Pesawat Terbang
Pesawat Terbang
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Exceeding Tire Speed
Rating During Takeoff
Airplane tires are designed to withstand a wide range of operating conditions, including
carrying very high loads and operating at very high speeds. It is common for a jet airplane
tire to carry loads as heavy as 60,000 pounds while operating at ground speeds up to
235 miles per hour. To accommodate these operational conditions, each tire has specific
load and speed ratings. Tires are carefully designed and tested to withstand operation
up to, but not necessarily beyond, these ratings.
By Ingrid Wakefield, Flight Operations Engineer; and Chris Dubuque, Service Engineer, Landing Gear Systems
It is uncommon to exceed the load rating Introduction heat, combined with extreme centrifugal
of tires during normal airline operation forces from high rotational speeds, creates
because the weight and center-of-gravity Boeing is receiving an increasing number the potential for tread loss. Ensuring that
position of the airplane are well controlled of operator inquiries about tire speed limits tires are operated within their speed ratings
and well understood. However, on being exceeded during takeoff. This does will help prevent possible tread losses and
occasion the speed rating of tires can be not appear to be a new issue. Rather, the potential for airplane damage.
inadvertently exceeded during takeoff. advanced data acquisition tools on modern
This article discusses factors that can airplanes have made operators more aware
Conditions That Can Lead to
lead to a tire speed exceedance during of tire speed exceedance events. Exceeding the Tire Speed Rating
takeoff, provides guidance to help prevent In most cases, the speed exceedance During Takeoff
such tire overspeed events, and points is small, only a few knots. Boeing is not
out that there are no standardized industry aware of any of these overspeed events When dispatching an airplane in compliance
maintenance guidelines if an overspeed resulting in thrown treads, which suggests with the certified Airplane Flight Manual,
event occurs. that airplane tires in good condition can the airplane takeoff speeds are designed
withstand these small speed exceedances to ensure that the liftoff speed does not
without damage. However, it is important exceed the tire speed rating. While rotation
to remember that at high speeds, heat is and liftoff speeds are generally expressed
generated within the tire structure. This in knots indicated airspeed, the tire speed
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limit is the ground speed, which is usually Recommended Takeoff Wind Accountability
expressed in statute miles per hour. This Procedures for all Boeing
Airplane Models
means that a tire rated at 235 miles per The certified tire-speed-limit weight does
hour is designed for a maximum ground not contain any margin for wind account
Boeing publishes a recommended all-
speed at liftoff of 204 knots. ability. For instance, the FAA-certified
engine normal takeoff procedure in the
A number of factors can lead to a tire- takeoff field-length-limit weight typically
Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) for
speed-limit exceedance during takeoff. contains a conservative factor for wind
727, 737 Classic, and Next-Generation
Typically, this occurs when an airplane is accountability of 1.5 times the tailwind and
737, 747, 757, 767 and 777 models and in
dispatched at or near the tire-speed-limit 0.5 times the headwind. In comparison,
the Flight Crew Operations Manual for 717,
weight and: the tire-speed-limit weight lacks any such
MD, and DC models. In order to avoid tire-
conservative wind factor. Because of this,
n The airplane rotation rate is slower than speed-limit exceedance during takeoff,
an unexpected tailwind component not
the Boeing-recommended rotation rate, Boeing stresses adhering to the recom
accounted for in the takeoff analysis,
and/or mended average all-engine takeoff rotation
occurring during a takeoff at or near
n There is a late rotation, and/or rate of 2 to 3 degrees per second, which
the tire-speed-limit weight, may increase the
n The tailwind is higher than anticipated. provides adequate tail clearance margins
true ground speed at liftoff beyond the tire
with a target liftoff attitude reached after
Dispatch at or near the airplane’s tire speed rating.
approximately 3 to 4 seconds (see fig. 1).
