ITEM NO.

1: PRELIMINARY CONSTRUCTION

After the road has been approved and financing found, surveyors define its

three-dimensional location on the ground. Forming of the in-situ material to its required

shape and installation of the underground drainage system can then begin. Imported

pavement material is placed on the natural formation and may have water added;

rollers are then used to compact the material to the required density. If possible, some

traffic is permitted to operate over the completed earthwork in order to detect weak

spots.

In countries where labour is inexpensive and less skilled, traditional manual

methods of road construction are still commonplace. However, the developed world

relies heavily on purpose-built construction plant. This can be divided into equipment

for six major construction purposes: clearing, earthmoving, shaping, and compacting the

natural formation; installing underground drainage; producing and handling the

road-making aggregate; manufacturing asphalt and concrete; placing and compacting

the pavement layers; and constructing bridges and culverts.

For clearing vegetation and undesirable materials from the roadway, the bulldozer

is often employed. The construction of rock cuts is commonly done with shovels,

draglines, and mobile drills. Shaping the formation and moving earth from cuttings to
embankments is accomplished with bulldozers, graders, hauling scrapers, elevating

graders, loaders, and large dump trucks. The material is placed in layers, brought to the

proper moisture content, and compacted to the required density. Compaction is

accomplished with tamping, sheeps-foot, grid, steel-wheeled, vibrating, and

pneumatic-tired rollers. Backhoes, back actors, and trenchers are used for drainage

work.

In order to avoid high haulage costs, the materials used for base course

construction are preferably located near the construction site; it is economically

impossible to use expensive materials for long lengths of road construction. The

excavation process is the same as for rock cuts, although rippers may be used for

obtaining lower-grade material. Crushers, screens, and washers produce stone of the

right size, shape, and cleanliness.

The placement of paving material increasingly involves a paving machine for

distributing the aggregate, asphalt, or concrete uniformly and to the required thickness,

shape, and width (typically, one or two traffic lanes). The paving machine can slipform

the edges of the course, thus avoiding the need for fixed side-forms. As it progresses

down the road, it applies some preliminary compaction and also screeds and finishes

the pavement surface. In modern machines, level control is by laser sighting.

 In producing a spray-and-chip seal surface (or a bituminous surface treatment), a

porous existing surface is covered with a film of hot, fluid bitumen that is sprayed in

sufficient quantity to fill voids, cracks, and crevices without leaving excess bitumen on

the surface. The surface is then sprayed with a more viscous hot bitumen, which is

immediately covered with a layer of uniform-size stone chips spread from a dump truck.

The roadway is then rolled to seat the stone in the sticky bitumen, and excess stone is

later cleared by a rotary broom.

ITEM NO.2: CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Before any construction starts the roadway must be cleared of debris. Unless there

are specific reasons, agreed to by the Engineer in writing, all materials including trees,

grass, crops and structures, which fall within the road alignment must be removed.

Also all major stumps and roots need to be removed (grubbed out) and the holes

left must be filled with compacted suitable fill material.

Clearing and grubbing is a crucial phase in any kind of land development. Whether

you are demolishing an existing structure or preparing a new site for construction, you

will likely need to clear and grub the site before it is ready for pipelines and residential

or commercial development.
 After a site has been surveyed and demolition (if necessary), vegetation and surface

debris are removed by clearing and grubbing the site. Clearing refers to the removal of

all vegetation, while grubbing is the removal of roots that may remain in the soil. This

includes the removal of all logs, brush, and debris, as well as grinding and removal of

stumps. Once completed, the site is ready for grading and drain installation.

Clearing and grubbing is not a simple task to undertake. There is an extensive list

of heavy machinery necessary to perform all of the functions involved: bulldozers,

scrapers, dump trucks, and compactors, just to name a few. This stage in site

development should only be handled by experienced professionals who know to

account for underground utilities, overhead wires, and even erosion control.

