row
alternating with the harvesting path
 The interrow, which includes all the areas outside the weeded circle
and the harvesting path
8
2. GENERAL NOTES ON STORING AND SPRAYING

CHEMICALS
Warning! Herbicides, pesticides and other chemicals are often toxic to

humans, animals and palms, and should be used sparingly and with
care.
 Application of chemicals should always be carried out wearing full

protective clothing (see Figure 7) including:
o Rubber gloves
o Boots
o Gas mask or mouth cover
o Safety glasses
o Rubber apron
 It is recommended that spraying is carried out only by workers who
have followed a training session
 Spray equipment should be kept clean and in good shape
 Label every chemical container to say what is inside it (e.g. herbicide
(with name), pesticide (with name), etc.)
 When preparing chemicals carefully follow the instructions on the
package
Never store food in containers that were used for chemicals or fertilisers.
Using knapsack sprayers [1, 2]
The most commonly used knapsack sprayers are the so-called ‘lever-
operated knapsack sprayers’ (see Figure 8). When using a knapsack
sprayer, be sure to follow these steps:
Step 1. Read the manual carefully before using the sprayer.

Step 2. Before herbicide application, test with water to make sure the
knapsack sprayer is functioning properly and has no leaks.
Step 3. Select the right nozzle. The nozzle is the part from which the
herbicide spray comes out. The type of nozzle determines how
much spray comes out and what the size of the spray is.
Step 4. Calibrate the sprayer once every 3 months using clean water and
a bucket.
9
Figure 7: Proper protective clothing for herbicide spraying (but the left hand glove is
missing!)
Figure 8: Commonly used knapsack sprayer (adapted from [2])
Spraying herbicides
Herbicides can be sold as liquids or as powder. Liquid herbicides are often

mixed at 0.5, 1 or 2 percent, which means 5, 10 or 20 ml per liter of water.
Always prepare herbicide solution according to the instructions on the

package. Ask others for help if you are not sure how to do it. Before getting
10
started, make sure that the sprayer is properly calibrated so that it is clear
how much water comes out of the sprayer every minute.
Prepare the sprayer and do the spraying following these steps (see Figure
9):
Step 1. Fill the knapsack sprayer with water (e.g. 10 L).

Step 2. Add the herbicide (e.g. 100 or 200 ml).
Note: Always use gloves while adding the herbicide!
Step 3. Close the lid and shake well.
Step 4. Fill the sprayer up with more water (e.g. another 5 L) until it is full.
Step 5. Spray the weeds with the herbicide solution. Per hectare it is
normal to spray 50–200 L of solution (0.5 to 2 L of herbicide)
depending on the number of weeds. When doing clear-weeding
(not normally a good idea!) more herbicide will be needed (e.g. up
to 300 L/ha).
Step 6. Keep clear records of when you have sprayed, and how much.
Step 7. If it rains less than 4 hours after spraying, repeat the treatment
(but not if spraying Gramoxone).
Figure 9: Overview of how to spray herbicides
11
Common herbicides in oil palm
Mode of action of common herbicides
Herbicides are often divided into two groups: contact herbicides and systemic
herbicides. These groups differ in their mode of action (see Figure 10).
Contact herbicides are toxic to the plant where they touch it. The most well-
known contact herbicide is paraquat. Systemic herbicides move into the plant
and are transported to the stem, roots, and other leaves. The most well-
known systemic herbicide is glyphosate. For an overview of the most
common herbicides used in oil palm plantations, see Table 1. Glyphosate,
paraquat and triclopyr are discussed in more detail below.
TABLE 1: SOME CONTACT AND SYSTEMIC HERBICIDES AND THEIR COMMON BRAND NAMES
Contact herbicides Systemic herbicides
Herbicide: Brand: Herbicide: Brand:
Paraquat Gramoxone Glyphosate RoundUp
Glufosinate Basta Metsulferon methyl Ally
Triclopyr Garlon
Figure 10: The mode of action of contact herbicides (left) and systemic herbicides
(right). A contact herbicide kills the leaves it covers but is not transported into the
stem or roots. Systemic herbicides are transported into the stem and roots and kill
the entire plant.
12
Glyphosate [3]
The most well-known trade name of glyphosate is ‘Roundup’. Glyphosate can

be used to kill a wide range of weeds. It is a ‘systemic herbicide’ so it is taken
up through the leaves of the weeds and transported through the plant (see
Figure 10). Glyphosate becomes inactive in the soil, so it is not taken up
through the roots. It is rain fast within 1–4 hours after spraying.
Glyphosate should be handled with care:

 It is slightly toxic to humans and animals
 It is harmful for the eyes
Always wear proper protective clothing including safety glasses when mixing
and spraying glyphosate, and make sure all body parts apart from the head
are fully covered
Glyphosate will not damage the palms unless sprayed directly onto the
leaves or used carelessly and in excessive quantities
Figure 11: Glyphosate of a local Indonesian brand
13
Gramoxone [4]
The active ingredient of gramoxone is paraquat. Paraquat can be used to kill

many different types of weeds, including grasses. It is a ‘contact herbicide’: it
works through direct contact with the leaves of the weeds and is not taken up
into the plant. Paraquat becomes inactive in the soil. It is rain fast within half
an hour after spraying.
Paraquat should be handled with great care:

