CE 40/L CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING Chapter III - CONCRETE

Chapter III

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

A. Concrete Materials

Two major parts of concrete:

a. cement paste
- consists of Portland cement, water, air voids and any admixtures
- amount varies from 25% - 40% of the total volume of the concrete mix
b. aggregates

A.1. Cement

a. Pozzolan Cement

- discovered by ancient Romans when volcanic earths (Pozzolanas) are added to

lime to give a product which hardens under water.
- derived from Pozzouli, a village in Naples, Rome
- chalks containing siliceous clays when burnt can be used for concreting

b. Portland Cement

- developed through experiment, experience and practice by blending materials

containing calcium, alumina, iron and silica
- invented by Joseph Aspdin who named it “Portland” because of its
resemblance to a building stone quarried on the Isle of Portland.
- the material produced by burning to incipient fusion (1400 oC to 1700 oC), a
properly proportioned mixture of argillaceous and calcareous materials, the
burnt product called clinker is mixed with 2 ½ - 5% gypsum and pulverized to
form portland cement.

 Argillaceous material

- includes clay, shale, blast furnace slag and cement rock

- these materials contribute silica (SiO 2), alumina (Al2O3) and iron oxide to the
clinker

 Calcareous material

- includes limestone, chalk, marl, marine shells and waste calcium carbonate
from industrial processes
- these materials contribute lime (CaO) to the clinker

 It should be remembered that only a certain amount of water can be combined with the
cement, any excess dilutes the mixture and reduces the potential strength,
watertightness and durability of the mix.
 Dehydration – drying out of the material by using intense heat in its manufacture
 Hydration – the chemical reaction where cement combines chemically with water, then
hardens for an indefinite period (the cement-water paste becomes hard as rock)
 Thirty kilograms of water are required to hydrate 100 kilograms of cement.

Conditions essential for the completion of these chemical reactions:

a. sufficient time
b. favorable temperature
c. continued presence of water

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Significant compounds resulting from the manufacture of cement:

a. Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 (C3S)

- responsible for the initial set and much of the early strength of the cement
- early strength is higher with increased percentage of C 3S
b. Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 (C2S)
- hardens the slowest but as it ages, it will have the same strength as the
tricalcium silicate
- reacts the slowest, releases the least heat and has relatively low shrinkage
- contributes largely to strength increase at ages beyond one week
c. Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 (C3A)
- reacts the most rapidly, gaining an appreciable amount of its maximum
strength the first day after mixing
- liberates the most heat during the first few days of hydration and hardening
and undergoes the most shrinkage
d. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 (C4AF)
- reduces the clinkering temperature, thereby assisting in the manufacture of
cement
- hydrates rather rapidly but contributes little strength

Five Types of Portland Cement

Type I and IA* - for general use such as pavement, sidewalks, buildings, bridges, tanks,
water pipes, etc.
Type II and IIA* - for concrete construction exposed to moderate sulfate action. It
generates heat of hydration at slower rate than Type I. Used in large piers, heavy
abutments and retaining walls
Type III and IIIA* - for high early strength.
a. used if you are in a hurry to strip forms and use them again
b. used when you need to put concrete into service faster than normal
c. used in cold weather to reduce the protection period needed
Type IV - for low heat hydration. Used in massive structures such as large dams where the
temperature rise during hardening may cause serious problems
Type V - for high sulfate resistance. Used for structures exposed to coal mine drainage

Other types

Type IS Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement

Type IP Portland Pozzolan Cement
White Portland Cement

*IA, IIA, IIIA – are air-entraining cements made by grinding small amount of air-
entraining materials with the clinker during their manufacture.
* Air-entraining cements are not as popular now as they used to be. It is easier to control
the air-content of concrete by using non-air-entraining cement and adding air-entraining
admixture when the concrete is batched.

Table 3 – 1 Government Specifications on Type I Cement

Tests Specifications
Fineness:
Specific Surface, sq. cm/g 1620 min
Residue on # 200 sieve, % 10 max
Time of Setting: Gillmore Test
a. Initial set, minutes 60 min
b. Final set, hours 10 max
Soundness:
Autoclave expansion, % 0.50 max
Pat test No sign of volume change
Compressive strength, mortar cube, MPa:
1 day in moist air, 2 days in water 8.0 min
1 day in moist air, 6 days in water 14.5 min
1 day in moist air, 27 days in water 24 min
Loss in Ignition, % 3.0 max
Insoluble residue, % 0.75 max
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Sulfur trioxide 3.00 max

Magnesium oxide 5.0 max
Sodium and potassium oxide, % 0.5 max
Tensile Strength, cement briquette, MPa
1 day in moist air, 6 days in water 1.9 min
1 day in moist air, 27 days in water 2.4 min

A.1.1. Important Tests and its Significance

Testing
- no testing on cement can be done in the field as all standard testing procedures require
special equipment and apparatus and certain controlled conditions under which the test
should be performed
- a knowledge of the important tests and their significance is useful for an intelligent
interpretation of test reports

1. Physical Test

1.a. Specific Gravity

- detects adulteration or underburning of cement
- determines the solidity of mortar or concrete
- for design purposes a value of 3.15 is assumed
- types IS and IP may have a value of 2.90

A 64-gram sample of cement is placed in a glass flask containing a previously read

volume of water-free kerosene. The increase in volume is noted and the specific gravity
calculated. Le chatelier flask

Wc where: Wc - weight of cement, g

S.G. =
Rf - Ri Rf - final reading, ml
Ri - initial reading, ml

1.b. Normal Consistency:

- determines the amount of water required to prepare cement pastes for testing
Water used, ml
N.C., % = x 100%
wt of cement sample, g

Apparatus/Materials/tools needed:
a. Non-absorbent surface
b. rubber gloves
c. weighing scale
d. conical ring
e. glass plate
f. trowel–2 pieces – 6” length
g. vicat apparatus with plunger
h. Portland cement – 400 g

Procedure:
1. Take 400 g of cement and prepare a paste with about 28% (by weight of cement)
water by taking care that the gauging time is from 3 to 5 minutes. The gauging time

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is counted from the instant of adding of water to dry cement until the mould is
filled.
2. Fill the vicat mould by placing it on a non-porous plate with the cement paste
prepared.
After completely filling the mould, smooth off the surface with a single movement
of the trowel, making it level with the top of the mould.
3. Shake the mould slightly to remove any air bubbles as their presence may affect the
penetration of the plunger.
4. Place the specimen along with the non-porous plate under the vicat plunger and
lower it gently so that it just touches the surface of the specimen.
5. Quickly release the plunger and allow it to sink. Note the reading.

Prepare the paste with varying percentages of water and repeat the experiment until
the plunger stops penetrating at a level 5 to 7 mm from bottom and tabulate the
results.