Battle Axe Construction provides expertise for clearing and grubbing as well as

every other phase of site development, from demolition to grading, construction

material recycling to landscaping. Start your project with a solid foundation: contact

us today.
ITEM NO. 3: MOUNTING

Mounting gives the road its shape. During this stage, a combination of excavation

machinery and bulldozers are used to move and mount dirt and soil across the road.

The road takes shape as diggers, excavation plant machinery and bulldozers mount

dirt and soil over the area where the future pathway will run. The surface is then leveled

and smoothed by graders. Culverts and drains, consisting of large concrete pipes, are

laid to prevent the road from flooding by leading away groundwater, sewage or

stormwater.
ITEM NO. 4: FINE GRADING

Fine grading requires construction workers to prepare the surface by leveling it

according to plans provided by structural engineers. Fine grading requires manual

labour and digging as well as grading plant machinery, also called graders. To make the

grading last, it is stabilized with limestone or concrete.

 Achieving finish grades is typically made possible by finish grade stakes placed by

the surveyor. On the stake will be a cut or fill notation and an indicator showing where

the final grade should be, allowing the contractor to subtract the depth of the pavement

material to acquire top of aggregate base elevation. The amount and location of the

stakes required is typically a function the installing contractors preference as to what

helps him complete the work most efficiently and accurately. Perimeter stakes are

typically sufficient for smaller areas. Larger areas with lots of slopes, drainage structures,

and high/low points will require intermediary ‘temporary’ stakes.

A more modern day form of layout involves the use of GPS software which actually

indicates to the grader/dozer operator, what the elevation and angle of the blade on the

machine needs to be for proper design pavement elevation.

A pavement aggregate base is most commonly ‘roughed’ in with a dozer. In theory,

pavement bases more than 6″ in thickness should be compacted in more than one lift,

as roller compaction efforts are really only effective to a 4-6″ depth depending on the

machine size, weight, and vibratory capability.

Once a pavement base material is rough placed, the next step is to fine grade the

top inch or two to set the stage for the finish pavement grades to be brought to correct
elevations. Ideally the rough aggregate base will be brought to +/- 1″. The scope of the

fine grading work will be to either cut or fill the material to match as close as possible to

the finish pavement elevations, less the thickness of the proposed pavements. Finish

grading work is most commonly done with a grader and a roller following behind.

Finish grading is typically separated from rough grading and mass aggregate

placement for several different reasons. One reason is that it is sometimes performed

by two separate companies. One contractor will install the rough aggregate base, and

the contractor installing the pavement will complete the aggregate base work by fine

grading prior to his pavement. This allows more control for the paving contractor, and

also helps alleviate any disagreements about the final base elevations being completed

at incorrect grades and affecting pavement thickness.

For smaller hard to reach areas and minor trimming/filling, it can also be useful to

have a small track or rubber tired skidsteer on site. Stone box attachments and GPS

are handy add-ons for skidsteer loaders.

ITEM NO. 5: AGGREGATE BASE
 After another grading of the surface, the aggregate base course is laid. Aggregate

base is made of crushed stone or gravel, and it is placed evenly on the road surface. If

the road is in a town or city, a curb for the pavement and the gutter will be constructed

straight after the gravel is placed on the surface. The road is then fine graded again.

Aggregate base is a construction aggregate typically composed of crushed rock

capable of passing through a 20 millimetres (3⁄4 in) rock screen. The component

particles will vary in size from 20 mm down to dust. The material can be made of virgin

(newly mined) rock, or of recycled asphalt and concrete.

Base is used as a base course in roadways, as a base course for cement pads and

foundations, and as backfill material for underground pipelines and other underground

utilities.

