SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939) Sigmund Freud, a Czech neurologist who practiced primarily in Vienna, is known as the

father of psychoanalysis and is associated with the psychosexual perspective on personality development. In Freud’s view,
human behavior and psychological functioning were motivated by two basic drives: sexuality and aggression. In his theory,
there are five stages through which individuals pass in psychological growth and development, each centered on sexual
impulses. These stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. In developing through the five stages, Freud held,
children progress from instinctual behavior, centered on getting the most basic needs met, to mature sexuality that is best
expressed in a loving relationship with a partner. Freud also conceptualized the personality as having three parts: • The
id, which exists from birth and is most prominent in the newborn baby, is the subconscious part. It is related to the
individual’s most basic needs and wants, such as the desire for food. • The ego is the rational, conscious part. It begins to
emerge later in infancy and helps the child relate to the realities of the environment and the constraints imposed by
others, without losing a healthy concept of self. For example, a young child cannot always be fed exactly when hunger
strikes, but most older toddlers who are well cared for will learn to wait a reasonable time for food, without losing trust
that their hunger will be satisfied. Selfactualization Needs Esteem Needs Love, Affection, & Belongingness Needs Safety
Needs Physiological Needs 14 The Pennsylvania Child Welfare Training Program • The superego can be thought of as
something like the conscience. Ideally, it acts as a guide to behavior. It is associated with morality. It is the ego’s job to
mediate between the demands of the id, which can be ruthless if allowed free rein, and those of the superego, which can
be overly harsh and restraining. A typical adolescent struggle between id and superego might, for example, revolve around
the issue of sex. While the basic desire for sex would come from the id, the superego might produce feelings of guilt. It
would be the ego’s job to consider both sides and resolve the dilemma. The individual who progresses ideally through the
stages of development will have a healthy ego that helps him or her interact well with others and with the environment,
while maintaining a sound sense of self. To attain such ego function, the individual needs appropriate support and
guidance from caregivers. Much of Freud’s theory has been challenged by later thinkers, partly because it grew out of a
male perspective and was generalized to women, in some ways harmfully. Karen Horney, Nancy Chodorow, and Carol
Gilligan, among other writers, have refuted Freud’s male-biased theory with a positive model of female development and
strength that builds on relationships. Freud’s theory also drew heavily on the memories of upper-class adults in a generally
repressed period, rather than on work with children, whose development it purports to outline. Today, too, it is apparent
that Freud neglected the importance of sociocultural influences and, by concentrating solely on early childhood
experience, the importance of later experience to development. Nevertheless, his work with disturbed clients formed the
basis of our “talking” therapies and some aspects of his theories (e.g., the triadic personality) are still foundations for
understanding human behavior.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as
discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper
nurturing and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck in, or fixated on, that stage. According to Freud, children’s
pleasure-seeking urges (governed by the id) are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each
of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

 Oral (0-1 years of age): During this stage, the mouth is the pleasure center for development. Freud believed this is
why infants are born with a sucking reflex and desire their mother’s breast. If a child’s oral needs are not met during
infancy, he or she may develop negative habits such as nail biting or thumb sucking to meet this basic need.
 Anal (1-3 years of age): During this stage, toddlers and preschool-aged children begin to experiment with urine and
feces. The control they learn to exert over their bodily functions is manifested in toilet-training. Improper resolution
of this stage, such as parents toilet training their children too early, can result in a child who is uptight and overly
obsessed with order.
 Phallic (3-6 years of age): During this stage, preschoolers take pleasure in their genitals and, according to Freud,
begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the opposite sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to fathers). For
boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy’s desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father
who is seen as a rival for the mother’s attention. At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for
his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety. The Electra complex, later proposed by Freud’s protégé Carl Jung,
involves a girl’s desire for her father’s attention and wish to take her mother’s place.
 Latency (6-12 years of age): During this stage, sexual instincts subside, and children begin to further develop the
superego, or conscience. Children begin to behave in morally acceptable ways and adopt the values of their parents
and other important adults.
 Genital (12+ years of age): During this stage, sexual impulses reemerge. If other stages have been successfully met,
adolescents engage in appropriate sexual behavior, which may lead to marriage and childbirth.

