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Mastering CAD/CAM
Ibrahim Zeid
Northeastern University
•
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
NEW DELHI
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III McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Special Indian Edition 2007
Adapted in India by arrangement with The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York
Sales territories: India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Bhutan
MASTERING CAD /CAM
Copyright © 2005, by The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.
Fifteenth reprint 2014

RXBBRRDUDZXZL
All rights reserved no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic,
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McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
ISBN (13 digit): 978-0-07-063434-3

ISBN (10 digit): 0-07-063434-3
.:
Published by Mcflraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited,
P-24, Green Park Extension, New Delhi 110 0 16; typeset in Times at
Script Makers, 19, AI-B, DDA Market, Paschim Vihar,
New Delhi 110063 and printed at Ram Book Binding House,
Delhi 110020
Cover: A P Offset
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Abe Zeid is a professor of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering at Northeastern

University. He is the recipient of both the Northeastern Excellence in Teaching Award and
the SAE Ralph R. Teetor Educational Award. Professor Zeid is the author or co-author of
many publications in journals and conference proceedings. He has been a guest of foreign
governments and a keynote speaker to many organizations throughout the world. Professor Zeid
teaches a variety of subjects in different fields including CAD/CAM, object-oriented design
and concepts , and Internet and information systems fundamentals. Dr. Zeid has written four
books including this one. The other three are CAD/CAM Theory and Practice (McGraw-Hill),
Mastering the Internet and HTML (Prentice Hall), and Mastering the Internet, XHTML, and
JavaScript (Prentice Hall). He is a fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
To the memory ofmy parents
who taught me life by doing
Brief"Contents
Preface xxv
Part I: Using CAD/CAM Systems

Chapter 1 Introduction 3
Chapter 2 3D Modeling and Viewing 27
Chapter 3 Modeling Aids and Tools 67 ,
Chapter 4 Engineering Drawings 101
Chapter 5 CAD/CAM Programming 121
Part II: Geometric Modeling

Chapter 6 Curves 149
Chapter 7 Surfaces 239
Chapter 8 NURBS 323
Chapter 9 Solids 345
Chapter 10 Features 409
vii
viii Brief Contents
Part III: Computer Graphics

Chapter 11 Graphics Display 443
Chapter 12 Transformations 461
Chapter 13 Visualization 501
Chapter 14 Computer Animation 553
Part IV: Product Design and Development

Chapter 15 Mass Properties 577
Chapter 16 Assembly Modeling 615
Chapter 17 Finite Element Method 669
Chapter 18 Product Data Exchange 735
Chapter 19 Collaborative Design 759
Part V: Product Manufacturing and Management

Chapter 20 Engineering Tolerances 775
Chapter 21 Process Planning 843
Chapter 22 Part Programming 861
Chapter 23 Product Lifecycle Management 903
Index 919
Contents
Preface xxv
Part I: Using CAD/CAM Systems
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Product Life Cycle 5
1.3 Scope of CAD/CAM 7
1.4 CAD/CAM Systems 8
1.5 CAD/CAM Applications 9
1.6 Acquiring a CAD/CAM System 10
1.7 Getting Started 12
1.8 Tutorials 13
1.8.1 Getting Started 13
1.8.2 Use FrP and Telnet Sessions Together 23
PROBLEMS 25
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 The Three Modeling Approaches 30
2.3 Types of Geometric Models 33
2.4 Coordinate Systems 35
ix
x Contents
2.4.1 Model Coordinate System 35

2.4.2 Working Coordinate System 37
2.4.3 Screen Coordinate System 40
2.5 Sketching and Sketch Planes 41
2.6 Parameters and Dimensions 43
2.7 Basic Features 45
2.8 Datum Features 51
2.9 Geometric Constraints 52
2.10 Modeling Operations 52
2.11 Heterogeneous Modeling 53
2.12 Modeling Strategies 53
2.13 Master Model 54
2.14 System Modes 55
2.15 Model Viewing 56
2.16 VRML Web-Based Viewing 57
2.17 Tutorials 58
2.17.1 Create a Rectangular Plate 58
2.17.2 Create a Base Plate 59
'2.17.3 Create a Support Bracket 60
2.17.4 Create a Golf Ball 61
PROBLEMS 62
Chapter 3 Modeling Aids and Tools 67
3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Geometric Modifiers 69
3.3 Layers 71
3.4 Colors 74
3.5 Grids 74
3.6 Groups 77
3.7 Dragging and Rubber Banding 77
3.8 Clipping 77
3.9 Entity Selection Methods 78
3.9.1 Individual Entity 78
3.9.2 All Displayed Entities 78
3.9.3 Groups 79
3.9.4 Enclosing Polygon or Window 79
3.9.5 Chaining Contiguous Entities 80
3.10 Entity Verification and Copying 80
Contents xi
3.11 Geometric Arrays 81