speed limit is most likely to occur during To avoid a tire-speed-limit exceedance,
Tail clearance margins for all 7-series
takeoffs from airports at high altitudes on Boeing recommends to conservatively
models except the 717 are also outlined in
warm days, because these conditions tend account for the tailwind component when
the FCTM. Tail clearance and tail strike
to drive the ground speed at liftoff of the dispatching at or near the tire-speed-limit
concerns are often the reason flight crews
airplane closer to the tire speed limit. How weight in a crosswind situation. General
give for opting to use a slower rotation rate
ever, tire speed limits can be encountered guidelines for crosswind takeoffs are out
than recommended by Boeing. (More
during takeoff in less severe environmental lined in the FCTM. These guidelines include
information about tail strike prevention can
conditions, such as when scheduling an the recommendation to use a higher thrust
be found in AERO first-quarter 2007.)
improved climb takeoff. setting than the minimum required in order
When dispatching at or near the tire-
Crosswinds can aggravate the situation to minimize airplane exposure to gusty
speed-limit weight, which is most likely
by unexpectedly shifting into a tailwind, conditions during rotation, liftoff, and
to occur at hot temperatures and high
which may further increase the ground initial climb.
elevations, a slower rotation than the
speed at liftoff. An unexpected (and there
Boeing-recommended 2- to 3-degrees-per-
fore unaccounted for) tailwind component
second average may increase the actual 747-400 Case Study
will directly add to the ground speed at liftoff.
groundspeed at liftoff beyond the certified
tire speed limit. In addition, a slow rotation A case study of the 747-400 helps illustrate
or under-rotation could significantly this point. The operator sporadically
increase the runway distance required to exceeded the tire speed limit even though
reach the 35-foot point, which is another the takeoff analyses showed a notable
important reason for adhering to the buffer between the tire-speed-limit weight
Boeing-recommended rotation procedure.
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Figure 1: Typical rotation, all engines 777-200 – 777-300ER
The recommended rotation rate of 2 to 3 degrees per second provides
adequate tail clearance margins with a target liftoff attitude reached after VR Liftoff V2 + 15
approximately 3 to 4 seconds.
14°
7–9° 35 ft
0 4 6.5
Time (Seconds)
737-300/-400/-500 717
VR Liftoff V2 + 15 VR Liftoff V2 – V2 + 10
16–18° 20°
max.
35 ft 35 ft
8–10° 7–10°
V2 + 10,
not to
0 3 6.5 0 3–4 5–7 exceed 20°
VR Liftoff V2 + 15 VR Liftoff V2 – V2 + 10
20°
15–16° max.
35 ft 35 ft
7–9° 8°
V2 + 10,
not to
0 3 6.5 0 2.5 5–6 exceed 20°
747-400 MD-90
VR Liftoff V2 + 10 VR Liftoff V2 – V2 + 10
15° 20°
max.
35 ft 35 ft
10° 8°
V2 + 10,
not to
0 4 6.5 0 2.5 5–7 exceed 20°
VR Liftoff V2 + 15 VR Liftoff V2 + 10
25°
15° max.
35 ft 35 ft
7–11° 7–10°
V2 + 10,
not to
0 4 6.5 0 3–4 5–7 exceed 25°
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Figure 2: 747 Case study summary
Relatively large weight margins did not result in corresponding speed margins.
Takeoff I Takeoff II
Scheduled Ground Speed at Liftoff: 196 knots Scheduled Ground Speed at Liftoff: 199 knots
Rated Tire Speed: 204 knots (235 miles per hour) Rated Tire Speed: 204 knots (235 miles per hour)
VR Liftoff
35 ft
Normal rotation
VR Liftoff
35 ft
Up to 700 ft
Slow rotation
(1 deg per sec slower than normal)
VR Liftoff
35 ft
Under-rotation Up to 700 ft
(Rotate to 5 deg less than target)
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and the actual dispatch weight. The airline instructions following a tire-speed-limit n Bridgestone Aircraft Tires, Tire Care,
approached Boeing for assistance. exceedance event during takeoff. and Maintenance, http://ap.bridgestone.