Erikson’s Theory
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development and
modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by
mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development. This mastery helps children grow into successful,
contributing members of society. During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be
successfully overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and expand upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson
proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial
theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage
there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of
competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development; certain cultures may need to
resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.

Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic
needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their
baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will
likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food,
toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish
independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old
child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation,
her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her
environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control
over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task
of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master
this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and
then support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are
unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of
guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare
themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in
their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they
don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers,
an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s
main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to
do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various
roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have
a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s
perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform
to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be
unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle
to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a
sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully
resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said
that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not
develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social
task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to
the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage,
middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they also
engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may
experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have
little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this
stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of
satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can
look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has
been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives
with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development states that our cognitive abilities develop through four specific stages.

The Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in the study of child development. He
developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they
explore and manipulate the world around them. Piaget was interested in the development of “thinking” and how it relates
to development throughout childhood. His theory of four stages of cognitive development, first presented in the mid-20th
century, is one of the most famous and widely-accepted theories in child cognitive development to this day.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget believed that as children grow and their brains develop, they move through four distinct stages that are
characterized by differences in thought processing. In his research, he carefully observed children and presented them
with problems to solve that were related to object permanence, reversibility, deductive reasoning, transitivity, and
assimilation (described below). Each stage builds upon knowledge learned in the previous stage. Piaget’s four stages
correspond with the age of the children and are the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal
operational stages.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development includes four stages:
sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Sensorimotor Stage

The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is characterized by the idea that infants “think” by manipulating the
world around them. This is done by using all five senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Children figure
out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such as pulling a lever on a music box to hear a sound, placing a block in a bucket
and pulling it back out, or throwing an object to see what happens. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object
permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling,
2000). For example, a child learns that even though his mother leaves the room, she has not ceased to exist; similarly, a
ball does not disappear because a bucket is placed over it.

By the end of this stage, children are able to engage in what Piaget termed deferred imitation. This involves the ability to
reproduce or repeat a previously-witnessed action later on; rather than copying it right away, the child is able to produce
a mental representation of it and repeat the behavior later on. By 24 months, infants are able to imitate behaviors after a
delay of up to three months.

Preoperational Stage

The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7. During this stage, children can use symbols to represent words,
images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings
as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Language development
and make-believe play begin during this stage. Logical thinking is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or
understand more complex ideas. Children at this stage are very egocentric, meaning they focus on themselves and how
actions will impact them, rather than others. They are not able to take on the perspective of others, and they think that
everyone sees, thinks, and feels just like they do.

Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11. It is characterized by the idea that children’s reasoning
becomes focused and logical. Children demonstrate a logical understanding of conservation principles, the ability to
recognize that key properties of a substance do not change even as their physical appearance may be altered. For example,
a child who understands the principles of conservation will recognize that identical quantities of liquid will remain the
same despite the size of the container in which they are poured. Children who do not yet grasp conservation and logical
thinking will believe that the taller or larger glass must contain more liquid.

Piaget determined that in this stage, children are able to incorporate inductive reasoning, which involves drawing
inferences from observations in order to make a generalization. In contrast, children struggle with deductive
reasoning, which involves using a generalized principle in order to try to predict the outcome of an event.

Formal Operational

The formal operational stage occurs from age 11 to adulthood. It is characterized by the idea that children develop the
ability to think in abstract ways. This enables children to engage in the problem-solving method of developing a hypothesis
and reasoning their way to plausible solutions. Children can think of abstract concepts and have the ability to combine
various ideas to create new ones. By the end of this stage, children have developed logical and systematic thinking, are
capable of deductive reasoning, and can create hypothetical ideas to explain various concepts.