3.12 Transformations . : .
83
3.13 Geometric Measurements 83
3.14 Offsetting 85
3.15 Editing 87
3.15.1 Entity Trimming 87
3.15.2 Entity Division 89
3.15.3 Entity Stretching 90
3.15.4 Entity Editing c. ,' , " " ',
- . :~
.,:' . ' .. 91
3.16 Tutorials 91
3.16.1 Create a Spur Gear 91
3.16.2 Create a Telephone 94
,; , "
PROBLEMS 97
Chapter 4 Engineering Drawings "
101
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2 Drawing Structure 104
4.3 Model and Drawing Associativity 105
4.4 Drawing Content 105
4.5 Methods of Angle of Projection 106
4.6 Types of Views 108
4.7 Types of Dimensions 110
4.8 Annotations 111
4.9 Tolerances 112
4.10 Dimensioning Rules 112
4.11 Editing Drawings . ~ .
113
4.12 Tutorials 113
4.12.1 Create a Drawing 113
4.12.2 Use Drawing and Model Associativity 115
PROBLEMS 116
Chapter 5 CAD/CAM Programming . 121
5.2 Relational and Object Databases 123
5.3 Object Definition 127
5.4 Object Concepts 128
5.4.1 Classes 129
5.4.2 Instantiation 129
.) .'.
xii Contents
5.4.3 Membership Access 129

5.5 Inheritance 130
5.6 Parametric Design and Objects 131
5.7 Programming Levels 132
5.8 Macros 135
5.9 Programming the CAD and CAM Interface 137
5.10 Java 3D 138
5.11 Tutorials 142
5.11.1 Create Primitives Using Java 3D 142
PROBLEMS 144
Part II: Geometric Modeling
Chapter 6 Curves 149

6.2 Curve Entities 151
6.3 Curve Representation 157
6.4 Analytic Curves 162
6.5 Lines 162
6.6 Circles 172
6.7 Ellipses 181
6.8 Parabolas 188
6.9 Hyperbolas 192
6.10 Conies 193
6.11 Synthetic Curves 196
6.12 Hermite Cubic Spline 198
6.13 Bezier Curve 201
6.14 B-Spline Curve 207
6.15 Curve Manipulations 216
6.15.1 Evaluating Points on Curves 216
6.15.2 Blending 217
6.15.3 Segmentation 218
6.15.4 Trimming 219
6. 15.5 Intersection 220
6.15.6 Transformation 220
6.16 Tutorials 221
6.16.1 Create a Guide Bracket 221
Contents xiii
6.16.2 Create a Stop Block 224

PROBLEMS 226
Chapter 7 Surfaces 239
7.2 Surface Entities 241
7.3 Surface Representation 247
704 Surface Analysis 250
704.1 Tangent Vectors 251
704.2 Twist Vectors 252
704.3 Normal Vectors 253
7.4.4 Distance Calculations 253
7.4.5 Curvatures 254
7.4.6 Tangent Planes 255
7.5 Analytic Surfaces 257
7.6 Plane Surface 257
7.7 Ruled Surface 260
7.8 Surface of Revolution 262
7.9 Tabulated Cylinder 263
7.10 Synthetic Surfaces 265
7.11 Hermite Bicubic Surface 265
7.12 Bezier Surface 268
7.13 B-Spline Surface 272
7.14 Coons Surface 275
7.15 Blending Surface 282
7.16 Offset Surface 283
7.17 Triangular Patches 283
7.18 Surface Manipulations 284
7.18.1 Displaying 284
7.18.2 , Evaluating Points and Curves on Surfaces 286
7.18.4 Trimming 287
7.18.5 Intersection 287
7.18.6 Projection 288
7.19 Tutorials 291
7.19.1 Create a B-Spline Surface and Solid 291
7.19.2 Create a Surface arid Solid of Revolution 293
' .'
xiv Contents
7.19.3 Design a Pipe Elbow 294

7.19.4 Create a Magician Hat 294
7.19.5 Edit and Control Surfaces 295
7.19.6 Create a Slipper 297
7.19.7 Create an Air Conditioning Duct 302
7.19.8 Create a Household Fan 304
7.19.9 Create a Hair Dryer 306
7.19.10 Create Free-Form Springs 312
PROBLEMS 315
Chapter 8 NURBS 323
8.2 Basics 325
8.2.1 The Knot Vector 327
8.2.2 The Weights 328
8.3 Curves 330
8.4 Lines 331
8.5 Arcs 332
8.6 Circles 335
8.7 Bilinear Surface 342
8.8 Ruled Surface 343
PROBLEMS 343
Chapter 9 Solids 345
9.2 Geometry and Topology 348
9.3 Solid Entities 349
9.4 Solid Representation 353
9.5 Fundamentals of Solid Modeling 355
9.5.1 Set Theory 355
9.5.2 Regularized Set Operations 361
9.5.3 Set Membership Classification 367
9.6 Half-Spaces 370
9.6.1 Basic Elements 370
9.6.2 Building Operations 371
9.6.3 Remarks 374
9.7 Boundary Representation (B-rep) 374
Contents xv
9.7.2 Euler Equations 378