 It is highly toxic to humans and animals
 Undiluted paraquat is deadly when swallowed
 It is toxic when inhaled
 It can also irritate the skin
When mixing and spraying paraquat use full protective clothing including face
mask, safety glasses and rubber gloves, and make sure that all body parts
apart from the head are fully covered. Undiluted paraquat should be handled
with extra care.
Paraquat will not damage the palms unless sprayed directly onto the leaves
or used carelessly or in too large quantities
For the control of woody weeds: Garlon, Release, or similar [5, 6]
The active ingredient of these herbicides is triclopyr [6]. The most commonly
used brand in oil palm plantations is ‘Garlon’ (see Figure 12). Herbicides with
triclopyr kill woody weeds and most other weeds, but not grasses such as
Imperata cylindrica (alang-alang). Triclopyr is a ‘systemic herbicide’: it is
taken up through the leaves or through wounds in the bark. It becomes
inactive in the soil and it is rainfast within 2-4 hours after spraying.
Herbicides with triclopyr should be handled with care:

 Triclopyr is slightly toxic to humans and animals
 It can irritate the skin
 It is highly toxic to fish and should never be sprayed in or next to
waterways
When mixing and spraying triclopyr always wear proper protective clothing.
Make sure all body parts apart from the head are fully covered.
Triclopyr is expensive, so use it only when necessary, and with care.

Triclopyr will not damage the palms unless it is sprayed directly onto the
leaves or used carelessly or in excessive quantities
14
Figure 12: Garlon
15
3. COMMON NOXIOUS WEEDS IN OIL PALM
Melastoma malabathricum Clidemia hirta
Chromolaena odorata Mimosa pudica
Lantana camara Dicranopteris linearis
16
Stenochleana palustris Mikania spp
Asystasia gangetica Imperata cylindrica
17
Common
Scientific name: Properties: Found in: Control:
name:
Woody weeds and shrubs
Melastoma Straights Fast-growing flowering shrub, unpalatable for animals,
All plantations Uprooting/ triclopyr
malabathricum rhododendron dominant on P-deficient soils
Clidemia hirta Soapbush Fast-growing flowering shrub, dominant on poor soils All plantations Uprooting/ triclopyr
Mimosa pudica Mimosa Fast-growing flowering shrub, unpalatable, thorny All plantations Uprooting/ triclopyr
Lantana camara Sage Fast-growing flowering shrub, toxic to livestock All plantations Uprooting/ triclopyr
Fast-growing flowering shrub, toxic to livestock,
Chromolaena odorata Siam weed All plantations Uprooting/ triclopyr
allelopathic
TABLE 2: COMMON NOXIOUS WEEDS
Ferns
Immature and young
Dicranopteris linearis Climbing fern, shade-intolerant, unpalatable
plantations
Stenochlaena palustris Midin/ kalakai Climbing fern, thorny, unpalatable Glyphosate application
Slashing at knee
Nephrolepis spp. Slow-growing shade-tolerant fern Soft weed
height
Herbs and creeping vines
Noxious in stands <5
Fast-growing shade-intolerant perennial creeping herb; Grazing; mowing;
years after planting.
Mikania spp. Bitter vine allelopathic; dominant on poorly drained and nutrient uprooting; glyphosate
Beneficial as livestock
deficient soils; very palatable application
feed.
Shade-tolerant perennial herbaceous mat-forming
Noxious if too
creeper; stems up to 1 m tall; growing very vigorously
Asystasia gangetica Chinese violet dominant. Beneficial as
with high nutrient demand; edible; very palatable and
livestock feed.
rich in crude protein
Grasses Noxious during
Medium shade-tolerant grass with sharp edges to establishment and
Speargrass, Spraying or wiping with
Imperata cylindrica blades; dominant on poor and acid soils; young shoots immature phase;
alang-alang glyphosate
palatable unwanted in mature
stands
Shade-tolerant perennial creeping grasses with shoots
Ischaemum muticum; Grazing, slashing at
of maximum 60 cm height; competitive with oil palm; Soft grasses
Paspalum conjugatum knee height
18
palatable; used as forage species
4. REMOVING NOXIOUS AND WOODY WEEDS
Background
Noxious weeds are weeds that are unwanted in a plantation. Weeds can be
noxious because they:
 Grow and/or spread very fast
 Are difficult to control
 Take up a lot of fertilisers
 Produce poisons in their roots to reduce the growth of other plants
(allelopathy)
 Have spines or are dangerous in other ways
For an overview of common weeds in oil palm plantations, see Section 3. All
woody weeds are considered noxious weeds. If woody weeds or noxious
weeds are allowed to grow, the weeding will take much time and there may
be negative effects on the growth and productivity of the oil palms. Also,
more fertilisers may be needed and harvesting will take longer and becomes
less efficient, so the plantation becomes less profitable.
Goal
 Remove woody and noxious weeds from the plantation

 Make weeding easier and less time-consuming in the future
Standard
 Plantations are free of woody and noxious weeds

 A dense vegetation of soft weeds (legumes and Nephrolepis ferns) is
maintained in the interrow
Timing
 In the beginning and at the end of the rainy season

 Shortly before applying fertilisers
 Shortly before the peak season (so that harvesting can be done more
efficiently)
 When no rain is expected that day (otherwise the herbicide will be
washed away)
Frequency
 Every 3–4 months until all woody/noxious weeds are gone