1.c. Time of Setting

- determines the time that elapses before the paste ceases to be fluid and plastic
(initial set) and also the time required for it to harden to a certain degree (final
set).
- is of value since crystallization begins with the initial set, and molding and
placing of the mortar should have been completed before the cement begins to
set.
- Uses vicat apparatus or gillmore needle

Using Gillmore appararus:ASTM C266

Materials/apparatus/tools needed:

a. Gillmore apparatus d. graduated cylinder

b. Portland cement – 300 g e. weighing scale
c. 2 pcs trowel,100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in.) f. potable water
in length, with a sharpened straight edge

The Gillmore needle is applied at a certain time intervals on the surface of 76.2
mm diameter pat, 12.7 mm thick and tapering to a thin outer edge, made from a neat
cement paste of normal consistency.

initial set - Gillmore needle 2.12 mm , 114 g- bears without mark on the pat
final set - Gillmore needle 1.06 mm , 453.6 grams - fails to make mark

Gillmore apparatus Vicat apparatus

Using Vicat apparatus

Apparatus/materials/tools needed:

a. weighing scale – 1 g sensitive e. water

b. 300 gram sample of cement. f. graduated cylinder.
c. trowel, 2 pcs g. vicat apparatus with needles(1mm, 5mm)
d. conical hard rubber ring.

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Procedure:
a. Take the weighing scale and set to zero.
b. Take a pan and tare the instrument.
c. Measure 300 gram sample of cement.
d. Take the cylinder and measure 80 ml. of water.
e. Now start making the paste of cement. It should be taken care that the time of making
paste doesn’t exceed 1 minute. Also note the time of making paste.

Molding Test Specimen

1. Quickly form the cement paste into a ball with gloved hands and toss six times from one
hand to the other, maintaining the hands about 150 mm (6 in.) apart.
2. Press the ball, resting in the palm of the hand, into the larger end of the conical ring held
in the other hand, completely filling the ring with paste.
3. Remove the excess at the larger end by a single movement of the palm of the hand.
4. Place the ring on its larger end onto a non-absorptive plate, and slice off the excess
paste at the smaller end at the top of the ring by a single oblique stroke of the trowel
held at a slight angle with the top of the ring.
5. Smooth the top of the specimen, if necessary, with one or two light touches of the
pointed end of the trowel.
During the operation of cutting and smoothing, take care not to compress the paste.
Immediately after molding, place the test specimen in the moist closet or moist room and
allow it to remain there except when penetration measurements are being made. The
specimen shall remain in the conical mold, supported by the non-absorptive plate
throughout the test period.

Time of Setting Determination

a. Allow the time of setting specimen to remain in the moist cabinet for 30 minutes after
molding without being disturbed.
b. Determine the Vicat initial setting by the penetration of the 1-mm needle at this time and
every 15 minutes thereafter (every 10 minutes for Type III cements) until a penetration
of 25 mm or less is obtained.
c. Perform the penetration test by lowering the needle, of the rod until it rests on the
surface of the cement paste.
d. Tighten the set screw, and set the indicator, at the upper end of the scale, or take an
initial reading.
e. Release the rod quickly by releasing the set screw, and allow the needle to settle for 30
seconds; then take the reading to determine the penetration.
*e.1. At the option of the tester, if the paste is obviously quite soft on the early readings,
retard the fall of the rod to avoid bending the 1-mm needle.
e.2. Make each penetration test at least 5 mm away from any previous penetration and
at least 10 mm away from the inner side of the mold.
f. Record the results of all penetration tests and, by interpolation, determine the time when
a penetration of 25 mm is obtained.
g. The elapsed time between the initial contact of cement and water and the penetration of
25 mm is the Vicat time of setting or Vicat initial time of setting.
h. Determine the Vicat final time of setting end point to be the first penetration measure
that does not mark the specimen surface with a complete circular impression.
i. Verify final set by performing two additional penetration measurements on different
areas of the specimen surface.
j. Obtain verification measurements within 90 s of the first “final set” measurement. The
elapsed time between the initial contact of cement and water and the end point
determination above is the Vicat final time of setting.

1.d. Soundness
- implies the absence of those qualities which tend to destroy its strength and durability

Over boiling water:

The test is carried out by placing 24 hour old neat cement pat of normal
consistency in an atmosphere of saturated steam above boiling water for five (5)
hours. Limitations: it determines unsoundness due to free lime but not due to hard-
burned calcium oxide, magnesia, and lime sulfate.

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By Autoclave expansion:
Is carried out by measuring the change in length of a 24-hour old 25 x 25 x 254
mm (1" x 1" x 10") neat cement specimen, after placing in an autoclave with a steam
pressure of 2.067 MPa (300 psi) maintained for three (3) hours.

% expansion = Change in length x 100% ≤ 0.50 %

Original length

Prism mold Autoclave

Le Chatelier method

https://youtu.be/je5ztHs9tII

Apparatus/Materials/Tools:

Procedure:

1. Place the mould on a glass sheet and fill it with the cement paste formed by gauging
cement with 0.78 times the water required to give a paste of standard consistency.
2. Cover the mould with another piece of glass sheet, place a small weight on this covering
glass sheet and immediately submerge the whole assembly in water at a temperature of
27 ± 2oC and keep it there for 24hrs.
3. Measure the distance separating the indicator points to the nearest 0.5mm (say dl ).
4. Submerge the mould again in water at the temperature prescribed above. Bring the water
to boiling point in 25 to 30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3hrs.
5. Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and measure the distance between the
indicator points (say d2 ).
6. (d2 – dl) represents the expansion of cement. The value should not go beyond 10mm.

Results:

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Calculate the mean of the two values to the nearest 0.5mm to represent the expansion of
cement.

Precautions:
1. All the measurements should be done accurately.
2. Do not apply extra pressure while filling the moulds.
3. During boiling water level should not fall below the height of the mould.

1.e. Fineness
- determines how fine the cement is
- advantages of fine cement:
 increases the rate at which cement hydrates and thus accelerates strength
development
 it improves concrete workability and prevents excessive bleeding
 it improves the appearance and durability of concrete

By No. 200 sieve:

It consists of passing 50 grams of cement through this sieve and weighing the
residue.

weight of residue
% Fineness = x 100% ≤ 10%
original weight of sample

By Blaine Air Permeability Test –

1.f. Compressive Strength

- judges the value of the cement as the conditions of the test are more nearly
similar to the conditions met by the material in use
- is influenced by the cement type, or more precisely, the compound
composition and fineness of cement

A mortar is prepared using the 2.75 parts of graded sand, one part of cement and
enough water to give a flow of 100 - 115%. The 50 mm (2") cubes prepared from the
mortar mix are tested in the compression machine at the age of 3 days, 7 days and 28
days, with one (1) day curing in the molds and the remaining days under water.

Total Load, N
Compressive Strength, MPa =
Cross-sectional Area, mm2

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1.g. Flow table test

Procedure:
1. Take 420 of cement & 1440 g of standard sand and a trial percentage of water.
2. Mix all the ingredients mechanically with the help of a mixer.
3. Place all the mixing water in bowl.
4. Add the masonry cement to the water, then start the mixer and mix at the slow speed
(140±5 rev/min) for 30s.
5. Add the entire quantity of sand slowly over a period of 30 s, while mixing at slow speed.
6. Stop the mixer, change to medium speed (280±10 rev/min), and mix for 30 s.
7. Stop the mixer, and let the mortar stand for one and a half minutes. During the first the first
15 s of this interval, quickly scrap down into the batch any mortar that may have collected
on the side of the bowl, then for the remainder of this interval, cover the bowl with the lid.
8. Finish by mixing for one minute at medium speed. In case requiring further remixing, any
mortar adhering to the side of the bowl shall be quickly scraped down into the batch with
scarper prior to remixing which is to be continued till a uniform mortar is obtained.
9. Upon the completion of mixing, shake the paddle to remove excess mortar into the mixing
bowl.
10. Carefully wipe the flow table top clean, and dry and place the mould at the centre.
11. Place about 25 mm thick layer of mortar (mixed as above) in the mould and tamp 20 times
with tamping rod.
12. Then fill the mould with mortar and tamp as specified for the first layer.
13. Cut off the excess mortar by drawing the straight edge of a trowel with a sawing motion
across the top of the mould.
14. Lift the mould away from the mortar one minute after completion of the mixing operation.
15. Immediately drop the table through a height of 12.5 mm, 25 times in 15s.