9.7.3 Curved and Faceted B-rep Models 381
9.7.5 Remarks 382
9.8 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) 383
9.8.1 CSG Trees 383
9.8.3 Surface/Surface Intersection 389
9.8.5 The Neighborhood Concept 393
9.8.6 Remarks 395
9.9 Sweeps 395
9.9.3 Remarks 397
9.10 Solid Manipulations 397
9.10.1 Displaying 397
9.10.2 Evaluating Points, Curves , and Surfaces on Solids 397
9.10.4 Trimming and Intersection 398
9.10.6 Editing 398
9.11 Tutorials 398
9.11.1 Use Solid Trees 398
9.11.2 Create a Candy Dish 401
PROBLEMS 404
Chapter 10 Features 409
10.2 Feature Entities 412
10.3 Feature Representation 423
10.4 Three-Dimensional Sketching 423
10.5 Parametrics 424
10.6 Relations 425
10.7 Constraints 428
10.8 Feature Manipulations 431
10.9 Tutorials 432
10.9.1 Create a Sweep Feature 432
xvi Contents
10.9.2 Create a Loft Feature 433

10.9.3 Create a Spiral Feature 435
10.9.4 Create a Helical Spring 436
10.9.5 Create a Rib Feature 438
PROBLEMS 439
Part III: Computer Graphics
Chapter 11 Graphics Display 443

11.2 CRT 446
11.3 Flat Screen CRT 448
11.4 Analog Flat Panel Displays 448
11.5 Digital Flat Panel Displays 450
11.6 Raster Displays 451
11.7 Specifications 452
PROBLEMS 457
Chapter 12 Transformations 461
12.2 Formulation 463
12.3 Translation 464
12.4 Rotation 465
12.4.1 Rotation About Coordinate System Axes 465
12.4.2 Two-Dimensional Rotation About an Arbitrary Axis 467
12.4.3 Three-Dimensional Rotation About an Arbitrary Axis 468
12.5 Scaling 473
12.6 Reflection 475
12.7 Homogeneous Representation 478
12.8 Concatenated Transformations 481
12.9 Mapping of Geometric Models 485
12.9.1 Translational Mapping 485
12.9.2 Rotational Mapping 486
12.9.3 General Mapping 487
12.10 Inverse Transformations 490
12.11 Projections 492
12.11.1 View Definition 493
12.11.2 Orthographic Projections 494
Contents xvii
12.11.3 Isometric Projections 496

12.11.4 Perspective Projections 497
PROBLEMS 498
Chapter 13 Visualization 501
13.2 Model Cleanup 503
13.3 Hidden-Line Removal 505
13.3.1 Visibility of Object Views 505
13.3.2 Visibility Techniques 507
13.3.3 Sorting 5.14
13.3.4 Coherence 515
13.3.5 Formulation and Implementation 515
13.3.6 Sample Hidden-Line Algorithms 516
13.3.7 Hidden-Line Removal for Curved Surfaces 522
13.4 Hidden-Surface Removal 523
13.4.1 The z-Buffer Algorithm 523
13.4.2 Warnock's Algorithm 524
13.5 Hidden-Solid Removal 524
13.5.1 Ray-Tracing Algorithm 525
13.6 Shading 534
13.6.1 Shading Models 536
13.6.2 Shading Surfaces 539
13.6.3 Shading Enhancements 542
13.6.4 Shading Solids 545
13.7 Colors 548
13.7.1 Color Models 549
PROBLEMS 550
Chapter 14 Computer Animation 553
14.2 Conventional Animation 555
14.3 Computer Animation 557
14.4 Engineering Animation 558
14.5 Animation Types. 559
14.5.1 Frame-Buffer Animation 559
14.5.2 Real-Time Playback 561
14.5.3 Real-Time Animation 562
xviii Contents
14.6 Animation Techniques 562

14.7 Keyframe Technique 563
14.7.1 Skeleton Algorithm 564
14.7.2 The Path of Motion and P-Curves 565
14.7.3 Inbetweening Utilizing Moving Point Constraints 566
14.8 Simulation Technique 571
14.9 Animation Problems 571
PROBLEMS 572
Part IV: Product Design and Development

Chapter 15 Mass Properties 577
15.2 Geometric Properties 579
15.2.1 Curve Length 579
15.2.2 Cross-Sectional Area 581
15.2.3 Surface Area 585
15.2.4 Volume 586
15.3 Mass Properties 589
15.3.1 Mass 589
15.3.2 Centroid 589
15.3.3 First Moments of Inertia 590
15.3.4 Second Moments and Products of Inertia 590
15.3.5 Property Mapping 592
15.4 Properties Evaluation 596
'15.5 Properties of Composite Objects 606
'15.6 Mass Properties on CAD/CAM Systems 607
PROBLEMS 612
Chapter 16 Assembly Modeling 615
16.2 Assembly Modeling 617
16.3 Assembly Tree 618
16.4 Assembly Planning 618
16.5 Mating Conditions 621
16.6 Bottom-Up Assembly Approach ' 625
16.7 Top-Down Assembly Approach 633
16.8 Testing Mating Conditions 642
16.9 Assembly Load Options 642
-Contents xix
>. 16.10 Managing Assemblies 642