 Then every 6 months if woody or noxious weeds have returned
19
Labour time required
 Manual inter-row weeding: 0.5 to 2 days per hectare, depending on

the type and number of weeds
 Chemical weeding: 1 day per 3 hectares (when noxious weeds are still
present) [7]
Equipment and materials
 Manual weeding:
o Chisel/spade
o Bush knife
 Chemical weeding:
o Bush knife
o Knapsack sprayer
o Protective clothing
o Measuring cup (50–200 ml)
o Clean water (50–100 L/ha)
o Herbicide (glyphosate/gramoxone and Triclopyr, 0.5–2 L/ha)
o Diesel
o Paint brush (for applying herbicides to woody stumps)
20
Who
 Farmers and their families or hired labourers
How
Manual weeding
Manual weeding is an effective way to kill woody weeds. When weeding

manually, no herbicides are used, so it is good for the other weeds and for
the environment. However, manual weeding is labour-intensive, especially if
the weeds have not been managed properly before.
Figure 13: This plantation needs to be weeded!
Woody weeds and other noxious weeds can be removed manually as

follows:
Step 1. Pull out as many of the noxious and woody weeds as possible.
Make sure that most of the roots are also pulled out; if the weeds
just ‘break off’ above the ground they will usually come back very
fast.
Step 2. Cut the roots of the weeds that cannot be pulled out below ground
21
level using a chisel or spade. Remove the weed and the roots
from the ground.
Step 3. Large bushes or trees should be dug out completely.
Chemical weeding: herbaceous (i.e. non-woody) weeds
See Section 2 for notes on how to spray herbicides correctly. Herbaceous

weeds can be removed using chemicals as follows:
Step 1. Identify the noxious weed species that need to be removed using
Section 3. Do not simply spray all the weeds; this is bad practice,
the soil will be degraded, it is a waste of herbicide and it is bad for
the environment.
Step 2. Spray the noxious weeds with glyphosate or gramoxone:
 Select a nozzle with a narrow cone to prevent spraying on
soft weeds or the oil palms
 Spray the herbicide over the leaves of the weeds from
above
 Remember that most herbicides work directly on the leaf
and are not taken up through the roots. For the best result,
try to get some herbicide on most of the leaves when
spraying.
 The right amount of spraying is when the leaves are wet but
the water is not dripping off (then, it is too much!).
 Do not spray all inter-row weeds but only the noxious ones
Step 3. If there are only a few Imperata cylindrica plants between the
good weeds, they can be wiped with glyphosate solution instead
of sprayed, using a sponge or piece of cloth.
Chemical weeding: woody weeds
All woody weeds are noxious weeds and should be removed from the
plantation. Woody weeds often cannot be killed with normal herbicides. If
they keep coming back, try the following:
For small woody weeds (no thick stems):
Step 1. After reading the label and putting on all necessary protective
clothing, prepare the following solution:
 1% Triclopyr or a similar herbicide (= 100 mL per 10 L
water)
 5% diesel (= 500 mL per 10 L water)
Prepare the solution by first mixing the triclopyr in diesel and then
mixing the diesel with water. Note that the diesel may degrade the
22
rubber components of the sprayer, so these need to be checked

for leaks regularly, and a spare set is useful.
Put a nozzle on the sprayer that produces a narrow conical spray.
Step 2. Spray the woody weeds with the herbicide solution. If the woody
weeds are all through the plantation, expect to spray about 3 L of
Triclopyr per hectare. Usually it will be less (0.5–1 L). Note that
Triclopyr is poisonous to humans and animals; use it with care
and remember to wear gloves and other protective clothing.
Step 3. Spray the remaining noxious weeds (e.g. alang-alang) with
glyphosate. Use Triclopyr only for woody weeds, as it is quite
expensive.
Step 4. After one month, repeat the spraying with Triclopyr on the young
shoots of the woody weeds that are still alive.
For large woody weeds (thick stems):
Option 1
Step 1. For each woody weed, scratch off some of the bark with a knife
(an area of a few square centimetres is enough).
Step 2. Wipe/brush the scratched surface with a solution of 5% Triclopyr
herbicide in diesel (no water is added, for example: 50 mL
Triclopyr in 1 L diesel).
Step 3. If any young shoots appear on the trunks that were treated, repeat
the treatment for these trunks after one month.
Option 2
Step 1. Cut the stems close to the ground. Make sure that fresh cuts are
made on all woody stems.
Step 2. Apply a solution of 5% Triclopyr herbicide in diesel directly to the
cut part of the stem (especially on the area just inside the bark).
Make sure you apply the triclopyr less than 4 hours after
cutting.
Step 3. If any young shoots appear on the trunks that were treated, repeat
the treatment for these trunks after one month.
Data recording
Every weeding activity should be recorded in a log book as shown in the

example below.
Date Time Location Activity Input Input Input Labour input Labour
type amount costs People Hours costs
16/01/13 Field 3 Removing Triclopyr 1L 180000 1 4 40000
woody weeds Diesel 5L 35000
23
5. ESTABLISHING A COVER OF SOFT WEEDS
Goal
Create a closed cover of soft weeds in the plantation to:

 Prevent soil erosion
 Keep the moisture in the soil
 Prevent loss of soil organic matter
 Attract as many natural enemies of pests as possible
 Make access into the plantation easy
 Make weeding fast and easy
Standard
 Good cover of soft weeds everywhere in the inter-row

 Legumes established where possible
 Inter-row weeds slashed at knee height
 No noxious or woody weeds in the plantation
Timing
 At planting, or at the start of the rehabilitation process, after the

noxious weeds have been removed
 Not during very strong rain or during the dry period
Frequency
 Establishment of legume cover crop: once in the plantation lifetime

 Maintenance of weed cover: every six months
 Corrective phosphate application: 1 day per hectare

 Sowing legume cover crops or introducing soft weeds: 1–4 hours per
hectare, depending on the extent of bare soil
 Slashing of inter-row vegetation: half a day per hectare
 Phosphate fertiliser: 500–1000 kg/ha