Calculation

The flow is the resulting increase in average base diameter of the mortar mass, measured on at least
four diameters at approximately equi-spaced intervals expressed as a percentage of the original
base diameter
Flow = [(Davg – Do) / Do]*100
where,
Davg=Average base diameter
Do=Original base dia.

Precautions
 The material for moulding each batch of test specimen shall be mixed separately.
 Tamping pressure must be sufficient to ensure uniform filling of the mould.

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1.g. Tension
- determines the tensile strength of cement briquette
- on the average the tensile strength should not be less than 25 kg/cm 2

A mortar is prepared using 3 parts of graded sand, one part of cement and enough
water. The test is done 7 days and 28 days thereafter, with one (1) day curing in the
molds and the remaining days under water.

Tensile Load, N
Tensile Strength, MPa =
Least Cross-sectional Area, mm2

Apparatus/tools needed for physical test of Portland Cement

Test Apparatus/Tools needed

Normal Cement-400 g, water, Graduated cylinder,
Consistency beaker, 2 pcs trowel, vicat apparatus with
plunger and conical mold, with glass/metal
plate
Time of Setting, Cement-300g, water, graduated cylinder, 2
Gillmore pcs trowel, gillmore apparatus with glass
plate
Time of Setting, Cement-400g, water, graduated cylinder, 2
Vicat pcs trowel, vicat apparatus with 1 mm φ,
and 5 mm φ needles, glass plate
Soundness, Over Cement-200 g, water, 1” x 1” x 10” mold,
boiling water graduated cylinder, beaker, 2 pcs trowel
Soundness, Le Cement-200 g, water, graduated cylinder,
Chatelier mold beaker, le chatelier mold, 2 pcs trowel, glass
plates
Fineness Cement-50 g, #200 sieve, pan and cover,
sieve shaker
Flow Cement-420 g, Sand-1375 g, water,
graduated cylinder, beaker
Compressive Cement – 800 g, Sand – 2200 g, water,
strength graduated cylinder, cube mold, mixing
bowl, spoon, tamper
Tension Cement – 60g, sand-165 g, water, graduated
cylinder, beaker, briquette, mixing bowl,
spoon, tamper

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2. Chemical Test

2.a. Loss on Ignition

- indicates the amount of volatile matter including moisture in the cement
- prehydration has taken place resulting from introduction or absorption of moisture
during manufacture or carbonation which results from the absorption of moisture
and CO2 on exposure to air.
- it is a measure of how fresh the cement is.

Test is carried out by heating a one-(1) gram sample in a porcelain or platinum

crucible for 15 minutes at 900 - 1000 C, either in a muffle furnace or in a bunsen
burner flame

Platinum crucible Muffle furnace

wt of sample before ignition - wt after ignition

% loss on ignition = x 100%
weight of sample

2.b. Insoluble Residue, Sulfur Trioxide and Magnesia

- a small amount of gypsum in cement is added to delay the setting time will often
add to the strength, but too much of gypsum leads to slow expansion of the set
cement and may result in crumbling.
- too much of sulfur trioxide affects the setting time of cement
- Magnesia in excess will cause unsoundness and is considered to give cement an
inferior quality.

To determine the insoluble residue and the sulfur trioxide (from the gypsum) a
one- (1) gram sample of cement is dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The insoluble
portion is filtered off, ignited and weighed as insoluble residue.

wt of crucible w/ ignited residue - wt of empty crucible

% Insoluble Residue = x 100%
weight of sample

To the filtrate is added the barium chloride to precipitate the sulfur trioxide as
barium sulfate from which SO3 is calculated.

W x 34.4
% SO3 =
weight of sample

where: W - weight in grams of barium sulfate (BaSO4)

34.4 - the molecular ratio of SO3 to BaSO4 multiplied by 100

Magnesia is determined from the acid soluble portion of a fresh 1/2 -gram sample
by precipitating it as magnesium pyrophosphate.

% MgO = W x 72.4

where: W - weight in grams of Mg2P2O7

72.4 - the molecular weight of MgO to Mg2P2O7 (0.362) divided by
the weight of sample used (0.5 g) and multiplied by 100.

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A.2. Mixing Water

- water containing acids, alkalis, salts, silt and organic matter should be avoided
- as a rule any water that is potable is satisfactory for concrete mixes
- excessive impurities may affect setting time and concrete strength and cause corrosion
of reinforcement or efflorescent of finished concrete surfaces, thus if there are doubts
on the quality of water, results on the abovementioned tests may be conducted to
compare it with samples made from the water that is suitable for making concrete
- sea-water containing as much as 3.5% salt can be used for plain concrete.

Water of convenience – extra water used ranging from 10 to 50 kg to satisfy the workability of
the concrete.

 A good concrete practice: Keep the water of convenience as low as possible, but be
practical! Free water present in the aggregates is part of the “mixing water” so it must be
determined.

Test:
Test is done on a quart sample placed in a clean container only if the source is
questionable. A certification from the Project Engineer is acceptable as a requirement for water
to be used.

A.3. Air Voids

Two Kinds of Air

a. Entrapped air – is undesirable and readily visible
b. Entrained air – desirable and barely visible

Advantage of the use of air-entrained cement:

It is more durable since the tiny bubbles produced absorb:
 the pressure built up within the concrete as the water in the concrete expands when it
freezes.
 the stress developed when de-icers are used to melt the ice on the concrete

Total Air – the sum of entrained and entrapped air. Experience indicates a total air of:
Concrete --- 6% ± 2%
Mortar fraction ------ 10% ± 3 ½%
Paste fraction -------- 17% ± 5%

A.4. Admixture

- are formulated products usually in liquid form added to concrete, mortars or grouts at a
dosage of less than 5% on cement to modify and/or improve the properties of concrete
or mortar in the wet and/or hardened state
- the term embraces all materials other than cement, water and aggregates that are added
just before or during mixing

Major reasons for using admixtures:

a. To reduce the cost of concrete construction

b. To achieve certain properties in concrete more effectively than by other means
c. To ensure the quality of concrete during the stages of mixing, transporting, placing and
curing in adverse weather conditions.
d. To overcome certain emergencies during concreting operations.