16.11 Working with Subassemblies 643
16.12 Inference of Position and Orientation 643
16.12.1 WCS Method 644
16.12.2 Mate Method 646
16.12.3 Solving the Mate Equations 651
16.13 Assembly Analysis 657
'. 16.14 Tutorials 660
16.14.1 Gillette MACH3 Razor Assembly 660
PROBLEMS . 663
.Chapter 17 Finite Element Method 669
17.2 Finite Element Procedure 671
17.3 Finite Element Analysis 673
17.4 Development of Integral Equations 674
17.4.1 Variational Approach 674
17.4.2 Method of Weighted Residuals 683
17.5 Finite Elements 686
17.5.1 Element Shape 686
17.5.2 Element Nodal Degrees of Freedom 688
17.5.3 Element Design 689
17.5.4 Element Shape Function .. _., 694
17.5.5 Element Equations Using the Vari~tion~l Approach 698
17.5.6 Element Equations Using Weighted Residuals 704
17.6 Assembly of Element Equations 705
17.7 Applying Boundary Conditions 709
17.8 Nodal External Applied Loads 710
17.9 Finite Element Solution 710
,. 17.10 Dynamic and Nonlinear Analyses 711
17.11 Accuracy of Finite Element Solutions 712
17.12 Isoparametric Evaluation of Element Matrices 713
17.12.1 Element Mapping 713
17.12.2 Shape Functions by Inspection 715
17.12.3 Evaluation of Element Matrices 717
17.13 Finite Element Modeling 720
17.14 Mesh Generation 723
17.15 Tutorials 724
xx Contents
17.15.1 Perform FEM/FEA on a CAD System 724

PROBLEMS 729
Chapter 18 Product Data Exchange 735
18.2 Types of Translators 737
18.3 IGES 739
18.3.1 Geometric Entities 740
18.3.2 Annotation Entities 741
18.3.3 Structure Entities 742
18.3.4 File Structure and Format 743
18.4 STEP 745
18.4.1 Architecture 746
18.4.2 Implementation 746
18.5 ACIS and DXF 747
18.6 Processors 748
18.6.1 Design and Implementation 748
18.6.2 Testing and Verification 749
18.6.3 Error Handling 750
18.7 Tutorials 751
18.7.1 Create IGES, STEP, ACIS, and DXF Files 751
PROBLEMS 756
Chapter 19 Collaborative Design 759
19.2 Distributed Computing 761
19.3 Intranets and Extranets · 762
19.4 Instant Messaging , 763
19.5 Virtual Reality Modeling Language i 764
19.6 Traditional Design . 764

19.7 Collaborative Design 765
19.8 Collaboration Principles 765
19.9 Collaboration Approaches 766
19.10 Collaboration Tools 768
19.11 Collaborative Design Systems 769
PROBLEMS 771
Contents xxi
Part V: Product Manufacturing and Management
Chapter 20 Engineering Tolerances 775

20.2 Need for Tolerances 777
20.3 Conventional Tolerances 778
20.3.1 Clearance Fit Tolerance Calculations 778
20.3.2 Interference Fit Tolerance Calculations 781
20.4 Fits and Limits 782
20.4.1 MMC and LMC 783
20.4.2 ANSI Calculations 784
20.4.3 ISO Calculations 787
··20.5 Tolerance Accumulation 788
20.6 Tolerance-CostRelationship 790
20.7 Surface Quality 791
20.8 Datums 794
20.9 Geometric Tolerances 798
20.9.1 Types of Geometric Tolerances 799
20.9.2 ANSI and ISO Symbols 801
20.9.3 Size Tolerances 802
20.9.4 Location Tolerances 803
20.9.5 Form Tolerances 809
20.9.6 Orientation Tolerances 810
20.9.7 ANSI Metric Tolerance Example 813
20.9.8 Use of Form Tolerances 813
20.10 Tolerance Practices in Drafting 814
20.11 Tolerance Practices in Manufacturing 815
20.12 Tolerance Modeling 816
20.13 Tolerance Representation 818
20.14 Tolerance Analysis 821
20.14.1 Worst-Case Arithmetic Method 823
20.14.2 Worst-Case Statistical Method 825
20.14.3 Monte Carlo Simulation Method 828
20.14.4 Other Methods 830
20.15 Tolerance Synthesis 831
20.15.1 Arithmetic Method 832
20.15.2 Statistical Method 832
20.15.3 Taguchi Method 833
xxii ',Contents
20.16 Tutorials 834

20.16.1 Create Conventional Tolerances 834
20.16.2 Create Geometric Tolerances 836
PROBLEMS 839
Chapter 21 Process Planning 843
21.2 Activities 845
21.3 Process Plan Development 846
21.4 CAPP 852
21.5 CAPP Benefits 854
21.6 CAPP Model 854
21.7 Architecture of a CAPP System " .':::' 855
21.8 CAPP Approaches , 856
21.8.1 Variant CAPP .. 856
21.8.2 Generative CAPP 857
21.8.3 Hybrid CAPP 858
21.9 CAPP Systems 859
PROBLEMS 859
Chapter 22 Part Programming 861
22.2 Integrating CAD, NC, and CAM 863
22.3 Preparing CAD Data for NC 864
22.4 Machine Tools 865
22.4.1 Description of Machine Tools ~65
22.4.2 Motions and Axes of Machine Tools , 866
22.4.3 Point-to-Point and Continuous-Path Machining 868
22.4.4 NC, CNC, and DNC 869
22.5 NC Programming 871
22.6 Basics of NC Programming '872
22.6.1 Machine Tool Coordinate System 872
22.6.2 Mathematics of ToolPaths 872
22.6.3 Machining Forces 872
22.6.4 Cutter Programming 873
22.6.5 Tool Offsets '874
22.6.6 Programming Steps 874
22.7 NC Programming Languages 876
Contents xxiii
22.8 G-Code and M-Code 877

