Geology Intro PDF
Geology Intro PDF
Geology Intro PDF
An Introduction to Geology
Free Textbook for College-Level Introductory Geology Courses
1 Understanding Science
1 Understanding Science
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observations, but their conclusions are not based on experimental evidence and
their statements are not falsi able. This is not to be confused with astronomy which
is the scienti c study of celestial bodies and the cosmos [2, 3].
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controls or have limited opportunities to human eye to perceive it. These series of
photographs by Eadweard Muybridge proved the
visit a eld location.[5, 6, 7].
horse, in fact, does have all four legs o the
ground during the gallop.
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scientists. New technology can be applied to published studies, which can aid in
con rming or rejecting once-accepted ideas and/or hypotheses.
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This type of empirical thinking contrasts with inductive reasoning, which begins
from new observations and attempts to discern underlying generalized principles. A
conclusion made through inductive reasoning comes from analyzing measurable
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Both types of reasoning are important in science because they emphasize the two
most important aspects of science: observation and inference. Scientists test
existing principles to see if they accurately infer or predict their observations. They
also analyze new observations to determine if the inferred underlying principles still
support them [9, 10].
Two
scientists,
Johannes
Kepler and
Galileo
Galilei, are
credited
with jump-
starting the
scienti c
revolution Copernicus’ heliocentric model
[15]. They
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Galileo strongly supported the heliocentric model and attacked the geocentric
model, arguing for a more scienti c approach to determine the credibility of an idea
[19]. Because of this he found himself at odds with prevailing scienti c views and
the Catholic Church. In 1633 he was found guilty of heresy and placed under house
arrest, where he would remain until his death in 1642 [18, 19].
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Illustration by Steno
In the 18th century, Scottish naturalist James Hutton
showing a comparison
between fossil and modern
(1726–1797) studied rivers and coastlines and compared
shark teeth. the sediments they left behind to exposed sedimentary
rock strata. He hypothesized the ancient rocks must have
been formed by processes like those producing the features in the oceans and
streams. Hutton also proposed the Earth was much older than previously thought.
Modern geologic processes operate slowly. Hutton realized if these processes
formed rocks, then the Earth must be very old, possibly hundreds of millions of
years old [21, 22].
Hutton’s idea is called the principle of uniformitarianism and states that natural
processes operate the same now as in the past, i.e. the laws of nature are uniform
across space and time. Geologist often state “the present is the key to the past,”
meaning they can understand ancient rocks by studying modern geologic processes.
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The next big advancement, and perhaps the largest in the history of geology, is the
theory of plate tectonics and continental drift. Dogmatic acceptance of
uniformitarianism inhibited the progress of this idea, mainly because of the
permanency placed on the continents and their positions. Ironically, slow and
steady movement of plates would t well into a uniformitarianism model. However,
much time passed and a great deal of scienti c resistance had to be overcome before
the idea took hold. This happened for several reasons. Firstly, the movement was so
slow it was overlooked. Secondly, the best evidence was hidden under the ocean.
Finally, the accepted theories were anchored by a large amount of inertia. Instead of
being bias free, scientists resisted and ridiculed the emerging idea of plate tectonics.
This example of dogmatic thinking is still to this day a tarnish on the geoscience
community.
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petroleum; metals such as copper, Hoover Dam provides hydroelectric energy and
aluminum, and iron; and water resources stores water for southern Nevada.
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Oregon’s Crater Lake was formed about 7700 complex relationships. This geology
years ago after the eruption of Mount Mazama. textbook provides an introduction to
science in general and will often reference
other scienti c disciplines.
Earth System Science includes ve basic systems (or spheres), the Geosphere (the
solid body of the Earth), the Atmosphere (the gas envelope surrounding the Earth),
the Hydrosphere(water in all its forms at and near the surface of the Earth), the
Cryosphere (frozen water part of Earth), and the Biosphere (life on Earth in all its
forms and interactions, including humankind).
Rather than viewing geology as an isolated system, earth system scientists study
how geologic processes shape not only the world, but all the spheres it contains.
They study how these multidisciplinary spheres relate, interact, and change in
response to natural cycles and human-driven forces. They use elements from
physics, chemistry, biology, meteorology, environmental science, zoology,
hydrology, and many other sciences.
I
Rock cycle showing the ve materials (such as g
igneous rocks and sediment) and the processes by
which one changes into another (such as
weathering). (Source: Peter Davis)
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Geologic time scale showing time period names and ages. (Source: Belinda Madsen)
Eons are the largest divisions of time, and from oldest to youngest are named
Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The three oldest eons are
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Life rst appeared more than 3,800 million of years ago (Ma). From 3,500 Ma to 542
Ma, or 88% of geologic time, the predominant life forms were single-celled
organisms such as bacteria. More complex organisms appeared only more recently,
during the current Phanerozoic Eon, which includes the last 542 million years or
12% of geologic time.
The name Phanerozoic comes from phaneros, which means visible, and zoic,
meaning life. This eon marks the proliferation of multicellular animals with hard
body parts, such as shells, which are preserved in the geological record as fossils.
Land-dwelling animals have existed for 360 million years, or 8% of geologic time.
The demise of the dinosaurs and subsequent rise of mammals occurred around 65
Ma, or 1.5% of geologic time. Our human ancestors belonging to the genus Homo
have existed since approximately 2.2 Ma—0.05% of geological time or just
1/2,000th the total age of Earth.