A.5. Aggregate

- the granular material ingredients of concrete and bituminous mixes

- it constitute about 70% of concrete and about 95% of bituminous mixes

1. Fine aggregates

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- are materials smaller than 9.5 mm (3/8" sieve) which consist of natural and
manufacture sand, or of inert materials with similar characteristics, having clean,
hard and durable grains, free from organic matter or loam
- specification for grading requires that not less than 95 - 100% shall pass the # 4
(4.75 mm) sieve and not more than 30% nor less than 10% shall pass the # 50
(0.30 mm) sieve

2. Coarse aggregates

- are materials with diameter larger than 9.5 mm which include gravel, crushed
stone, slag or other inert materials
- in general, the sizes vary from 9.5 to 75 mm, but the maximum for reinforced
being 37.5 mm

Characteristics considered in the proper selection of aggregates:

a. size
b. strength
c. soundness and durability
d. cleanliness or freedom from deleterious substances
e. hardness
f. nonreaction with cement

A.2.1. Important Tests and its Significance

1. Unit Weight

- values of unit weight are used for computing quantities in batching by volume
- and in estimating quantities of materials
- unit weight test may either be compacted or loose weight

Aggregate is made to fill a container of known volume.

Weight of aggregate to fill container

Loose/Compacted Unit Weight =
Volume of container

Compact 3 layers – each layer tamped 25 times

5/8”ø x 24” - tamping rod – plain bar

2. Wash on No. 200 Sieve

- test determines the silt and clay components which may weaken concrete if
adhering to the aggregate grains
- indicates how clean the aggregates are

Fine or coarse aggregates are weighed, soaked in water and washed on # 200 sieve.

% materials passing # 200 sieve orig. dry wt -dry wt after washing  3% - FA

= x 100%
by washing Original dry weight  1 ½ % - CA

3 kg – CA 2 kg – FA - oven dry – weigh – wash – oven dry

3. Sieve Analysis

- this test controls the grading of aggregates which results to high density mix and
good workability
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This test is made on materials coarser than the # 200 sieve after performance of
wash test. Sample is allowed to pass through a nested set of sieves and cumulative
percentage passing calculated.

4. Soundness by use of Sodium or Magnesium Sulfate

- determines the resistance of aggregates to disintegration

- it also furnishes information helpful in evaluating soundness of aggregates subject
to weathering action

Size and weight of sample as specified are alternately immersed and dried in the
solution of sodium or magnesium sulfate for 16 to 18 hours. After completion of
required cycles, wash samples, dry and sieve over the same sieve on which each was
originally retained. Compute % soundness loss on the weight of particles retained on
each sieve.

Table 3 – 2 Size and Weight of Sample

Fine Aggregate (Passing 3/8" sieve)

Weight of Test
Passing Sieve Retained on Sieve
Fraction, g
3/8" No. 4 100
No. 4 No. 8 100
No. 8 No. 16 100
No. 16 No. 30 100
No. 30 No. 50 100
Coarse Aggregate (Retained on No. 4 sieve)
Weight of Test
Passing Sieve Retained on Sieve
Fraction, g
2 1/2" 1 1/2" 3000
1 1/2" 3/4" 1500
3/4" 3/8" 1000
3/8" No. 4 300

Table 3 – 3 Required % soundness loss

Type of Aggregate Magnesium Sulfate Sodium Sulfate

Fine Aggregate 12% 10%
Coarse Aggregate 18% 15%

5. Specific Gravity and Absorption

- the values are used in the design of concrete and bituminous mixes
- a high value of absorption may indicate a doubtful quality of a material.

For Fine Aggregates:

A 500 g saturated surface-dry sample is placed in a water half-filled pycnometer.

Fill container with water to its calibration mark. Record the weights in air, oven-dry,
and that of the pycnometer.

W1
S.G. bulk saturated surface dry =
W1 + W2 - W3

W1 - Wo
Absorption, % = x 100%
Wo

where: Wo - weight in air of oven-dry sample

W1 - weight in air of SSD sample
W2 - weight of pycnometer filled with water
W3 - weight of pycnometer + water + sample in bottle

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For Coarse Aggregates

Pass 5 kg sample on a 3/8" sieve. Wash portion retained in water and soak for 24
hours. Dry the surface with absorbent cloth and weigh. Place sample in wire basket and
get its weight in water. Dry the sample to constant weight and compute the specific
gravity and absorption.

W1
S.G. bulk saturated surface dry =
W1 - W2

W1 - Wo
Absorption, % = x 100%
Wo
where: Wo - weight in air of oven-dry sample
W1 - weight in air of SSD sample
W2 - weight of sample in water

Various moisture conditions of aggregates:

a) oven-dry - all moisture, external and internal, driven off by heating at 100 oC
b) air-dry - no surface moisture on the particles, some internal moisture but not
saturated
c) saturated surface-dry - no free or surface moisture on the particles, but all voids
within the particles filled with water
d) damp, or wet-saturated - with free or surface moisture on the particles

 absorption capacity or total possible internal moisture is the difference of saturated

surface-dry and the oven-dry

6. Organic Matter Test

- determines the presence and approximate amount of organic matter

- performed on fine aggregates

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A small quantity of sand is mixed with a certain amount of 3% solution of sodium

hydroxide. After 24 hours, the color of the liquid is compared with the standard color
plate. If darker than the standard, injurious amount of organic matter is present.

7. Mortar Strength

- is considered a decisive test in evaluating overall quality of fine aggregate

A 50 mm cube mortar is prepared. After 7 days, its compressive strength is

compared to the strength of standard specimens.

Average Compressive Strength, 7 days

Strength Ratio, % = x 100%
Average Compressive Strength, Standard

8. Abrasion (Los Angeles Machine Test)

- evaluates the structural strength of coarse aggregates

Place test sample that shall conform to one of the gradings given below in the Los
Angeles abrasion machine. After the required revolutions remove material and
separate on # 12 sieve. Materials coarser on # 12 shall be dried to constant weight, then
weighed accurately. Calculate % abrasion loss.

Wo-W1  40 % for bituminous surfaces

Abrasion Loss, % = x 100%
Wo  45 % for concrete work

where: Wo - original weight of sample, g

W1 - weight of sample retained on # 12 sieve, g

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Table 3 – 4 Weight of Test Sample for Abrasion Test

Sieve Size Grading and Weight of Test Sample, g

Passing Retained A B C D E F G
3" 2 1/2" - - - - 2500 - -
2 ½" 2" - - - - 2500 - -
2" 1 1/2" - - - - 5000 5000 -
1 ½" 1" 1250 - - - - 5000 5000
1" 3/4" 1250 - - - - - 5000
3/4" 1/2" 1250 2500 - - - - -
1/2" 3/8" 1250 2500 - - - - -
3/8" No. 3 - - 2500 - - - -
No. 3 No. 4 - - 2500 - - - -
No. 4 No. 8 - - - 5000 - - -

The abrasive charge shall consist of cast-iron spheres or steel spheres approximately 1 7/8" in diameter and
each weighing between 390 and 445 grams. The charge depending upon grading of test sample shall be as follows:

Grading No. of Spheres Weight of Charge, g

A 12 5000  25
B 11 4584  25
C 8 3330  20
D 6 2500  15
E 12 5000  25
F 12 5000  25
G 12 5000  25

B. Concrete

- the finished product of mixing aggregates with cement and water together with the
necessary manipulations of placing same and observing curing requirements
- concrete consists of the following by absolute volume
7 - 14% of cement / 15 - 20% water / 66 - 78% aggregates

B.1. Physical Properties

1.a. Workability
- the ease with which a uniform mass of freshly mixed concrete can be moved
without segregation into final position in which it is allowed to harden.
- the minimum degree of workability should be maintained at all times without
sacrificing strength and economy.