 Fertiliser measuring cup/bucket
 Bush knife
24
 Cover plant seeds: usually 1–2 gram per 10 square meters (1–2 kg per
hectare)
o Calopogonium caeruleum: 1–1.5 kg per hectare [8]
o Calopogonium mucunoides: 1–3 kg per hectare [9]
o Pueraria phaseloides (also known as Pueraria javanica): 3–4 kg
per hectare [10]
o Mucuna bracteata: 200–300 g per hectare [11]
Who
How
Figure 14: Mature plantation with a vigorous cover of Calopogonium caeruleum
Application of phosphate fertilisers
If there are many noxious weeds in the plantation (alang-alang, melastoma,

dicranopteris) the soil is likely to be phosphorus-deficient. Beneficial weeds
such as ferns and legumes grow better in phosphorus-rich soils.
To help the good weeds grow and reduce the growth of noxious weeds it is
useful to apply phosphate fertilisers as follows:
25
 500 kg/ha soluble P fertilisers (TSP, SP-36)

 500–1000 kg/ha reactive rock phosphate
Spread the P fertiliser evenly throughout the plantation, mostly in the inter-
row and over the frond stack.
Establishing legume cover plants or other soft weeds
TABLE 3: LIST OF THE MOST COMMON LEGUME COVER CROPS AND SOME OF THEIR
PROPERTIES [12].
Name Shade Sowing practices Other properties
tolerance
Calopogonium Very tolerant Needs scarification Very productive;
caeruleum tolerant of heavy
shade; Figure 14
Mucuna bracteata Tolerant Needs to be sown Good N fixation;
in a seedbed and good soil cover;
then planted; prevents soil
benefits from erosion
inoculation
Calopogonium Somewhat Needs scarification Pioneer species;
mucunoides tolerant short life span
Pueraria Somewhat Needs scarification Grows quickly; very
phaseloides tolerant palatable for
livestock
Legume cover crops are best sown at the time of land preparation, when all
the other weeds have been cleared. If there are many weeds, then the
legumes may still grow, but selective weeding will become very difficult. In
plantations where clear-weeding was a normal practice, legume cover crops
can be sown directly after spraying. For sowing or planting legume cover
crops, follow the steps below:
Step 1. Select the appropriate legume cover crop (see Table 3). They can
also be mixed to increase the chances of successful
establishment.
Step 2. Scarify the seeds, if necessary. Scarification is required to remove
the hard outside of the seeds, so that the seeds can germinate
faster and simultaneously. Scarification can be done mechanically
(with sandpaper), by using 70% sulphuric acid or by using hot
water [13]. The sulphuric acid method is the most common and
the most effective one, but the acid may not be widely available
and is a dangerous chemical, which is also difficult to dispose of
after use. Therefore the mechanical scarification or the hot water
treatment are recommended.
For mechanical scarification, use the following approach:
26
 Place the seeds on a table between two pieces of

sandpaper
 Make small rounds with the sandpaper, first one way and
then the other
 There is no need to rub off the complete outside of the
seeds; there just need to be some deep scratches for the
water to enter
For scarification with hot water, try the following with a small batch
of seeds [14]:
 Heat water to boiling in a pan
 Take the pan from the fire and let the water cool down to
75°C (check the temperature using a cooking thermometer)
 Add the seeds to the water and stir for 3 minutes
 Remove the seeds and rinse them with cold water, or leave
the in the hot water to cool overnight
 Sow the seeds on the next day, or sun-dry them
immediately to prevent rotting or germination
 The optimum temperature and soaking time vary from
species to species; if the germination is not good, then it is
recommended to try different temperatures and find out
what works best
Step 3. Broadcast the seeds in the plantation, on bare soil or in an area
that was recently weeded. Start with a small area to see if the
legumes are able to establish effectively.
Apart from sowing legume cover crops, the population of Nephrolepis ferns
can also be increased (Figure 15). To achieve this, pull the ferns from the
trunks of the palms (roots and all) and throw them in the inter-row. Some of
them may establish and start growing. The application of empty fruit bunches
promotes the growth of Nephrolepis ferns.
27
Figure 15: Good cover of soft weeds (Nephrolepis ferns)
Slashing inter-row vegetation at knee height
 Every six months slash all inter-row vegetation at knee height using a
bush knife.
 Note: in some plantations it is considered a good practice to let the
ferns in the frond stack area grow over 1 meter tall.
Data recording
Every weed management activity should be recorded in a log book as shown

in the example below.
Date Time Location Activity Input type Input Input Labour input Labour
amount costs People Hours costs
16/01/13 Field 3 P fertiliser Rock 1000 kg 1500000 2 4 80000
application phosphate
20/01/13 Field 3 Sowing Legume 2 kg 400000 2 4 80000
legumes seed
28
6. ACCESS AND HARVESTING PATHS
Goal
 Create good access into the plantation for all management activities
 Enable fast and easy harvesting
Standard
 Paths are between 50–75 cm wide

 Paths are completely free of weeds
 One path is present every other palm row (see Figure 16)
 Plantations are easy to access (e.g. footbridges over ditches and
swamps, no steep slopes, etc.)
 Harvesters with heavy wheelbarrows can move around the plantation
easily
Figure 16: Good harvesting path, easily accessible plantation
Timing
 At the beginning and end of the dry period, and;

 Shortly before the peak season (so harvesting can be done more
efficiently)
29
 Not when rain is expected that day (otherwise the herbicide is washed
away)
 Usually done together with circle weeding
Frequency
 Once every 3–4 months, or;

 Whenever the weeds on the path are above ankle height
 Manual weeding: 2 days per hectare

 Chemical weeding: together with circle weeding, 1 day per 2 hectares
 Bridges, ramps, etc.: depending on the condition of the plantation
 Manual weeding:
o Chisel/spade
o Bush knife
o Knapsack sprayer
o Herbicide (0.5–2 L/ha)
Who
How
Manual weeding of paths
To manually weed paths:
 Cut down all weeds on the path to ground level with a bush knife or
scrape away all weeds using a spade
 If possible, pull out woody weeds with large roots. If they cannot be
pulled out, dig out the stumps with a chisel or spade
Chemical weeding of paths
30
For tall weeds (more than 50 cm) start with one round of manual weeding
and then spray the young re-growing weeds after one month or when the
weeds are at ankle height using the following procedure:
Step 1. Make sure the sprayer is calibrated and working properly.