"Base course" refers to the sub-base layer of an asphalt roadway. Generally

consisting of larger grade aggregate, spread and compacted to provide a stable base for

further layers of aggregates or asphalt pavement. Aggregate base course is often

referred to as ABC.
ITEM NO. 6: ASPHALT PAVING

Once the gravel has been distributed evenly, the asphalt can be poured. Asphalt is a

mixture of a petroleum byproduct, an aggregate base material and a sticky, gluelike

substance called bitumen. Depending on the expected traffic on the road, up to four

layers of asphalt can be placed on top of each other. The asphalt usually is produced and

mixed in large plants after the engineer's specifications. The hot asphalt is filled into

trucks that transport the material to the construction site where it will be poured

immediately. Before the last layer of asphalt is poured, the sidewalks and gutters have

to be finished. The construction work is concluded by placing the appropriate road signs

at the places specified by planners and the application of road markings.

Asphalt concrete (commonly called asphalt, blacktop, or pavement in North

America, and tarmac, bitumen macadam, or rolled asphalt in the United Kingdom and

the Republic of Ireland) is a composite material commonly used to surface roads,

parking lots, airports, as well as the core of embankment dams. Asphalt mixtures have

been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the twentieth century. It

consists of mineral aggregate bound together with asphalt, laid in layers, and
compacted. The process was refined and enhanced by Belgian inventor and U.S.

immigrant Edward De Smedt.

The terms asphalt (or asphaltic) concrete, bituminous asphalt concrete, and

bituminous mixture are typically used only in engineering and construction documents,

which define concrete as any composite material composed of mineral aggregate

adhered with a binder. The abbreviation, AC, is sometimes used for asphalt concrete but

can also denote asphalt content or asphalt cement, referring to the liquid asphalt

portion of the composite material.

ITEM NO. 7: DRAINAGE

The primary purpose of a road drainage system is to remove the water from the

road and its surroundings. The road drainage system consists of two parts: dewatering

and drainage. “Dewatering” means the removal of rainwater from the surface of the

road. “Drainage” on the other hand covers all the different infrastructural elements to

keep the road structure dry. In Sweden “dewatering” is further divided into two parts:

runoff (“avrinning”) and dewatering (“avvattning”). “Runoff” covers the water flowing

from the surface of the pavement via road shoulders and inner slopes to the ditches.
“Dewatering” covers the collection and transport of water from the surface and

structure of the road so that there will be no ponds on the road or in the ditches.

ITEM NO. 8: FINANCING

n the last two decades there has been an increased contribution of the private

sector, through some form of public-private partnership (PPP), to finance transport

infrastructure in general, and roads in particular, in both the developed and developing

worlds. Such contribution has helped several countries to maintain, rehabilitate and

expand their road networks, including the construction of new motorways, bridges and
tunnels. Some governments have increased the public contribution to potential PPP

road projects to make them attractive to private investors. Such support may take the

form of grants (or subsidies) to project construction, as well as availabilitypayments and

operational grants or minimum revenue guarantees during the operational phase of the

PPP project.

Nevertheless, there are projects that will not be able to attract private financing and

will have to be financed with only public funds. The main objective of this paper is to

provide an overview of the most commonly used means to charge road users to

generate financial resources for supporting PPP projects or to finance totally public

projects. Such charges include inter alia fuel taxes, vehicle taxes, vignettes, and tolls.

A brief survey of road user charging systems in selected European countries is

presented. Consideration is given to different forms of PPP, including a review of

potential application of the World Bank Toolkit for PPP in Roads and Highways as an

instrument to help decision-makers and practitioners to define the best PPP approach

for a specific country. Developing and transition economies can also take advantage of

guarantees offered by international financial institutions, an example of which is the

World Bank's partial risk guarantees that can increase a project's attractiveness to

private investors through lower interest rates and longer maturities of loans.
ITEM NO. 9: MAINTENANCE

The life of a road structure depends on the quality of its maintenance and minor

renovation. Maintenance keeps the roadway safe, provides good driving conditions, and
prolongs the life of the pavement, thus protecting the road investment. Maintenance

consists of activities concerned with the condition of the pavement, shoulders, drainage,

traffic facilities, and right-of-way. It includes the prompt sealing of cracks and filling of

potholes to prevent water entering through the surface, the removal of trash thrown on

the wayside by the traveling public, and the care of pavement markings, signs, and

signals. In rigorous winter climates, substantial effort is required to remove snow and

ice from the pavement, to scatter salt for snow and ice removal, and to spread sand for

better traction.