Table 3 – 5 Minimum Compressive Strength of Concrete

Maximum Designated Size of Minimum Compressive
Minimum Consistency
Water- Coarse Aggregate, Strength of 150 x 300 mm
Cement Content Range in Slump
Class Cement Square Opening Concrete Cylinder Specimen
per m 3
Ratio Standard , mm at 28 days
Kg (bag*) mm(inch)
kg/kg (Alternate) MN/m 2(psi)
50 – 100 37.5 - 4.75
A 360 (9.0) 0.53 20.7 (3,000)
(2 - 4) (1 1/2 "- No. 4)
50 – 100 50.0 - 4.75
B 320 (8.0) 0.56 16.5 (2,400)
(2 - 4) (2 "- No. 4)
50 – 100 12.5 - 4.75
C 380 (9.5) 0.55 20.7 (3,000)
(2 - 4) (1/2" - No. 4)
100 max 19.0 - 4.75
P 440 (11.0) 0.49 37.7 (5,000)
(4) max (3/4" - No. 4)
100 – 200 25.0 - 4.75
Seal 380 (9.5) 0.58 20.7 (3,000)
(4 - 8) (1" - No. 4)
*Based on 40 kg per bag

Factors affecting workability

 Amount of mixing water - excessive amount of water allows coarse aggregate and
the larger sand grains to settle down and the fine aggregate particles and water to
rise to the top of the layer resulting in a non-uniform and weak product.
 Oversanded and undersanded mixtures - this condition requires more water to be
workable but sacrificing the strength, good surface texture and water tightness

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 Grading and maximum size of aggregate - fine or very coarse sands are
objectionable. The grading and maximum size may be varied over a wide range
without appreciable effect on the cement requirement if the proportion of the fine
aggregate is such as to give good workability.

- Slump test - the commonly used method to measure consistency

 Ball penetration apparatus - a new method used to measure consistency
- In the field, the operator or inspector has to judge visually if the concrete is of proper
workability for placing.

1.b. Strength
- in order to be useful as a construction product, it has to meet a minimum
strength requirement for compression, flexure, shear and bond on the basis of
intended use
- strength of concrete is principally dependent on the water-cement ratio
- the compressive strength of concrete as well as tensile, flexural and bond
strengths, increases with age as long as moisture and temperature conditions
are favorable
- rate of increase in strength is higher at high temperature than at low
temperature.

1.c. Durability
- is the ability of concrete to withstand deterioration due to exposure to
weathering action
- Factors affecting durability
 the water-cement ratio
 type of aggregate - certain aggregates may contain reactive materials such
as opaline silica which react with the alkali in the cement and cause
excessive expansion and shattering of the concrete
 high magnesia content of cement - causes expansion of concrete that
results to cracks in the structure.

1.d. Impermeability
- an essential requirement of concrete exposed to weather
- less water in the mixture renders the concrete product dense and contributes to
water tightness

Table 3 – 6 Classes and Uses of Concrete

Class Uses
All superstructures and heavily reinforced substructures. For slabs, beams,
Class A girders, columns, arch ribs, box culverts, reinforced abutments, retaining
walls, reinforced footings, precast piles and cribbing
Footings, pedestals, massive pier shafts, pipe bedding, and gravity walls,
Class B
unreinforced or with only a small amount of reinforcement
Class C Thin reinforced sections, railings, and for filler in steel grid floors
Class P Prestressed concrete structures and members
Seal Concrete deposited in water

B.2. Test for Concrete

1. Slump Test

The freshly mixed concrete is placed in the slump cone apparatus in 3 layers. Each
layer is tamped 25 times. After the last layer has been placed the slump cone is lifted
vertically up. Slump is measured from the difference in height of cone and the height of the
slumped specimen.

Slump = 12 ” – height of slumped specimen (in)

2. Strength Test

a. Compression Test
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The 6” Φ x 12” cylindrical mold is used to form the freshly mixed concrete in
three layers. After it has hardened and been cured. The cylindrical specimen is
subjected to compressive load to determine its strength.

Maximum Load, N
Compressive Strength, MPa = ≥ 20.7 MPa (28 day old)
Cross-sectional Area, mm2

b. Flexure Test

Third-Point Loading Test

The 6” x 6” x 21” beam mold is used to shape the freshly mixed concrete in 2
layers. Each layer is tamped 1 tamp/2in2/layer. The beam sample is subjected to the
third-point loading test.

Calculation:
b.1. If the fracture is within the middle third, calculate modulus of rupture by the
formula:

PL
R=
bd2

where: R – modulus of rupture. MPa

P – maximum load, N
L – span , mm
b – average width, mm
d – average depth, mm

b.2. If the fracture is outside of the middle third of the span length by not more
than 5% of the span length, calculate modulus of rupture by the formula:

3Pa
R=
bd2

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where: a – distance between line of fracture and the nearest support

measured along the center line of the bottom surface of the beam,
mm

b.3. If the fracture is outside of cases (b.1) and (b.2), discard the results of the test.

Center-Point Loading Test

3. Tension Test

Split Tensile Strength Test

C. Quality Control Measures

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The quality control measures in concrete construction that are necessary for its production
that will satisfy service requirements are:

1. Selection of materials
2. Design of the concrete mixture
3. Aggregate production control
4. Concrete production control
5. Control in transporting and placing
6. Consolidation of concrete
7. Control of consistency
8. Sampling and testing of mixture
9. Curing and protection

C.1. Selection of Materials

C.1.1. Aggregates

In selecting aggregate, the following criteria should be considered:

a. The grading should be uniform throughout its period of use and should
conform to specifications
b. An aggregate with unfavorable shape should not be necessarily be rejected if
other alternatives are very costly
c. An aggregate that contains appreciable amount of organic materials which may
interfere materially with the setting time of the cement should not be used.
d. An aggregate that will not produce concrete of the required strength should not
be used.
e. An aggregate exposed to severe weathering should be essentially free of
particles that are soft or friable, or highly absorptive.
f. An aggregate containing substances that could react with alkalies in the cement
to cause excessive expansion should not be used in concrete exposed to
wetting unless it is required that low-alkali cement is used.

C.1.2. Cement

Sample Size: A minimum of 10 kg sample shall be taken from each 2000 bags or fraction
thereof. The 10 kg sample shall be a composite obtained by combining the samples taken
from each 50 bags by means of a cement sampler.

Sample Storage: Samples shall be shipped and stored in an airtight and moisture proof
containers and accompanied by a sample card.

Storage at Jobsite:
a. A warehouse or shed should be as airtight as possible. No cracks or opening between
walls and roof should be tolerated.
b. Flooring of shed should be well above the ground
c. Cement sacks should be stacked close together to reduce circulation of air but should
not be stacked against outside walls
d. Warehouse doors and windows should be kept closed except when cement is taken out
for use.

 Cement which has been in storage for so long a period that there is already doubt as to its
quality should be retested prior to use

C.2. Design of Concrete Mix

Main objective: To determine the proportion of the ingredients that will produce concrete
of proper workability when fresh and the desired durability and strength after it has
hardened.