Step 2. Prepare the herbicide according to the instructions on the
package (see also Section 2).
Step 3. Select a nozzle that gives a spray of about half a meter wide
Step 4. Spray the path using the following technique:
 Walk at a regular speed over the path and keep the nozzle
steady and low above the ground
 Do not swing the nozzle left and right
 Never spray on palm leaves, otherwise the palm will be
damaged
Per hectare, expect to spray 50 to 100 L of solution (0.5 to 2 L of
herbicide), depending on the number of weeds and the
instructions on the label. See Section 4 for information on how to
kill woody weeds.
Installing foot bridges and ramps
 All harvesting paths should lead to a main path (or: ‘collection road’)
which is accessible for a car, truck or heavily loaded motorbike
 If there are ditches or canals that need to be crossed install foot-
bridges which are:
o Strong and solid (will not collapse when a harvester with a full
wheelbarrow walks over it)
o At least 20 cm wide (best to use a wide plank or several planks
attached together)
o Well attached on both sides and not moving or wobbling (see
Figure 17)
 If there are steep slopes:
o Dig out a ramp where a harvester with a heavy wheelbarrow
can pass easily
o Put a wooden plank over the ramp to prevent it from getting too
slippery
31
Figure 17: Good foot bridge
Data recording
Every weeding or maintenance activity should be recorded in a log book as

shown in the example below.
16/01/13 Field 3 Path and circle Round-Up 1 L 75000 1 8 80000
weeding
32
7. CIRCLE WEEDING
Goal
 Loose fruits on the ground are easy to spot and to collect (Figure 18)
 Harvesting can be carried out quickly and efficiently
 Efficient application and use of fertilisers
Figure 18: Cleanly weeded circle
Standard
 Palm circles (1.5–2.0 m from the trunk in mature plantations) are

completely weed-free
 Palm circles are free of rubbish
Timing
 Shortly before the peak season (so that harvesting can be done more
efficiently)
 At the same time as path weeding (if possible)
 Not when rain is expected that day (otherwise the herbicide will be
washed away)
33
Frequency
 Every 2–4 months depending on the season and weed growth
 Manual weeding: 4 days per hectare

 Chemical weeding: 1 day per 2 hectares (together with path weeding)
 Manual weeding:
o Chisel/spade
o Bush knife
o Rake
o Knapsack sprayer
o Herbicide (0.5–1 L)
o Rake
Who
How
Manual circle weeding
 Pull out all vegetation in the circle or cut vegetation to ground level
with a bush knife, or alternatively scrape away all plants in the circle
using a spade (see Figure 19)
 Rake weeds cut by a bush knife out of the circle
 Avoid ploughing or disturbing the soil in the circle because it can
damage the palm roots
34
Figure 19: Manual circle cleaning
Chemical weeding
If the weeds are tall (more than 50 cm), it is best to start with one round of
manual weeding and then to spray the young re-growing weeds after one
month, or when the weeds are at ankle height using the following procedure:
Step 1. Make sure the sprayer is calibrated and working properly.

Step 2. Prepare the herbicide according to the instructions on the
package (see also Section 2).
Step 3. Select a nozzle that gives a spray of about 1 meter wide .
Step 4. Spray the weed using the following technique:
 Walk at a regular speed around the palm
 Keep the nozzle steady and low above the ground
 Do not swing the nozzle left and right
 If the spray is not wide enough, walk two circles around the
palm, one close to the trunk and one at 1–1.5 m from the
trunk
Per hectare, expect to spray 100–200 L (0.5–2 L of herbicide),
depending on the number of weeds.
Step 5. Spray any re-growth one month after the first spraying to fully kill
the weeds.
35
Figure 20: Poorly weeded circle with loose fruits hidden below the weeds
Data recording
Every weeding activity should be recorded in a log book as shown in the

example below.
16/01/13 Field 3 Path and circle Round-Up 1 L 75000 1 8 80000
weeding
36
8. PRUNING
Background
Good pruning is necessary for the most efficient use of fertilisers and to
create an easily accessible plantation. Therefore the optimum number of
leaves should be kept on the palms.
When pruning, remember:

 More fronds are better for production (palms can capture more
sunlight)
 Dead or dying leaves hold nutrients which should be recycled
 If palms are tall it will be difficult to do good harvesting when there are
many fronds
Pruned leaves decompose fastest when they are in touch with the soil and
form an important source of food for palm roots. By stacking the fronds in a
box shape, the nutrients and the organic matter are spread out, and the
leaves decompose faster because the stacks are not too high. Stacking
leaves also keeps them out of the harvester’s way, and helps to prevent soil
erosion.
The appearance and organisation of oil palm leaves
Figure 21: Appearance and organisation of leaves in oil palm
37
The youngest leaves appear on the top and the older ones are at the bottom:
 The leaves grow in spirals of eight (see Figure 21)
 Leaf 1 is the youngest fully open leaf, on the top of the palm
 The leaf beneath Leaf 1 is Leaf 9 (1+8, because there are eight leaves
on one spiral)
 The leaf below Leaf 9 is Leaf 17
 The leaf below Leaf 17 is Leaf 25, then Leaf 33, Leaf 41 and so on
About two new leaves appear per month. New leaves appear faster in young
palms and slower in old palms. An ‘inflorescence’ (= a stalk with many
flowers) is formed above each leaf, which can become male or female
(Figure 5), or be aborted (no inflorescence at all). If the palm is stressed (e.g.
by drought or lack of nutrients), more male inflorescences are formed and
more inflorescences are aborted. Female inflorescences form bunches which
are usually ripe about 16 months (32 leaves) after the supporting leaf has
appeared and six months after the inflorescence has opened.
Goal
 Enable palms to capture the maximum amount of sunlight