22.9 APT Programming 880
22.9.1 Geometric Statements 881
22.9.2 Motion Statements 881
22.9.3 Auxiliary Statements 882
22.10 Toolpath Generation 885
22.11 Toolpath Verification 891
22.12 CAD/CAM NC Programming 892
22.13 Tutorials 892
22.13.1 Machine a Part 892
PROBLEMS 900
Chapter 23 Product Lifecycle Management 903
23.2 Product Information 905
23.3 PLM Framework 907
23.4 Benefits 909
23.5 Implementation 910
23.6 Enabling Technologies 911
23.7 Examples of Business Problems 912
23.8 Product Data Management 913
23.8.1 Motivation 913
23.8.2 Evolution of PDM Systems 913
23.8.3 Scope of PDM Systems 914
23.8.4 Benefits of PDM Systems 915
23.8.5 Implementing a PDM System 915
23.8.6 Software Capabilities 916
23.8.7 Software Functions 916
23.8.8 A Case Study 917
PROBLEMS 918
Index 919
Preface
"
OVERVIEW. This new book follows in the footsteps 'of my CAD/CAM Theory and
Practice (McGraw-Hill, 1991), which has been widely adopted and used throughout the worl4.
This new book, Mastering CAD/CAM, has been written to respond to many suggestions made
since the first book was published. It is also written to include the new concepts that have been
developed since 1991. Designed to meet the demands of both practice-oriented and
theoretically based courses, the book meets these conflicting demands by making CAD/CAM
systems its focus. It explains the functionalities of these systems in a generic and syntax-
independent fashion so that students can use their system of choice, and it relates the
mathematical developments and concepts to these systems to unravel their secrets.
The book achieves a mastery level in CAD/CAM by carefully balancing the breadth and
depth of topic coverage with the syntax-independent use of CAD/CAM systems. The book has
23 chapters, over 904 equations, over 328 figures, 562 screenshots from using different
CAD/CAM systems, 97 examples, 36 tutorials done on different CAD/CAM systems, 75
geometric models of parts and assemblies, 31 real-life objects modeled (including a golf ball,
razor, slipper, household fan, AC duct, universal joint, a telephone , a glass of wine, a spiral, a
spring, and a candy dish), 383 end-of-chapter problems, a comprehensive index, and three
appendices.
The book covers CAD/CAM systems and related software in a syntax-independent
fashion by focusing on their semantics, and not their syntax. The semantics of these systems are
the same although their syntax differs. The book uses and discusses three sets of software :
(1) CAD/CAM systems: SOLIDWORKS®, ProIENGINEER®, CATIA®, 'Unigraphics, 1-
DEAS®, CADKEY®, and AutoCAD ®; (2) Programming and graphics : Java™, Java 3D™, C,
C++, OpenGL®, DirectX®, VRML, FfP, Telnet , and Web browsers; (3) Symbolic equation
solvers: MATLAB®, Maple®, Mathcad'[, and Mathematica®.
xxv
xxvi Preface
The rationale behind this book is simple but effective . Students need a comprehensive and
complete source of CAD/CAM knowledge in order to become proficient in using any
CAD/CAM system . This knowledge includes understanding 3D modeling and viewing,
geometric modeling, computer graphics, and product design and manufacturing. Both students
and instructors should find this book useful, as it provides "one-stop shopping" for all their
learning and teaching needs.
The purpose and goal of this book is to present the fundamental concepts of CAD/CAM
and its tools in a generic framework. These concepts and tools are supplemented with examples,
tutorials, and problems to provide students with hands-on experience so that they can master the
concepts. The book strikes a delicate balance between subject depth and breadth, and between
generic and practical aspects of CAD/CAM. Regarding depth and breadth, the book covers the
basic topics about CAD/CAM. Regarding generic and practical aspects, the book relates the
generic concepts to their use in technology, software, and practical applications.
r FEATURES. This book has many pedagogical and content features :

• Eye-catching page design, and graphics design for section and example headings.
• Abundant figures and screen captures to illustrate concepts.
• Goal, objectives, and headlines at the start of each chapter.
• Tutorials and problems at the end of each chapter.
• Each example and tutorial has three pedagogical elements to allow interactivity and
deep understanding. Solution strategy describes the thinking behind the solution.
Discussion provides insight into the solution. Hands-on exercises ask the reader to
extend or modify the solution. This is a confidence builder during the learning process.
• Each example focuses on one chapter concept only, while each tutorial combines a few
chapter concepts together to provide a more practical application. Many tutorials' use
real-life objects to stimulate and motivate students.
• All topics are covered with depth and breadth.
AUDIENCE. This book fills an important need in the market. Students in