The study was performed at two differ One maintenance suggestion would be co.jp/pdf/Care_and_Maintenance.pdf.
ent dispatch weights: 805,000 pounds that all wheel/tire assemblies be removed n Bridgestone Aircraft Tires, Examination,
and 825,000 pounds. There was a from the airplane before further flight after and Recommended Action,
40,000‑pound and a 30,000-pound margin such an event occurs. In practice, however, http://ap.bridgestone.co.jp/candm/
between scheduled dispatch weight and replacing all of the wheel/tire assemblies recommendedaction.html.
the tire-speed-limit weight. These weight on an airplane represents a major logistical n Aircraft Tire Care & Service Manual,
margins, which appear relatively large, only problem and likely results in flight cancel Michelin, www.airmichelin.com/pdfs/
resulted in speed margins of 8 knots and lations and/or dispatch delays. It would be Care_and_Service_manual.pdf.
5 knots between the associated ground difficult to locate and ship 18 wheel/tire n General practices manual for aircraft
speeds at liftoff and the tire speed rating assemblies to a 747 at a remote location tyres and tubes, Dunlop Aircraft Tyres
(see fig. 2). following one of these events! Additionally, Limited, 01/08, www.dunlopaircrafttyres.
This case study shows the relationship of if the overspeed was very small (say, 2 to com/tech_support/dm1172/DM1172.pdf.
a tire-speed-weight margin to the associated 3 knots over the tires’ speed limit), it is
speed margin for a four-engine airplane. unlikely that the tires would have suffered
Summary
Under similar dispatch conditions on a any damage.
two-engine airplane, a similarly large weight Some operators have elected to simply
Although it is uncommon to exceed the
margin can be expected to result in an examine the tires after an overspeed takeoff
load rating of tires during normal airline
even lower speed margin, due to the higher event using the normal tire inspection criteria
operation, Boeing is receiving an increasing
all-engine acceleration. in Chapter 32 of the Airplane Maintenance
number of operator inquiries about tire
The same case study showed that a Manual. If no damage is found, the airplanes
speed limits being exceeded during takeoff.
rotation rate that is 1 degree per second are dispatched normally and no further
There is no industry consensus on the
slower than normal can result in a 4- to maintenance actions are performed. Based
maintenance actions that should be taken
5-knot liftoff speed increase. This is in on many years of service experience, this
following tire-speed-limit exceedance
addition to the increase in all-engine approach seems to have worked well
during takeoff. At this time, operators, in
takeoff distance associated with the because very few, if any, tire tread losses
conjunction with their regulatory agency,
slow takeoff rotation (see fig. 3). have been attributed to an overspeed
must determine the most appropriate
This illustrates how a slower-than- event. Based on this service experience,
maintenance action based on the tire-
normal rotation rate can easily use up Boeing has typically not objected to this
speed-limit exceedance event.
what may seem like a large tire-speed-limit practice even though there is no overspeed
The best approach is to try to avoid
margin, especially if paired with a higher takeoff capability specifically designed into
overspeed takeoffs altogether. By taking
tailwind component than accounted for in the tire.
the following steps, flight operations
the takeoff analysis used for dispatch. If an operator has any questions about
personnel can reduce the possibility of tire-
the integrity of the tires, the wheel/tire
speed-limit exceedance during takeoff:
assemblies should be replaced before
Maintenance Actions after
Exceeding the Tire Speed Limit
further flight. n Follow the Boeing-recommended
During Takeoff Additional information on tire mainte rotation procedure.
nance procedures can be found in the n When dispatching at or near the tire-
Although tire-speed-limit exceedance airplane maintenance manuals and in speed-limit weight in a crosswind
events during takeoff are not a new phe the following documents: situation, consider conservatively,
nomenon, widespread recognition of these accounting for the tailwind component.
n FAA Advisory Circular 20-97B, “Aircraft
overspeed events is relatively new because n When dispatching at or near the tire
Tire Maintenance and Operational
of advances in flight data recorder tech speed limit in gusty wind and strong
Practices,” April 18, 2005, U.S.
nology that enables easier data acquisition. crosswind conditions, use a higher thrust
Department of Transportation.
Airplane manufacturers, tire suppliers, and setting than the minimum required.
n “Aircraft Tire Care And Maintenance,”
regulators have not yet developed an
Goodyear Aviation, 10/04, www. For more information, contact Boeing
industry-accepted set of maintenance
goodyearaviation.com/img/pdf/ Flight Operations Engineering at flightops.
aircraftmanual.pdf. engineering@boeing.com.
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