 Ensure there is no waste of nutrients in unproductive fronds
 Enable fast, easy and complete harvesting
 Create a clean and efficiently organised plantation
 Conserve soil quality and nutrients
 Enable fast decomposition of pruned fronds
Standard
 Pruning only dead fronds in palms less than 4 years after planting
 Pruning down to 48–56 fronds per palm (or: 2–3 fronds below the last
ripe bunch) for palms that are 5–7 years old
 Pruning down to 40–48 fronds per palm (or: 1–2 fronds below the last
ripe bunch) for palms that are 8–15 years old
 Pruning down to ~40 fronds per palm (or: 1 frond below the last ripe
bunch) for palms that are more than 15 years old
 Fronds butts are cut off close to the trunk
 Fronds are cut in two and stacked on the frond stack in a box-shape,
with the bottom part behind the palms and the top part between the
palms
38
Figure 22: Over-pruning
Timing
 Shortly before the peak production season (so that harvesting can be
done more efficiently)
 During the dry period (if possible)
Frequency
 Twice per year
 Corrective pruning: 2 days per hectare
 Chisel (for shorter palms)

 Harvesting sickle (for tall palms)
 Axe, chisel or bush knife (to cut the frond in two)
Who
39
How
To prune oil palms:
Step 1. Cut off all dead and dying leaves

Step 2. Count the number of remaining spirals and determine which
leaves need to be cut off.
Step 3. Cut the leaves as close to the trunk as possible, without damaging
nearby bunches, fronds, or the palm trunk.
Step 4. After pruning, cut each leaf into two halves, and throw the bottom
half (thick stem part with sharp spikes) onto the frond stack
behind the palm to prevent injuries.
Step 5. Place the top half on the frond stack on the right or left side of the
palm to make the so-called “box shape” (see Figure 23)
Figure 23: Frond stacking in box or U shape
40
Data recording
Every pruning activity should be recorded in a log book as shown in the

example below.
16/01/13 Field 3 Pruning 1 16 160000
41
9. SOIL CONSERVATION
Background
Soil erosion is the loss of fertile top soil. Soils in the tropics are often very
sensitive to erosion, because there is much rainfall which washes the soil
away from slopes. Once the soil is lost, it takes a long time to recover, and
the fertility of eroded area will be reduced during this period. It is difficult to
produce good yields on very eroded soils and soil erosion should therefore
be prevented as much as possible. In addition to the loss of fertile top soil,
erosion also usually results in the loss of fertilisers and organic material.
Goal
 Maintain good soil fertility

 Prevent erosion of the top soil
 Limit the loss of fertilisers
 Use water optimally
Standard
 0–8% slope: No conservation measures needed

 9–15% slope: Fronds are stacked along the contour line and silt pits
are dug next to every other palm
 16–25% slope: Individual palm platforms are constructed around each
palm
 26–40% slope: Terraces are installed during plantation establishment
(see Figure 24)
 40% slope or more: No oil palm is cultivated
 All soil conservation structures are correctly constructed and in good
condition
Timing
 Fronds are stacked immediately after harvesting and after corrective

pruning, or just before the rainy season
 Silt pits are constructed during the dry season
 Platforms are constructed during the dry season
42
Figure 24: Terracing and legume cover crop establishment on steep slopes.
Frequency
 Fronds are stacked twice per year and after every harvesting round
 Silt pits are established once, at the start of the rehabilitation process,
and maintained yearly
 Platforms are established once, at the start of the rehabilitation
process, and maintained yearly
 Frond stacking is undertaken as a part of the pruning and harvesting

activities
 Silt pits:
o One hour for the establishment of each silt pit
o 2 days per hectare for the maintenance of the silt pits
 Platforms:
o One to four hours for the establishment of each platform
o 3 days per hectare for maintenance of the platforms
 Frond stacking:
o Same equipment and materials as for pruning
43
 Silt pits:
o Excavator or spade
 Platforms:
o Excavator or spade
o Measuring tape (5 m)
Who
How
Frond stacking along the contour (9–15% slope)
Step 1. Stack some of the pruned fronds between the palm rows, along
the contour lines and parallel with the slope.
Step 2. Put some fronds between the palms in a straight angle from the
contour stack, in a ‘box shape’ to increase water catchment and
decrease run-off (see Figure 23).
Silt pits (9–15% slope)
Silt pits capture rain water flowing down the hill. Pits should be 1.5 m long,
0.5 m wide and 0.5 m deep.
Step 1. Dig one pit next to every other palm (in the middle between two
palms) following the contour line (see Figure 25).
Step 2. Heap soil from the pit on the upslope side, about 0.5 meter above
the pit.
Step 3. Stack fronds on the upper side of the soil heap to prevent
destruction of the heap or the pit during heavy rain.
44
Figure 25: Silt pit
Platform construction (16–25% slope)
Individual platforms should be created around each palm. Platforms should

have the following design characteristics:
 Platform diameter should be 4–5 m
 Platform surface should slope 5–10% in the opposite direction to the
slope (see Figure 26)
Step 1. Dig soil from the upper part of the circle and place it on the lower
part. Ensure the bottom (supporting) part of the platform is wider
than the top.
Step 2. Compact the soil at the downhill edge of the platform to prevent
washing away.
Step 3. Stack fronds just upslope from the platform to reduce water flows
[15]
45
Figure 26: Oil palm platform (schematically) with the frond stack in light green
Data recording
Every soil conservation construction or maintenance activity should be

recorded in a log book as shown in the example below.
16/01/13 Field 3 Digging silt pits 4 8 320000
46
References and further reading