Mechanical and Industrial Engineering need a book that explains the subject matter in a simple,
yet comprehensive and coherent way with enough examples and hands-on tutorials. This book
offers concentrated knowledge to its readers so that they can find what they need very quickly.
Instructors need a book that provides them with enough topics, examples, tutorials,
problems, and pedagogy. For example, the instructor may use the examples and tutorials-in a lab
setting. The instructor can also access the book's companion website, located at http://
www.mhhe.comlzeidl. A solutions manual accompanies the book as well. .\
Professionals, usually pressed for time, need a book that they can use for self-teaching
purposes. They also need a book that provides them with answers to specific questions they may
have while using a CAD/CAM system. With this book, professionals can tap into its many
examples, tutorials, and concepts for answers.
Preface xxvii
ORGANIZATION. This book can be used in a series of semester courses-for

example, in a two undergraduate course sequence, or an undergraduate course followed by a
graduate course. The undergraduate coursers) can use Chapters 1 to 10, 16, 18, and 20. The
course can use two or three additional chapters, depending on the course's focus and philosophy.
For example, CAD courses can use Chapters 15, 17, and 19. CAM courses can use Chapters 21,
22, and 23. The coverage of Chapters 6 to 9 may exclude the mathematical rigor of these
chapters and focus more on the practice-oriented concepts. The graduate course can use chapters
1 to 14 with the mathematical rigor. In addition, courses with a CAD focus can use three more
chapters from Part IV, and CAM courses can use three more chapters from Part V.
The book is organized into five related parts. Part I covers the effective use of CAD/CAM
systems. This part develops the basic skills required for using
" , "
any commercial system. Part II
discusses, in detail, geometric modeling. Part III covers computet graphics concepts. Part IV
focuses on product design and development. Part V covers the manufacturing and management
concepts of products. This organization is beneficial in accommodating different course
requirements and readers' backgrounds.
The problems section is divided into three parts: theory, lab, and programming. The theory
and lab parts are ideal for practice-oriented courses. The theory and programming parts are ideal
for theoretically based courses.
The book is written in such a way that some chapters stand on their own; that is, the
chapters need not be taught sequentially. Such an appraoch accommodates different teaching
styles. For example, Chapter 12 may be covered before the chapters in Part II . Chapter 20 may
be covered following Chapter 4. Chapter 16 may be covered following Chapter 6, 7,8,9, or 10.
Similarly, the chapters in Parts IV and V can be covered in different order than that of the book.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. I am indebted to all of the people who helped

directly or indirectly to write this book. I would like to thank the.following reviewers for their
valuable comments, suggestions, and advice throughout the project. There is no doubt that their
suggestions have influenced and enhanced this book,
'Holly K. Ault, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
David Ben-Arieh, Kansas State University
Jan Helge Behn, Virginia Technological University
Rajesh N. Dave, New Jersey Institute of Technology
Hazim El-Mounayri, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis
Louis J. Everett, University of Texas-El Paso
Georges Fadel, Clemson University
Mustapha S. Fofana, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

xxviii Preface
Jaime Hemandez-Mijangos, University of Wisconsin-Platteville
Kent L. Lawrence, University of Texas at Arlington
Sang-Joon Lee, San Jose State University
Jami J. Shah, Arizona State University
Yin-Lin Shen, George Washington University
Dusan Sormaz, Ohio University , Athens
Silvanus J. Udoka , North Carolina A&T State University
Shih-Liang (Sid) Wang, North Carolina A&T State University
Chun Zhang, Florida A&M University
Jack G. Zhou, Drexel University
Thanks are due to the McGraw-Hill staff for their patience and professional help. The
valuable experience and vision of Jonathan Plant, Senior Editor, have permitted the successful
launch of the project. Thank you, Jonathan, for starting the project! His e-mail messages, phone
calls, and visits were crucial to getting the project started. I would also like to thank Amanda
Green, Developmental Editor, for handling the many facets of the production process. Our many
phone and face-to-face meetings were so important in keeping the project on schedule. Her
many communications with the production team were invaluable in getting a head start on the
project. Thank you, Amanda, for a job well done! The flexibility and vision of Jill Peter, Lead
Project Manager, allowed a very smooth and productive schedule. Thank you, Jill; for your
I
support, and best of luck in your new position! I would also like to thank Kay Brimeyer, Senior
Project Manager, for taking over the project and keeping us on track.
Many other individuals and organizations have been involved with the book in one form
or another. The copyeditor has done a superb job catching all my typos that even escaped my
spell checker. Interactive Composition Corporation has done an excellent job rendering the book
art. Rokusek Design, Inc. has done a great job designing the book cover. All my students,
graduate and undergraduate, and my assistants (TAs and RAs) have changed my views on the
CAD/CAM subject and the way I teach it over the years. Each time I think I got it, I only
discover that I am still missing something . The help of all of my students is reflected in this
book, be it an idea, an example, a tutorial, or a screen capture.
Last, but not least, very special thanks are due to my family and friends who supported me
from start to finish with their love, support, and encouragement, which are greatly appreciated.
Ibrahim Zeid
zeid@coe.neu.edu
. .
Northeastern Univeristy
Boston, Massachusetts
PAR T I
Using CAD/CAM Systems
T his part covers all the plumbing of CAD/CAM

systems, an important goal that students must achieve. This part helps put Parts II - V in context.
The goal of this part is to provide a solid and clear understanding of the basic concepts of using
CAD/CAM systems for -3'0 modeling and viewing. To achieve this goal, we accomplish the
following objectives:
1. Understand the intricate nature of CAD/CAM systems (Chapter 1)
2. Understand 3D modeling and viewing and the differences between the two (Chapter 2)
3. Understand the productivity tools offered by CAD/CAM systems (Chapter 3)
4. Understand the content and associativity of engineering drawings (Chapter 4)
5. Understand customizing CAD/CAM systems via macros/API programming (Chapter 5)
1
, :... ,' 1' , " .,
f
" , . J
t.
!.
CHAPTER ~ 1
Introduction
Understand and master the nature of

oA L ! CAD/CAM systems, their basic structure,
their
/
use in engineering tasks, and. their use
to create geometric models of simple parts.
a BJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should understand the following concepts:
• Product life cycle
• Scope of CAD/CAM
• CAD/CAM applications
• Acquiring CAD/CAM systems
• Installing CAD/CAM systems
• Becoming familiar with CAD/CAM systems
• GUIs and Help menus