Maintenance of roads is undertaken to ensure the safety of traffic and to sustain

the serviceability and appearance of the road. Road maintenance involves remedying

defects such as potholes that occur in the carriageway from time to time (corrective

maintenance) and providing treatments such as crack sealing which will slow the rate of

deterioration (preventative maintenance).

Typical maintenance activities include:

Crack filling and sealing.

Minor reshaping.

Minor sealing.
 Minor stabilising.

Pot hole patching.

Surface correction.

Sweeping.

Resealing

Resealing is carried out every summer as part of a planned (road) pavement

maintenance programme. Resealing, repairs defects in the existing road surface and

reduces the rate of further deterioration.

The two main types of reseal treatments carried out are bitumen resealing

(chipseals) and asphalt resurfacing (hot mix).

Seal extensions

Auckland Transport is responsible for the provision of seal extensions for the region.

Unsealed roads are prioritised for seal extensions using a set of guidelines that consider

factors such as traffic flow, dust nuisance, accident history and the number of properties

adjacent to the road.

 The outcome is a ranking of all the unsealed roads against the available budget in

the Auckland Council Long-term Plan. A 10-year seal extension programme is then

produced based on how many of these highest priority roads can be sealed with present

funding levels.
ITEM NO. 10: DEMOLITION AND REMOVAL

The first step in the asphalt installation process is to remove the existing surface,

whether it is asphalt, concrete or pavers.

Demolition and removal is completed using heavy machinery, including small

bobcats and forklifts and when necessary, front loaders and large dump trucks.

Debris is removed and in most instances, Wolf Paving recycles the old asphalt and

concrete in our asphalt plants, turning deteriorating waste into strong, usable new

asphalt.

In fact, Wolf Paving typically recycles nearly 100% of the materials removed from a

job site, making the choice to use Wolf Paving both green and environmentally friendly.
 Demolition, or razing, is the science and engineering in safely and efficiently tearing

down of buildings and other man-made structures. Demolition contrasts with

deconstruction, which involves taking a building apart while carefully preserving

valuable elements for reuse purposes.

For small buildings, such as houses, that are only two or three stories high,

demolition is a rather simple process. The building is pulled down either manually or

mechanically using large hydraulic equipment: elevated work platforms, cranes,

excavators or bulldozers. Larger buildings may require the use of a wrecking ball, a

heavy weight on a cable that is swung by a crane into the side of the buildings. Wrecking

balls are especially effective against masonry, but are less easily controlled and often

less efficient than other methods. Newer methods may use rotational hydraulic shears

and silenced rock-breakers attached to excavators to cut or break through wood, steel,

and concrete. The use of shears is especially common when flame cutting would be

dangerous.
ITEM NO. 11: GRADING AND SLOPING

With a clean slate, technology helps Wolf Paving asphalt professionals prepare the

surface for appropriate water drainage.

Using laser guided transits and automatic motor graders, the Wolf Paving team

grades the surface to be paved to ensure that water will run-off appropriately. Proper
water drainage is vital to your asphalt, because water is a major cause of damage,

including potholes, cracks and heaving.

Grading and sloping are necessary when the elevation of a structure is below the

grade of the existing soil or landscaping. In other words: it's important to ensure that

surface water flows away—and not towards—your home. Improper grading can allow

water to pool in your yard and around your foundation, leading to potential problems

down the road.

If you believe that water is collecting around your home, you are at risk for serious

basement leakage or foundation damage. Ram Jack® has been providing high-quality

foundation repair and drainage services to homeowners for more than 40 years. Our

foundation contractors are prepared to assess your property and ensure that your home

does not sit at a vulnerable low point.