[1] P. Griffee, P. Diemer, C. Chinchilla, Smallholder Oil Palm Manual, in, FAO, Rome, Italy,
2004.
[2] Stewardship Community, 2008, Knapsack spraying: best practices,
http://www.stewardshipcommunity.com/best-spraying-practices/knapsack-
spraying/knapsack-spraying-best-practice.html, Accessed September 2013.
[3] ExToxNet, 1994, Glyphosate, Extension Toxicology Network,
http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/dienochlor-glyphosate/glyphosate-ext.html,
Accessed September 2013.
[4] ExToxNet, 1993, Paraquat, Extension Toxicology Network,
http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/metiram-propoxur/paraquat-ext.html,
[5] C. Cox, Herbicide factsheet: triclopyr, Journal of Pesticide Reform, 20 (2000) 12-19.
[6] Dow Agro, Tips & Training: Applications, The Dow Chemical Company,
http://www.dowagro.com/vm/application/applications.htm, Accessed September 2013.
[7] I.R. Rankine, T.H. Fairhurst, Field Handbook: Oil Palm Series, Volume 3 – Mature,
second ed., Potash & Phosphate Institute (PPI), Singapore, 1999.
[8] Tropical Forages, Calopogonium caeruleum,
http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Calopogonium_caeruleum.htm,
[9] Tropical Forages, Calopogonium mucunoides,
http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Calopogonium_mucunoides.htm
, Accessed September 2013.
[10] Tropical Forages, Pueraria phaseoloides,
http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Pueraria_phaseoloides.htm,
[11] Covercrops.org, 2014, Mucuna bracteata, Nadampadom Rubber Estate, Kerala, India,
http://www.covercrops.org/mucunabracteata.php, Accessed September 2013.
[12] Sime Darby, Leguminous Cover Crop Seeds, Sime Darby Agro-Bio Sdn Bhd, Subang
Jaya, Malaysia,
[13] P.J. Argel, C.J. Paton, Overcoming legume hardseededness, in: Forage Seed
Production, Volume 2, CABI Publishing, Wallingford, 1999, pp. 247-265.
[14] I.F. Hanum, L.J.G. Van der Maesen, PROSEA: Plant Resources of South-East Asia 11,
Auxiliary Plants, Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 1997.
[15] AA Resources, Soil Management: Soil and Water Conservation Management, Applied
Agricultural Resources, Petaling Jaya, http://www.aarsb.com.my/soil-management-soil-
and-water-conservation-management, Accessed September 2013.
47
APPENDIX 1: PLANTATION MAPPING & PALM MARKING
Background
For keeping track of management and yield it is useful to have a good map of
the plantation on which all palms are indicated. On this map, dura and
pisifera palms and empty spots should also be marked. In addition, for pest
patrols and leaf sample collection it is necessary to select and mark ‘sample
palms’, because it is too much work to check or sample all palms. It takes
some time to map the field and mark the sample palms, but in the end it will
save a lot of time – even if no leaf sampling is done.
Goal
 Be able to monitor management and productivity efficiently;

 Be able to carry out pest patrolling efficiently;
 Be able to carry out leaf sampling effectively.
Standard
 A complete map of the plantation is available, indicating palms, empty

spots, and field boundaries;
 A sample of 1-4 percent of the plantation palms is selected;
 Sample palms are healthy and representative of the plantation;
 Sample palms are spread equally throughout the plantation;
 Sample palms are clearly marked.
Timing
 Once, at the start of the rehabilitation process.
Frequency
 Once during the plantation lifetime.
Note: Each time sampling takes place (or once per year) check if the sample
palms are still healthy and clearly marked. If not, select another palm and/or
refresh the marking
 Drawing a plantation map: 2–3 hours for a field of two hectare.

 Sample palm marking: 1–2 hours per two hectare.
48
 Paintbrush;
 Blue and yellow paint;
 Isometric or other paper (see Figure 27);
 Optional: measuring tape, GPS.
Who
 Farmers and their family or hired labourers.

 Best done together with extension workers or cooperative
representatives.
How
Drawing a plantation map
Plantation maps are usually drawn on isometric paper (see Figure 27). Each
palm should be indicated with a dot on the intersection of two lines (see
Figure 28). If there is no palm, put a cross or leave the spot empty.
Note: If the field is not rectangular, drawing it can be more difficult. Isometric
paper will only work when the palms are planted in the correct (triangular)
spacing. For rectangular (square) spacing, use simple mathematical paper
with squares. For other spacing, draw the plantation on white paper without
lines.
To draw a plantation map follow these steps:
Step 1. Select the first field to be mapped.