Starting mix – is proportioned in testing laboratory after preliminary quality tests on the
ingredients have been done
Final proportions – are established from laboratory trial mixes, subject to adjustments due
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to field conditions

Sequence of steps to follow are:

a. Choice of slump
b. Choice of maximum size of aggregate
c. Estimate amount of mixing water and water content
d. Select water-cement ratio
e. Calculate cement content
f. Estimate quantity of fine and coarse aggregates
g. Adjust moisture content of aggregates
h. Check calculated mixture proportions by preparing and testing trial batches

C.3. Aggregate Production Control

Sample Size: 50 kg (surface dry) - fine aggregate

70 kg (surface dry) - coarse aggregate

 Quality control should be at the plant site if aggregates are obtained from crushing and
screening plants to insure that only those materials conforming to the grading tolerances
are delivered at the jobsite.
 Particle size and shape, and maximum size of aggregate are important because of their
effect on relative proportions, workability, economy, porosity and shrinkage
- use of very fine sand is uneconomical and use of coarse sands result in coarse,
unworkable mixes.
- desirable range of fineness modulus should be 2.5 to 3.00

Total Cumulative % Retained

FM =
100

- the maximum size of aggregates that can be used will depend on the size and shape
of concrete members and the amount and distribution of reinforcing steel.

 Aggregates should be clean and free from objectionable fines (see fig. III – 1 for method of
washing sand)
 Blending of aggregates may be tried if the aggregate from one source does not meet
grading specification (see fig III – 2, for the graphical method of blending aggregates)

Handling and Storage:

 It should be handled and stored to produce minimum segregation of sizes in order to

produce practically uniform concrete
 The stockpile should be built up in layers of uniform thickness, whether handled by truck,
clamshell or conveyor, and not built up in high cone-shaped piles which results in the
segregation of sizes.

 In removing the stockpile, it should be done in approximately horizontal layers to

minimize segregation.

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C.4. Concrete Production Control

C.4.1. Control in Measurement of Materials

 Cement is placed in bags of the usual 40 kg net weight for convenience

 The equipment should be tested and calibrated for accuracy every now and then for best
results
 The inspector should develop keen eye to readily distinguish the required consistency from
the unsatisfactory, which should be immediately remedied once it occurs

C.4.2. Control of Mixing

4 m3
 As a general rule, all concrete ingredients should be mixed thoroughly and uniformly
distributed until the appearance of the mix is uniform
 Mixing time , rather than speed of rotation has greater influence on the strength and quality
of the concrete
- 1 ½ minutes of mixing all the ingredients is necessary for mixer of 1.5 cubic meter
or less, and ½ minute is added for every 0.75 cubic meter excess
 Excessive mixing may result in grinding action on the aggregates causing degradation to
finer particles
 Increase/decrease of slump over the required may have the following damaging effects:
- the increase in water-cement ratio is about 0.4 L per bag and potential loss in
strength is about 0.6894 MPa
- Over-wet batches are objectionable because trouble from segregation is increased
- Dry batches are objectionable too, because difficulty in handling and placing will
result

C.5. Control in Transporting/Handling and Placing

 Concrete is transported by various means, such as truck mixer, pipeline or hose, or

conveyor belt
 Placing to its final position is by bucket, hopper, buggy, chute, conveyor belt, or paving
equipment
 The method used in placing fresh concrete to its final position determines the quality of the
hardened concrete. Correct methods to prevent segregation are as shown in figs. III – 4 and
5.
 Check points in placing concrete in the forms are as follows:
- Concrete shall not be dropped more than 1.5 m.
- Concrete shall be placed in horizontal layers not exceeding 60 cm in depth,
avoiding inclined layers and cold joints.
- Concrete shall be placed as near as possible to its final position to prevent
segregation
- Excess water that may accumulate on top layer of a deep pour should be removed
carefully
- Vibration shall be of sufficient duration to provide thorough compaction, but not
prolonged as to cause segregation

C.6. Consolidation of Concrete

 Concrete should be vibrated to permit the satisfactory placing of denser and stronger
mixes. Vibration is considered sufficient when decrease in volume is no longer apparent
(see fig. III – 6)

C.7. Control of Consistency

 Should be checked frequently by the slump test. The slump test is simple but very
important, since it is an indicator of water content or water-cement ratio.
 If there is a necessity of increasing the water content for better placeability, water should
not be added, instead the mixture should be redesigned

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C.8. Sampling and Testing of Mixture

C.8.1. Sampling requirement:

- obtain a set of three (3) cylinder samples for structural concrete
- obtain a set of three (3) beam samples for paving concrete
- one set of samples shall be obtained for each day of concreting work

 Sampling should not be delegated to ordinary laborers or others who have no prior training
in materials quality control(MQC)
 Attention should be given to the protection and curing of molded specimen for strength
test. Samples should be sent to laboratory without delay so that required tests can be done
at the required age.

C.8.2. Significance of Proper Sampling

- test results on concrete samples reflect the actual strength of the structure
- incorrect sampling will give unsatisfactory results but the concrete may be structurally
sound
- this may be due to one or a combination of the ff:

a. incorrect sampling e. inaccurate test results

b. inadequate compaction of sample f. mixed samples
c. contamination of sample g. incorrect test method/procedure
d. damage to sample h. inadequate curing/protection

C.9. Curing

- is the process of maintaining sufficient moisture and a favorable temperature during

the hardening process so that the desired properties of concrete are developed.
- the potential strength and durability of concrete will be fully developed only if it is
properly cured for an adequate period prior to being placed in service.

C.9.1. Loss of mixing water necessary for hydration:

Reasons:
a. evaporation
b. absorption by the aggregates, forms or underlying base
Results:
a. drying shrinkage
b. development of cracks in the paste

C.9.2. Three principal methods or procedures for the protection and curing of concrete

a. By maintaining a moist environment by the application of water through ponding,

sprays, steam or saturated cover materials such as earth, sawdust, hay or burlap
b. By prevention of loss of mixing water from the concrete by means of sealing
materials, such as impervious sheets of paper or plastic, or by the application of a
membrane forming curing compound to the freshly mixed concrete.
c. By supplying heat and moisture to concrete to accelerate strength gain by steam
curing or insulating blankets/covers

C.9.3. Curing Periods:

Factors considered in determining the length of curing period

1. type of cement
2. required strength
3. ratio of exposed – surface area to volume of concrete
4. weather
5. future exposure conditions

Generally, curing period should be as long as is practical

Concrete slab on ground minimum of 7 days to 14 days or time necessary to attain
Structural concrete 70% of compressive or flexure strength
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Mass concrete w/o pozzolan, unreinforced – 2 weeks minimum

Mass concrete w/ pozzolan, unreinforced – 3 weeks minimum
Mass concrete, heavily reinforced – 7 days minimum
High-early-strength concrete – 3 days minimum
Concrete exposed to chemical deicers – depends on the time required to develop the design
strength

SIGNIFICANCE OF SITE INSPECTION

- There is no substitute for site quality control inspection in concrete work

- Defects in workmanship may result to unsoundness in structure though test results may
show otherwise.
- This may be due to one or a combination of the ff:

a. addition of water after samples have been taken

b. delayed placing
c. unsuitable weather conditions (rain or excessive heat)
d. inadequate compaction
e. defective construction control
f. contamination of concrete mix before or during placement