ITEM NO. 12: PREPARING SUB-BASE
 You’d never guess that the most important part of your new asphalt surface is

actually the sub base.

The sub base provides a stable surface to support new pavement. The sub base is a

frost barrier to help reduce winter damage due to freezing and thawing. During the

installation, base thickness, base stability and compaction are important steps. If the sub

base is not appropriately compacted, the asphalt surface on top will not provide years of

durability.

Before a pavement is placed the surface to be paved must be prepared. Adequate

surface preparation is essential to long-term pavement performance. Pavements

constructed without adequate surface preparation may not meet smoothness

specifications, may not bond to the existing pavement (in the case of overlays) or may

fail because of inadequate subgrade support.

Preparing the subgrade and granular base course for new pavement. This can

involve such activities as subgrade stabilization, over-excavation of poor subgrade,

applying a prime coat or compacting the subgrade.

Preparing an existing pavement surface for overlay. This can involved such activities

as replacing localized areas of extreme damage, applying a leveling course, milling,

applying a tack coat, rubblizing or cracking and seating an underlying rigid pavement,

and replacing localized areas of extreme damage.

Specific actions for each method depend upon the pavement type and purpose,

environmental conditions, subgrade conditions, local experience and specifications.

Anything that can be done to increase the load-bearing capacity of the subgrade soil

will most likely improve pavement load-bearing capacity and thus, pavement strength

and performance. Additionally, greater subgrade structural capacity can result in thinner

(but not excessively thin) and more economical pavement structures. Finally, the

finished subgrade should meet elevations, grades and slopes specified in the contract

plans.
 ITEM NO. 13: PROOF ROLL, UNDERCUTTING AND

SUB-BASE REPAIR

Once the sub base is fully graded and compacted, Wolf Paving completes an extra

step, called a proof roll, to ensure the underlying surface is strong and ready to support

new asphalt.

A Wolf Paving proof roll involves driving a quad-axle dump truck, loaded with

72,000 pounds, row by row over the entire surface.

If the gravel flexes more than an inch under the weight of the truck, it means that

the base is not properly supported.

If the proof roll finds soft areas in the sub base, Wolf Paving makes the necessary

repairs in compromised areas to ensure the entire sub base is supportive.

Undercutting can be used to repair soft spots. This process involves digging down

below the surface 2 or 3 feet and replacing the underlying soft clay or soil with stronger

aggregate material.
 Wolf Paving also offers alternative options, like using geo-grid, instead of

undercutting. Using geo-grid involves digging only 16 inches below the surface and

laying grid down to bridge base materials together. This creates a solid support

structure for new asphalt at a fraction of the cost of traditional undercutting.

Wolf Paving has also pioneered a new process called plowing. This process involves

undercutting the sub base, but instead of removing all of the soft clay and soil, it is

instead mixed with added aggregate to improve the strength of the compromised areas.
ITEM NO. 14: BINDER AND SURFACE COURSE

Once the sub base is laid and any soft areas are identified and repaired, it is time to

add the binder. The binder layer is large aggregate mixed with oil, making it very strong

and durable. The binder layer can be thought of as the strength of any new asphalt

surface.

The wearing course is the upper layer in roadway, airfield, and dockyard

construction. The term 'surface course' is sometimes used, however this term is slightly

different as it can be used to describe very thin surface layers such as chip seal. In rigid

pavements the upper layer is a portland cement concrete slab. In flexible pavements,

the upper layer consists of asphalt concrete, that is a construction aggregate with a

bituminous binder. The wearing course is typically placed on the binder course which is

then laid on the base course, which is normally placed on the subbase, which rests on
the subgrade. There are various different types of flexible pavement wearing course,

suitable for different situations.

ITEM NO. 15: INSTALLING NEW ASPHALT SURFACE

Once the supportive structures of a new asphalt surface are installed, the top layer

of fresh asphalt is added to provide a clean, smooth ride. Surface asphalt is made up of

small aggregate, sand and oil. This combination of materials creates jet-black asphalt

that when installed appropriately, provides a smooth ride and a shiny, attractive

finished surface.