Step 2. Determine the boundaries of the field (e.g. roads, other crops,
rivers/streams, oil palm from someone else etc.).
Step 3. Determine the direction of the palm rows:
 If the palms are planted in the correct (triangular) format,
the rows can be seen in two directions.
 Selecting palms is easier when the directions are in line
with the field borders.
 If the field is not rectangular, try to find the direction of the
rows which makes them most easy to count.
Step 4. Draw the palms next to the main road into the map and count the
number of rows.
Step 5. For each row, draw in the palms and count the number of palms
per row.
Step 6. Indicate streams, rivers, roads and other borders, trying to keep
the size correct. Note: Usually a road is one palm row wide
49
(sometimes two).
Figure 27: Isometric paper
50
Figure 28: An example plantation map, including palms, empty spots, sample palms
(circled), the road (below) and a swamp area (top left)
Selecting and marking sample palms
To select and mark sample palms follow these steps:
Step 1. Select which road will be the main road

Step 2. Starting in one corner and moving along the road count five rows.
At the 5th row:
 Stand on the side of the palm facing the road;
 Find a frond butt which has some flat area to write on;
 Paint the frond butt with white paint;
 When the paint is dry, write the row number at the top with
blue paint (in this case: ‘5’);
 Below the row number, write the palm number with blue
paint (in this case: ‘1’).
Note: all palm numbers at the roadside should be ‘1’.
Step 3. Find the direction of the row and follow the row from palm to palm
until you get to palm 5. Note: Empty spots also count!
Step 4. At palm 5, check the following:
 Is the palm present?
 Does the palm look healthy?
 Is the palm more or less as tall as its neighbours?
 Is the palm in a representative location (for example not in
a piece of swamp or on the very edge of a gully)?
51
 Are all the palms around that palm present (no empty
spots)?
Step 5. If the answer to one of the questions is ‘no’, move two palms
further into the row and check again.
Step 6. If the answer to all the questions is ‘yes’, mark that palm as
described above (in this case: ‘5 over 5’) (see Figure 29).
Step 7. Continue along the row, each time marking the 5 th palm (or two
palms farther along if the 5th palm doesn’t meet the conditions)
until you are two palms from the other end of the field. The palms
that are close to the edge of the field (one or two palms away)
should not be sampled, because they are not representative (for
example, they get more sunlight).
Step 8. Move on to the field boundary
Step 9. Move five rows further along the boundary at the other end. After
5 rows, mark the palm next to the boundary. This should be the
10th row after the start of the field, so the row number on this palm
should be 10. The palm number is the number of the last palm in
the row.
Note: If the field is not rectangular, it may be necessary to walk
back to the beginning of the row and count the number of palms
to determine the palm number.
Step 10. Move into the field and repeat step 8–13.
Step 11. Continue until the entire field is done.
Note: The number of the palms to mark depends on the size of the field. In
large fields (5–10 ha) it is better to take every 8th row and every 8th palm. In
even larger fields (more than 10 ha) you can take every 10 th row and every
10th palms. This is also what companies do.
If the field is not at all rectangular, try to select the palms as follows:
 One palm in 25 (or in 64 or 100 in larger plantations);
 Not the palms less than 2 lines from the boundary;
 At least 4 non-sample palms between the sample palms in each
direction.
52
Figure 29: How to mark sample palms
53

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Smallholder Oil Palm Handbook

Lotte Suzanne Woittiez

Photos and figures by Lotte Woittiez (unless otherwise indicated).

3rd Edition (English), August 2016

Published online by SNV International Development Organisation and

Module 3: Plantation Maintenance

After this section, farmers should:

 Be able to identify the different parts of the oil palm

APPENDIX 1: PLANTATION MAPPING & PALM MARKING

Figure 1: An oil palm

Table 1: Common herbicides

Figure 1: Oil palm

In Figure 1 the following parts of the oil palm are indicated:

Figure 2: Oil palm trunk

In Figure 2 the following parts of the oil palm are indicated:

Figure 3: Oil palm crown with ripening fruit bunches

In Figure 3 the following parts of the oil palm are indicated:

Figure 4: Oil palm leaf

Figure 4 shows a close-up of an oil palm leaf. The leaf is composed of a

Figure 5: Male inflorescence (left) and Female inflorescence

Figure 5 shows a male inflorescence (left) and female (right) inflorescence.

Figure 6: Plantation lay-out

2. GENERAL NOTES ON STORING AND SPRAYING

Warning! Herbicides, pesticides and other chemicals are often toxic to

 Application of chemicals should always be carried out wearing full

Using knapsack sprayers [1, 2]

Step 1. Read the manual carefully before using the sprayer.

Figure 8: Commonly used knapsack sprayer (adapted from [2])

Herbicides can be sold as liquids or as powder. Liquid herbicides are often

Always prepare herbicide solution according to the instructions on the

Step 1. Fill the knapsack sprayer with water (e.g. 10 L).

Figure 9: Overview of how to spray herbicides

Common herbicides in oil palm

Mode of action of common herbicides

The most well-known trade name of glyphosate is ‘Roundup’. Glyphosate can

Glyphosate should be handled with care:

Figure 11: Glyphosate of a local Indonesian brand

The active ingredient of gramoxone is paraquat. Paraquat can be used to kill

Paraquat should be handled with great care:

For the control of woody weeds: Garlon, Release, or similar [5, 6]

Herbicides with triclopyr should be handled with care:

Triclopyr is expensive, so use it only when necessary, and with care.

Figure 12: Garlon

3. COMMON NOXIOUS WEEDS IN OIL PALM

Melastoma malabathricum Clidemia hirta

Chromolaena odorata Mimosa pudica

Lantana camara Dicranopteris linearis

Stenochleana palustris Mikania spp

Asystasia gangetica Imperata cylindrica

4. REMOVING NOXIOUS AND WOODY WEEDS

 Remove woody and noxious weeds from the plantation

 Plantations are free of woody and noxious weeds

 In the beginning and at the end of the rainy season

 Every 3–4 months until all woody/noxious weeds are gone

Labour time required

 Manual inter-row weeding: 0.5 to 2 days per hectare, depending on

Equipment and materials

 Farmers and their families or hired labourers

Manual weeding is an effective way to kill woody weeds. When weeding