The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
Paleozoic means ancient life, and organisms of this era included invertebrate
animals, sh, amphibians, and reptiles. The Mesozoic (middle life) is popularly
known as the Age of Reptiles and is characterized by the abundance of dinosaurs,
many of which evolved into birds. The mass extinction of the dinosaurs and other
apex predator reptiles marked the end of the Mesozoic and beginning of the
Cenozoic. Cenozoic means new life and is also called the Age of Mammals, during
which mammals evolved to become the predominant land-dwelling animals. Fossils
of early humans, or hominids, appear in the rock record only during the last few
million years of the Cenozoic. The geologic time scale, geologic time, and geologic
history are discussed in more detail in chapters 7 and 8.
Technology provides new tools for scienti c observation, which leads to new
evidence that helps scientists revise and even refute old ideas. Because the ultimate
technology will never be discovered, the ultimate observation will never be made.
And this is the beauty of science—it is ever-advancing and always discovering
something new.
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The second argument claims the researchers are not objective and motivated by an
ideology or economic agenda. This is an ad hominem argument in which a person’s
character is attacked instead of the merit of their argument. They claim results have
been manipulated so researchers can justify asking for more funding. They claim
that because the researchers are funded by a federal grant, they are using their
results to lobby for expanded government regulation.
The third argument is to demand a balanced view, equal time in media coverage and
educational curricula, to engender the false illusion of two equally valid arguments.
Science deniers frequently demand equal coverage of their proposals, even when
there is little scienti c evidence supporting their ideology. For example, science
deniers might demand religious explanations be taught as an alternative to the
well-established theory of evolution [39, 40]. Or that all possible causes of climate
change be discussed as equally probable, regardless of the body of evidence.
Conclusions derived using the scienti c method should not be confused with those
based on ideologies.
The formation of new conclusions based on the scienti c method is the only way to
change scienti c conclusions. We wouldn’t teach Flat Earth geology along with plate
tectonics because Flat Earthers don’t follow the scienti c method. The fact that
scientists avoid universal truths and change their ideas as more evidence is
uncovered shouldn’t be seen as meaning that the science is unsettled. Because of
widespread scienti c illiteracy, these arguments are used by those who wish to
suppress science and misinform the general public.
In a classic case of science denial, beginning in the 1960s and for the next three
decades, the tobacco industry and their scientists used rhetorical arguments to deny
a connection between tobacco usage and cancer. Once it became clear scienti c
studies overwhelmingly found that using tobacco dramatically increased a person’s
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Citation is not only imperative to avoid plagiarism, but also allows readers to
investigate an author’s line of thought and conclusions. When reading scienti c
works, it is important to con rm the citations are from reputable scienti c research.
Most often, scienti c citations are used to reference paraphrasing rather than
quotes. The number of times a work is cited is said to measure of the in uence an
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Summary
Science is a process, with no beginning and no end. Science is never nished because
a full truth can never be known. However, science and the scienti c method are the
best way to understand the universe we live in. Scientists draw conclusions based on
objective evidence; they consolidate these conclusions into unifying models.
Geologists likewise understand studying the Earth is an ongoing process, beginning
with James Hutton who declared the Earth has “…no vestige of a beginning, no
prospect of an end.” Geologists explore the 4.5 billion-year history of Earth, its
resources, and its many hazards. From a larger viewpoint, geology can teach people
how to develop credible conclusions, as well as identify and stop misinformation.
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References
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15. Cohen, H. F. How modern science came into the world: Four civilizations, one
17th-century breakthrough. (Amsterdam University Press, 2010).
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16. Goldstein, B. R. Copernicus and the origin of his heliocentric system. Journal
for the History of Astronomy 33, 219–235 (2002).
17. Repcheck, J. Copernicus’ secret: How the scienti c revolution began. (Simon and
Schuster, 2007).
25. Porter, R. Charles Lyell and the Principles of the History of Geology. Br. J. Hist.
Sci. 9, 91–103 (1976).
27. Darwin, C. Geological Observations on South America: Being the Third Part of the
Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, Under the Command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N.
During the Years 1832 to 1836. (Smith, Elder and Company, 1846).
28. Mayr, E. Systematics and the Origin of Species, from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist.
(Harvard University Press, 1942).
29. Hans Wedepohl, K. The composition of the continental crust. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 59, 1217–1232 (1995).
30. Mooney, W. D., Laske, G. & Masters, T. G. CRUST 5.1: A global crustal model. J.
Geophys. Res. [Solid Earth] 103, 727–747 (1998).
31. Birch, F. Elasticity and constitution of the Earth’s interior. J. Geophys. Res. 57,
227–286 (1952).
32. Wyllie, P. J. Ultrama c rocks and the upper mantle. in Fiftieth anniversary
symposia: Mineralogy and petrology of the Upper Mantle; Sul des; Mineralogy and
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230–237 (1956).
39. National Center for Science Education. Climate change denial. (2016).
Available at: http://ncse.com/climate/denial. (Accessed: 6th April 2016)
40. Dreifus, C. Naomi Oreskes Imagines the Future History of Climate Change. The
New York Times (2014).
41. Oreskes, N., Conway, E. & Cain, S. Merchants of doubt: how a handful of scientists
obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming. (Bloomsbury
Press, 2010).
42. Bocking, S. Nature’s experts: science, politics, and the environment. (Rutgers
University Press, 2004).
43. Alkin, M. C. Evaluation Roots: Tracing theorists’ views and in uences. (SAGE,
2004).
44. Krimsky, S. Do nancial con icts of interest bias research? An inquiry into the
“funding e ect” hypothesis. Sci. Technol. Human Values 38, 566–587 (2013).
45. Spier, R. The history of the peer-review process. Trends Biotechnol. 20, 357–
358 (2002).
46. Moustafa, K. Aberration of the Citation. Account. Res. 23, 230–244 (2016).
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