D. Concrete Products:

D.1. Concrete Pipes

D.1.1. Four types

a. Plain or nonreinforced concrete sewer, storm drain and culvert pipe - intended for the
conveyance of sewage, industrial water, irrigation water and storm water
b. Reinforced concrete sewer, storm drain, and culvert pipe - intended for the construction
of culverts and pressure conduits with low internal hydrostatic head as well as for the
conveyance of sewage, irrigation water, industrial water and storm water with low
internal operating head
c. Perforated concrete pipe - intended for the use of underdrain
d. Porous concrete pipe - same use as the perforated concrete pipe

D.1.2. Sampling, Testing and Control

a. Nonreinforced concrete sewer, storm drain and culvert pipe

For strength and absorption tests:
- 0.5% of the number of pipes each size but not less than 2
b. Reinforced concrete sewer, storm drain, and culvert pipe
For strength and absorption tests:
- 0.2% of the number of pipes of each size but not to exceed five
c. Perforated concrete pipes
For strength test and perforation measurement
- 0.5% of the number of pipes each size but not less than 2
d. Porous concrete pipes
For strength and infiltration test:
- 0.5% of the number of pipes each size but not less than 2

- For projects far away from Manila, pipe samples should be sent to the Regional Offices
or any private testing laboratories accredited by the DPWH
- All materials used in the manufacture of pipes shall be tested for quality
- In such cases that the Engineer shall in lieu of sending pipe samples, submit a field
Inspection Report and a set of three concrete cylinders for every 25 pipes casted

D.2. Hollow Blocks - made from Portland Cement, water and mineral aggregates with or without
inclusion of other materials

D.2.1. Two kinds of Hollow Blocks

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a. Load Bearing Block - a hollow block capable of carrying super-imposed load which is
used in exterior wall below grade and for unplastered exterior wall above grade that
may be exposed to weather.
b. Non-Load Bearing Block - a concrete hollow block not capable of carrying
superimposed load. For general use in walls not exposed to weather

D.2.2. Sample and Testing:

For strength, moisture content and absorption determination

- 6 full-size units from each lot of 10,000 units and a fraction thereof
- 12 full-size unit from each lot of more than 10,000 but less than 50,000
- the delivered units shall be inspected and should be sound and free of cracks and other
defects

Significant Tests

1. Strength test
1.a. as a quality control test to establish that the finished, shippable pipe has
sufficient strength to withstand the crushing loads stated in the specification
1.b. as proof of design test performed to prove the adequacy of design

a. Concrete Pipes
The specimen's thickness and length recorded. The three-edge bearing strength test
is performed (see fig.III - 7). Load to produce a 2.5 mm crack is noted (crack is
measured using the gage leaf (see fig. III - 8)

Ultimate load, kN
Compressive strength, kN/l.m.=
Length, m

b. Hollow blocks
The specimens' dimensions are measured. Capped by either cement gypsum or
sulfur-filler, it is placed in the compressive testing machine; its position the same as in
service. Load is applied until failure occurs. Record the maximum load.

Maximum Load, N
Compressive Strength, MPa =
Gross cross-sectional area, mm

2. Water Absorption and Moisture Content

a. Concrete Pipes - absorption is a quality control test performed to establish the fact that
the finished, shippable pipe meets the absorption limits stated in the specification
Dry specimen that has passed the strength requirements to a constant heat at a
temperature of about 110 o F. Place dried specimen in a suitable container and cover
with clean water. Heat continuously for 5 hours and cool for 16 hours. Remove
specimen and drain for not more than 1 minute. Superficial water may be remove by
wiping with absorbent cloth. Weigh immediately.

Boiled mass - dry mass

% absorption = x 100%  8%
dry mass

b. Masonry Units - absorption and moisture content tests are performed to determine the
actual percentage of water and the absorption characteristics of the concrete when
subjected to saturated condition.

Dry specimen in a ventilated oven to a temperature of 110 to 115 oC for not less
than 24 hours and obtain dry mass. Immerse test specimen in water at room
temperature for 24 hours. Weigh while submerged in water. Remove from water and
drain for 1 minute. Wipe visible surface water with damp cloth and immediately
weigh.

wet mass –dry mass

Absorption, kg/m3 = x 1000
wet mass-suspended immersed mass

% absorption = boiled mass - dry mass x 100%

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dry mass

mass as sampled - dry mass

Moisture Content, % (of total absorption) = x 100%
wet mass - dry mass

Purposes of test
1. to assure uniformity of quality
2. to check compliance with design and other specification requirements

Table 3 – 7 Physical Requirements of Hollow Load-Bearing and Non-Load Bearing Concrete

Masonry Units
Moisture Content,
Compressive Strength, min., MPa Water Absorption,
maximum, % of total
(Average Gross Area) Maximum Kg/m 3
Type absorption
Average of Average of Average of
Individual
3 units 3 Units 3 Units
Hollow Load Bearing 6.9 5.5 240 45
Hollow Non-Load Bearing 4.14 3.45 - 45

Supplement 3.1 – Admixtures

Functions:

1. Air-entraining admixtures
- to entrain microscopic air bubbles in concrete
- the primary active ingredients are alkylbenzene sulfonate or polyethylene oxide, detergents, or salts
of fatty acids
Effects of entraining air bubbles:
 improve the durability of concrete’s resistance to surface scaling that may result in the use of
deicers
 improve workability and reduces or eliminates segregation and bleeding

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2. Water-reducing admixtures
- reduces the quantity of water to produce concrete of a given consistency or to increase the slump of
the concrete for a given water content.
- can also retard the setting time of concrete and entrain air
- increases strength since water is reduced provided cement content and slump are kept the same

Side effect:
 increases the drying shrinkage

3. Retarding admixtures
- used to retard the rate of setting of concrete due to high temperature

 High temperature can be reduced by cooling mixing water or the aggregates or both
Purposes of retarders:
 To offset the accelerating effect of hot weather on the setting of concrete
 To delay the initial set of concrete or grout when difficult or unusual conditions of placement
occur
Placing concrete in large piers and foundation
Cementing oil wells
Pumping grout or concrete over considerable distances
 To reduce water
 To entrain some air in concrete
Side effect:
 Reduces strength at early age

4. Accelerating admixtures
- used to accelerate strength development of concrete at an early age
- calcium chloride is the most commonly used accelerating admixture; it is added in solution form as
part of the mixing water to be assured of complete mixing
- amount added should be no more than 2% by weight of cement

Effects of calcium chloride overdose

 placement problem/rapid stiffening
 increase drying shrinkage
 corrode reinforcement
 cause loss of strength at later ages

Calcium chloride is not recommended under the ff conditions:

 in concrete subjected to alkali-aggregate reaction
 in nuclear-shielding concrete
 in floor slabs intended to receive dry –shake metallic finishes
 in hot weather

Other ways to accelerate strength development

 using type III high-early strength Portland cement
 lowering the water-cement ratio by increasing cement content
 curing at higher temperature

5. Pozzolans
- a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which in itself possesses little or no cohesion or no
cementitious values but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react
with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties
- used in concrete to help reduce internal temperatures like in massive structures
- used to reduce or eliminate potential expansion from alkali-reactive aggregates
- improves the sulfate resistance to concrete

Side effects:
 substantially reduce the 28-day strength of concrete thus requiring longer curing period in
favorable curing temperature