• Demo parts
3
4 Introduction
~ Introduction
CAD/CAM has been utilized in engineering practice in many ways including drafting,
design, simulation, analysis, and manufacturing. CAD/CAM systems are commonly used in
daily engineering tasks. Engineering companies large and small acquire CAD/CAM systems
and train their engineers, either in-house or on a vendor's site, on how to use them. Sometimes
engineers use the brute-force approach to learn how to use a system . It is not uncommon for
different groups within the same company to use different CAD/CAM systems.
Experience and wisdom have it that CAD/CAM users become very inefficient in using
CAD/CAM systems unless they understand the fundamental concepts on which these systems
are built. This book covers all the concepts you need to know, without focusing on the syntax of
any single CAD/CAM system. However, we always guide you on how to apply these concepts
to your systems.
CAD/CAM is diverse subject, and the courses that teach it are more diverse. What should
we cover and how can we cover it? The answer to the first question defines the scope ofCAD/
CAM that we discuss in Section 1.3. This scope is primarily an outcome of the product life cycle
that we cover in Section 1.2. As these two sections reveal, CAD/CAM spans four major areas:
geometric modeling, computer graphics, design applications , and manufacturing applications . A
CAD/CAM course typically focuses on one or two of these areas.
The answer to the second question defines the method of subject delivery . Some courses
use CAD/CAM systems to illustrate the concepts, while others use more generic techniques
such as programming languages and graphics libraries .
This book covers the four major areas of CAD/CAM as it is used by professionals and
engineers in industry. It uses CAD/CAM systems as tools to explain and apply the concepts.
This approach provides the best of two worlds: concepts and practice. The book does not cover
the syntax of one system or another. It leaves the choice of a system to the reader. Some readers
may decide not to use a system at all.
4D Product Life Cycle

Figure 1.1 shows the life cycle of a typical product. The product begins with a need which
is identified based on customers' and markets' demands. The product goes through two main
processes from inception to a finished product: the design process and the manufacturing
process. Synthesis and analysis are the two main subprocesses of the design process. The
philosophy, functionality, and uniqueness of the product are all determined during synthesis.
During synthesis , a design takes the form of sketches and layout drawings that show the
relationship among the various product parts. These sketches and drawings can be created using
a CAD/CAM system or simply hand-drawn on paper. They are used during brainstorming
discussions among various design teams and for presentation purposes.
The analysis subprocess begins with an attempt to put the conceptual design into the
context of engineering sciences to evaluate the performance of the expected product. This
requires design modeling and simulation. An important aspect of analysis is the "what if'
6 Chapter 1 Introduction
questions that help us to eliminate multiple design choices and find the best solution to each
design problem. The outcome of analysis is the design documentation in the form of engineering
drawings (also known as blueprints).
The design process
j--- - -------- - -- --- ------ -------- -- ------ ------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
I I
: Synthesis :
: ,-- -------------- --- - - - ----, :
: I Design definitions , Collecting relevant .,,: 1: _ ,
~~
design informati on ri.1 .;
,
: I need i-+' specifications, and i-+'
: I requirem ents and feasibility study :
: l --. I
: I I
, Analysis I I
: r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -., I The CAD process I
: '-r-------------------------------------------------c------------1 1----------------------------- -----j I
+
I Design
commu'nication
I and documentation
I-- Design
evaluation
I-- I?e~ign.
optimization
... Design
analysis
:I
.,.j.
II
Desian
modelin~ and f--
simulation
Desig],n t'
conceptua IZl! IOn
:1
H-j-
:I
1_ _ _ _ _ _ 11 l 1
_ __ _____ ____ _ __ _________ _ _______ _____ ____ ___ _ _________ ___ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ ___ _ __ _ _ __ ___ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _J
,
- --- --- ------- - - -- ------- --------------- -------- -.----- --- . _- - ------------------.--- ------ -- ------- - -- - -
The manufacturing process
The CAM process

,.- - - -- - - -- -- - - -- - - - --- - - - -- - - - - -- - -- -- - ---- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - ----- -- - - - - -j,
I ,
i_Production _
: planning
I
I
Design and ,
r-- procurement ,
I
,----,:
of new tools I
Process Qualit y
plannin g i-+' .... Production i-+' control
-- Packaging ~ Shipping
Order
material
NC,CNC,
'-- DNC -
programm ing
'-- --1: Marketin g :f-+-----.........I