Asphalt, also known as bitumen (UK: /ˈbɪtjʊmɪn/, US: /bɪˈtjuːmən, baɪ-/), is a sticky,

black, and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in

natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a pitch. Before the 20th
century, the term asphaltum was also used. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek

ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos.

The primary use (70%) of asphalt is in road construction, where it is used as the glue

or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses

are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt and for

sealing flat roofs.

The terms "asphalt" and "bitumen" are often used interchangeably to mean both

natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, "asphalt" (or

"asphalt cement") is commonly used for a refined residue from the distillation process

of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called "bitumen",

and geologists worldwide often prefer the term for the naturally occurring variety.

Common colloquial usage often refers to various forms of asphalt as "tar", as in the

name of the La Brea Tar Pits.

Naturally occurring asphalt is sometimes specified by the term "crude bitumen". Its

viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the

fractional distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C (977 °F) is sometimes referred to as

"refined bitumen". The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of
natural asphalt in the Athabasca oil sands, which cover 142,000 square kilometres

(55,000 sq mi), an area larger than England.

Asphalt properties change with temperature, which means that there is a specific

range where viscosity permits adequate compaction by providing lubrication between

particles during the compaction process. Low temperature prevents aggregate particles

from moving, and the required density is not possible to achieve.

ITEM NO. 16: BUTT JOINTS AND TRANSITIONS

It is very rare to install an asphalt surface that does not connect to existing

driveways, roadways or parking lots. As such, asphalt-paving contractors must find a

way to smooth the transition from old surface to new.

Butt joints are areas were old asphalt or concrete meets new asphalt pavement.
 These transitional areas require special attention to ensure that the grading and

water run-off is appropriate.

Butt joints are important to ensure drivers and pedestrians don’t notice a difference

in the surfaces.

Asphalt Butt Joints deform over time and require time-consuming installation.

TempRamps won't deform like asphalt and can withstand extended use. With

TempRamps, one person can quickly and easily complete the installation. And,

TempRamps last through multiple usages.

ITEM NO. 17: GRAVEL ROAD METHOD

A gravel road is a type of unpaved road surfaced with gravel that has been brought

to the site from a quarry or stream bed. They are common in less-developed nations,

and also in the rural areas of developed nations such as Canada and the United States.
In New Zealand, and other Commonwealth countries, they may be known as 'metal

roads'. They may be referred to as 'dirt roads' in common speech, but that term is used

more for unimproved roads with no surface material added. If well constructed and

maintained, a gravel road is an all-weather road.

Compared to sealed roads, which require large machinery to work and pour

concrete or to lay and smooth a bitumen-based surface, gravel roads are easy and

cheap to build. However, compared to dirt roads, all-weather gravel highways are quite

expensive to build, as they require front loaders, dump trucks, graders, and roadrollers

to provide a base course of compacted earth or other material, sometimes

macadamised, covered with one or more different layers of gravel. Graders are used

used to "blade" the road's surface (pass frequently to mix and distribute the gravel) to

produce a more extreme camber compared to a paved road to aid drainage, to produce

an "A" shaped surface to the road called a "crown"[3], as well as to construct drainage

ditches and embankments in low-lying areas. Cellular confinement systems can be used

to prevent the washboarding effect.

Construction of a gravel road begins with the base or subgrade layer. The expected

road traffic volume and the average daily truck passage must be considered during the

design process as they will influence the thickness of this layer, along with the balances

of gravel and fines. Geotextile fabric may be laid to improve the stability of the subgrade
layer. When geotextile fabric is used, a gravel layer with a minimum thickness of 6" (15

cm)[4] is suggested to ensure the fabric remains unexposed. Road construction

guidelines suggest that the crown in the road surface begins at the center point in the

road, and does not exceed a 4% gradation from the center to the edge of the

roadway[5].