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 use of fly ash with excess amounts of carbon, silica, alkalis, sulfur, etc. can adversely affect the
strength, air content and durability of concrete

6. Workability agents

Conditions requiring improved workability:

 harsh fresh concrete due to certain aggregate characteristics such as particle shape, improper
grading or faulty mix proportions
 Concrete that is to be placed in heavily reinforced members or placed by pumping or tremie

- usual practice to increase workability is by increasing cement content or the amount of fine
aggregates
- the best workability agent is entrained air, it acts like a lubricant
- organic materials like algintes and cellulose derivatives when added to concrete with a given water
content will increase slump; it also serves as water-reducer, retarder and air-entraining admixtures
- finely divided materials is used if mixture is deficient in material passing the #50 and #100 sieves like
fly ash and natural pozzolans

7. Superplasticizers

Ways to produce a superplasticized concrete

 Flowing concrete – produced at normal water-cement ratios, but so workable that it can be
placed with little or no vibrations or compaction and still be free of excessive bleed water or
segregation
 High-strength concrete –produced at much lower than normal water-cement ratios and with
workability in the ranges specified for consolidation by internal vibration
- effect is of relatively short duration, 30 – 60 minutes and is followed by a rapid loss in workability

8. Dampproofing and Permeability –Reducing agents

- to achieve water-tight concrete it has to be sound, dense with water-cement ratio of less than 0.50 by
weight and it is properly placed and cured
- materials include soaps, stearates and petroleum products
- sometimes used to reduce the transmission of moisture through concrete that is in contact with water
or damp earth
- may not be effective when used in concretes that are in contact with water under pressure

9. Bonding admixtures
- are water emulsions of any several organic materials including rubber, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl
acetate, acrylics and butadiene-styrene copolymers
- are either added to the Portland cement mixtures or applied to the surface of the old concrete to
increase the bond strength between old and new concrete
- added to mixture in proportions equivalent to 5% to 20% by weight of cement
- prior to application, the surface must be dry, clean, sound, free of dirt, dust, paint and grease and at
proper temperature to achieve ultimate result

10. Grouting agents

- to stabilize foundations, fill cracks and joints in concrete works, cement oil wells, fill cores of masonry
walls, grout tendons and anchor bolts and preplaced aggregates

11. Gas-forming agents

- basically used to cause a slight expansion prior to hardening
- used in confined area in small quantities such as under machine bases or in post-tensioning ducts or
prestressed concrete
- also used in large quantities to produce lightweight cellular concrete of fresh mixture, the alkali
content of the cement and other variable

Supplement 3.2 – Curing Methods and Materials; Curing Period

Curing Methods and Materials:

1. Methods that maintain the presence of mixing water in the concrete during early hardening period

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a. Ponding or Immersion
- applied on flat surfaces like pavement, sidewalks, floor slabs
- used only on small jobs where earth or sand dikes are placed around the perimeter of the
concrete surface will hold a pond of water within the contained area

Caution: water used for curing by ponding or immersion must be free of substances that will stain or
discolor concrete if appearance is important

b. Spraying or Fogging
- application of fine mist continuously through the system of nozzles or sprays
- Ample water supply and careful supervision are required

Caution:
 concrete must be prevented from alternate cycles of drying and wetting since it causes
crazing or cracking
 concrete erosion must not occur for newly finished concrete

c. Wet Coverings

c.1. Burlap (Coarse cloth woven from jute, hemp or similar rough thread used for making sack or
rope)
- must be free of any substance that is harmful to concrete or may cause discoloration
c.2. Wet, moisture-containing fabrics
- placed as soon as concrete has sufficiently hardened to prevent surface damage
- coverings should be kept moist throughout the curing period
- entire surface should be covered including edges of slab
c.3. Wet coverings of sand, earth or sawdust
- placed in layer of 2 in (50 mm) thick and evenly distributed over the previously
moistened surface of concrete
- useful on small jobs, an effective method in keeping surface continuously wet

c.4. Wet hay or straw

- should be placed in layer at least 6 in (150 mm) thick and held down with wire screen,
burlap, tarpaulin or other means to prevent its being blown by wind
 Disadvantage of c.3 and c.4 is the possibility of discoloring the concrete that must be
considered when selecting a curing method

2. Methods that prevent loss of mixing water from the concrete by sealing the surface

a. Impervious paper
- consists of two sheets of kraft paper cemented together by a bituminous adhesive with fiber
reinforcement
- applicable to horizontal surfaces and structural concrete of relatively simple shapes
- does not require periodic addition of water

Application/Installation
applied as soon as concrete has hardened and thoroughly wetted
edges of adjacent sheets should be overlapped several inches and tightly sealed with
pressure-sensitive tape or bituminous cement
sheets must be weighted to maintain close contact with concrete surface
paper can be reused if it effectively retains moisture
- provides protection to the concrete against damage from subsequent construction activity

b. Plastic sheets
- use of polyethylene film which is lightweight and effective moisture barriers
- easily applied to complex as well as simple shapes similar to that of impervious paper
- causes discoloration
- available in clear and white opaque film, however black is available and satisfactory under some
condition

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- includes a sheet material consisting of burlap impregnated on one side with white opaque
polyethylene film

c. Membrane-forming curing compounds

- consists of waxes, resins, chlorinated rubber, and solvents of high volatility
- suitable not only for curing fresh concrete but also for further curing concrete after removal of
forms or initial moist curing
- applied immediately in usually one coating after the final finishing of concrete, by hand-operated
or power-driven spray equipment to give a smooth even coverage
- should not be used when bond is necessary for curing compounds can prevent bond between
hardened and fresh concrete; adhesion of paint or resilient flooring materials

Types:
c.1. clear or translucent – contains fugitive dye to assure complete coverage of the concrete surface
by visual check
c.2. white-pigmented – reduces solar-heat gain, reducing the concrete temperature

d. Forms left in place

- impervious forms provide satisfactory protection against loss of moisture if the top exposed
concrete surfaces are kept wet
- should be kept moist by sprinkling especially during hot, dry weather

3. Methods that accelerate strength gain by supplying heat and moisture to concrete

a. Steam curing
- advantageous where early strength gain is important or where additional heat is required to
accomplish hydration, as in cold weather

Two methods:
a.1. curing in live steam at atmospheric pressure – for enclosed cast-in-place structures and precast
concrete units
 tarpaulins are frequently used to form enclosure
 steam curing temperature above 180 oF (82 oC) should be avoided. This is uneconomical
and may result in undue reduction in ultimate strength
 excessive rates of heating and cooling should be avoided to prevent volume changes
from damaging the concrete
a.2. high-pressure-steam-autoclaves – for small manufactured units
 temperature ranges from 165 oC to 190 oC with corresponding pressure of 550 to 1170
kPa
 hydration is highly accelerated and the elevated temperatures and pressures can produce
additional beneficial chemical reaction between aggregates and cementitious materials
(this does not occur under normal steam curing)

b. Insulating Blankets or Covers

- used when temperatures fall below 32 oF (0 oC)
- uses layers of dry, porous materials such as straw or hay serving as insulators
- formworks can be economically insulated with commercial blankets or batt insulation that has
tough moisture-proof covering
- insulating blankets are manufactured of fiberglass, sponge rubber, cellulose fibers, mineral wool,
vinyl foam, and open-cell polyurethane foam

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