Beyond Formal Operational Thought

As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget’s ideas have been challenged by later
research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than
Piaget’s discrete stages (Courage & Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive
milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia & Spelke, 2010).

Many developmental psychologists suggest a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage
(Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on
situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts.
One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations
is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.

It seems that once we reach adulthood, our problem-solving abilities change: as we attempt to solve problems, we tend
to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1999).
Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-
solving strategies using postformal thought vary depending on the situation. Adults can recognize, for example, that what
seems to be an ideal solution to a disagreement with a coworker may not be the best solution for a disagreement with a
romantic partner.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kolhberg’s theory of moral development states that we progress through three levels of moral thinking that build on our
cognitive development.

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of
children. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used the
idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys
about morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which discusses
the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a
dilemma that determines positive moral development.

After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people’s responses and placed them in different
stages of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality
(before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional
morality (once Piaget’s idea of formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve. Each level of
morality contains two stages, which provide the basis for moral development in various contexts.

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development: Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional,
conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.
Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the
rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or
internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences
that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience -and- Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an action is perceived as morally
wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived
to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes
to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it
might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but
rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents
to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children
continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive
relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s
appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior
and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society.
Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable
and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one
person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most
active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional

Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and
values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a
growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent
with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include
such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral
evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with
that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level
of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually
respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those
that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is
theoretically based on stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally, the chosen
principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only
insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way,
the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their
best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he
found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and the origination of human
intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. First, through
interaction with others, and then integrated into the individual’s mental structure. Every function in the child’s cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical
memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.
(Vygotsky, 1978, p.57) A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development is
limited to a "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). This "zone" is the area of exploration for which the student is
cognitively prepared, but requires help and social interaction to fully develop (Briner, 1999). A teacher or more
experienced peer is able to provide the learner with "scaffolding" to support the student’s evolving understanding of
knowledge domains or development of complex skills. Collaborative learning, discourse, modelling, and scaffolding are
strategies for supporting the intellectual knowledge and skills of learners and facilitating intentional learning. Figure 11 :
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult
guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers.”

BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems
theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. He labeled
different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including the microsystem, the
mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem and the chronosystem. The microsystem is the small, immediate
environment the child lives in. Children's microsystems will include any immediate relationships or organizations they
interact with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or daycare. How these groups or organizations
interact with the child will have an effect on how the child grows; the more encouraging and nurturing these relationships
and places are, the better the child will be able to grow. Furthermore, how a child acts or reacts to these people in the
microsystem will affect how they treat her in return. The mesosystem describes how the different parts of a child's
microsystem work together for the sake of the child. For example, if a child's caregivers take an active role in a child's
school, such as going to parent-teacher conferences and watching their child's soccer games, this will help ensure the
child's overall growth. In contrast, if the child's two sets of caretakers, mom with step-dad and dad with step-mom,
disagree how to best raise the child and give the child conflicting lessons when they see him, this will hinder the child's
growth in different channels. The exosystem level includes the other people and places that the child herself may not
interact with often herself but that still have a large effect on her, such as parents' workplaces, extended family members,
the neighborhood, etc. For example, if a child's parent gets laid off from work, that may have negative effects on the child
if her parents are unable to pay rent or to buy groceries; however, if her parent receives a promotion and a raise at work,
this may have a positive effect on the child because her parents will be better able to give her physical needs. The
macrosystem is the largest and most remote set of people and things to a child but which still has a great influence over
the child. The macrosystem includes things such as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural
values, the economy, wars, etc. Finally, the chronosystem is the patterning of environmental events and transitions over
the life course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances.
The MICROSYSTEM is the setting in which the individual lives.
The MESOSYSTEM is about the relations between microsystems or connections between contexts.
The EXOSYSTEM links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s
immediate context.
The MACROSYSTEM is defined as the culture in which individuals live.
The CHRONOSYSTEM is the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as
sociohistorical circumstances.