The surface layer is constructed atop the subgrade layer. The amount of

precipitation is taken into consideration for the selection of gravel size distribution. The

surface layer will follow the crown established by the subgrade layer. Scarification of the

subgrade layer prior to application of the surface gravel layer can be performed to

increase the mixing and adherence between layers. Construction of the road surface is

done gradually through multiple applications of layers of gravel, with compaction prior

to the addition of the following layer. During reparation of a damaged road, ensuring

that any washboarding, rutting, potholes, and erosion is adequately removed will

minimize future need for reparation. Windrowing can be performed along the edges of

roads in dry climates to allow easy access to gravel material for small repairs.
 ITEM NO. 18: WATER BOUND MACADAM ROAD

METHOD

WBM road is known after John Macadam, Surveyor General of Road in England in

1827, who was the first to introduce this particular road. In the present day, the term

macadam means the pavement base course constructed by broken aggregates that are

interlocked mechanically by rolling and voids filled with screening and binding materials

with the help of water. The WBM is used as a sub-base, base course or surface course.

The thickness of each layer ranges from 7.5 cm to 10 cm depending on the size of

aggregates used. To prolong the life of WBM road, a bituminous surfacing is provided.

Construction procedure involves preparation of foundation, provision of literal

confinement, spreading of coarse aggregates, rolling, application of screening, sprinkling

and grouting, application of binding material, and setting and drying.

These roads are constructed since very ancient days. The roads having its wearing

surface consisting of clean, crushed aggregates, mechanically interlocked by rolling and

bound together with a filler material and water, laid on a prepared base course is called

Water Bound Macadam(W.B.M) road. This is constructed as village road serves as a base
for bituminous roads. In most of the roads projects, in the first phase, W.B.M roads are

constructed and when the funds are available, the surfacing is done with the premix

carpet bituminous macadam or cement concrete. So a water-bound macadam road is

considered as the mother of all types of road construction.

WBM is superior in quality because the materials are carefully graded and the

resulting mass is almost void less compacted mass.

-The interlocking of aggregate particles imparts adequate strength of the materials

selected for filling the voids. These ensure non-entry of the plastic materials of the

sub-grade into the voids. Water bound macadam is less costly as compared to

bituminous base course.

ITEM NO. 19: BITUMINOUS ROAD METHOD

A bituminous road is an asphalt concrete road, although it is rarely called a

bituminous road where I come from. Bitumen is by definition any of various natural

substances, such as asphalt, consisting of mainly hydrocarbons.

Asphalt is different from asphalt concrete. Asphalt concrete is the end product

that you see on a bitumen road. Asphalt, also known as bitumen, is a sticky black
and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in natural

deposits or may be a refined product; it is a substance classed as a pitch.

The primary use (70%) of asphalt/bitumen is in road construction, where it is used

as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other

main uses are for bituminous water-proofing products, including production of roofing

felt and for sealing flat roofs.

ITEM NO. 20: CONCRETE AND CEMENT ROAD

METHOD

Concrete roads fall under the category of high quality/superior type of roads built

with cement concrete. These pavements may or may not be provided with

sub-base/base courses, and they may be constructed directly over a well-compacted soil
subgrade. They derive their strength to support the wheel-loads of traffic from their

flexural strength and are capable of bridging any weak spots in the layer over which they

are placed.

However, provision of a sub-base/base course under cement concrete pavements

will enhance their performance significantly; thus a well-designed and well-constructed

cement concrete pavement is a rigid pavement capable of providing trouble-free high

quality riding surface for high-volumes and heavy traffic loads for as long as 30 to 50

years. Portland cement concrete is well understood in its engineering behaviour and

hence, a concrete pavement can be designed on a rational basis.

The primary drawback of this type of road is its high initial cost, although its

economic cost (initial cost plus maintenance cost) over its design life is attractive.

Further, it calls for the highest level of quality control at all stages – material selection,

mix design, placement, compaction, joint-provision and curing.