Figure 1.1 A typical product cycle.
The manufacturing process begins with the process planning and ends with the actual
product. Process planning is considered the backbone of the manufacturing process since it
attempts to determine the most efficient sequence in which to produce the product. A process
planner must be aware of the various aspects of manufacturing to plan properly. The planner
typically works with the blueprints and may communicate with the design team to clarify or
request changes in the design to fit manufacturing requirements. The outcome of the process
planning is a production plan, tools procurement, material order, and machine programming.
Other special manufacturing needs such as design of jigs and fixtures or inspection gages are
planned.
Once the process planning phase is complete, the actual production of the product begins.
The manufactured parts are inspected and usually must pass certain standard quality control
(assurance) requirements. Parts that survive inspection are assembled, packaged, labeled, and
shipped to customers. Market feedback is usuallyincorporated into the design process. With this
feedback, a closed-loop product cycle results, as Figure 1.1 shows.
~ Scope of CAD/CAM
The product cycle shown in Figure 1.1 serves as the basis upon which to define the scope
of CAD/CAM. The CAD process is a subset of the design process and the CAM process is a
subset of the manufacturing process. Engineers involved in the design process are usually
themselves the CAD designers who execute the CAD process. Similarly, manufacturing
engineers execute the CAM process.
At the core of the CAD and CAM processes is a geometric model of the product under
design. Activities of the CAD process include mass properties, finite element analysis,
dimensioning, tolerancing , assembly modeling, generating shaded images, and documentation
and drafting -Activities of the CAM process include CAPP (computer aided process planning),
NC (numerical control) programming, design of injection molds, CMM (coordinate measuring
machines) verifications, inspection, assembly via robots, and packaging.
The CAD process and its tools utilize three disciplines: geometric modeling, computer
graphics, and design. The CAM process utilizes the disciplines of CAD itself, manufacturing,
and'automation. Figure 1.2 shows these disciplines.
, i
, ". ~
CAD disciplines CAM disciplines
Design
~ Geometric
modeling
Computer
graphics
Manufacturing
Figure 1.2 CAD and CAM disciplines.

8 Chapter 1 tntroouctlon
~ CAD/CAM Systems .,
A CAD/CAM system is a complex application that requires both hardware and software.
The hardware is a computer (either a PC or a workstation) with a mouse and a keyboard. The
software is a computer program written in C or C++ as the primary language. Some other .;:
languages such as Scheme and Java are also used. For example, Acrs is written in C++ and uses
Scheme. The software has a multilayered GUI (graphical user interface) that provides user.~<,iVt ·
menus and icons that enables them to perform CAD/CAM activities from creating geon1~_
running analyses and computations . ' / : ~ ';
CAD/CAM software can run as a client/server or standalone application. A network is
required for the client/server mode. The software is installed on a central computer, the server,
and any computer, the client, connected to the network can run the software . The software
supports concurrent users (seats). Multiple users can access the softwareat the same time. ,This" -:
is the typical setup used in companies, laboratories , and academic institutions. The single .seat
(standalone) model, while less common, requires installing the software on each.computer , ,
that .
is intended to run it. Thus, the computer of each seat acts as client and server at the same ,ti~~~
Installing CAD/CAM software is .fairly easy. The software is a self-extracting file (file "
installs itself) that comes on a CD. Simply insert the ~D in a CD-ROM drive and-follow
instructions. Many CAD/CAM vendors offer student versions of their software for a reasonable
price. The student version is usually a subset of the full-blown commercial version.
CAD/CAM software utilizes a data structure to s~ve the geometry and topqlq,m;
(discussed later in the book) of geometric models. We refer to these models as solid mo4,l(J~.2h .. ,
parts. Throughout the book, we use the words geometric model, solid model, and part
interchangeably. We also use CAD/CAM and CAD interchangeably throughout the book. The
data structure is a well-defined storage scheme that stores model data. The physical file that
stores the model data in the format offered by the data-st~cture scheme is called a database.
Thus, a CAD database is the file that .stores the model information. Each file has a name and an
extension. The CAD user selectsa meaningful name that reflects the part stored in the file - for
example , block or piston. The file extension type is assigned by the CAD system; the CAD user
has no control over it. The file extension depends on the type of information it stores. Many
CAD systems use the .prt, .assem, and .dwg for part, assembly, and drawing files, respectively.
CAD systems have a steep learning curve associated with them. Some systems are
easier to learn than others. Nevertheless, new CAD users are faced with two challenging
problem s. First, they must learn the structure of the software our and where to find commands
when needed . Second, they must understand the concepts of 3D modeling and viewing , and how
to control geometric construction-a subject we cover in Chapter 2. Before using a CAD
system, users should learn the theoretical concepts of geometric modeling and computer
graphics that we cover in this book. Without these concepts, users tend to use the brute-force
approach by attempting to learn from the software GUI - a very counterproductive approach
that costs users and their companies large sums of money that are nevertheless hard to measure.
The loss is usually expressed in terms of delays and projects that take a lot longer to finish.
Learning and using one CAD system should help accelerate learning and using other
systems. The initial time investment pays dividends when you migrate from one system to
another, The training on one system should ease the transition to another system. The initial
learning experience includes both the concepts and the system syntax . Migrating from one
system to another does not change the concepts because they are independent of any system.
Only the syntax changes, which makes it more manageable for ~sers to adapt.
CAD/CAM software is designed to run on all platforms and operating systems (OSs),
including the four major ones: Unix, Linux, Windows, and Macintosh. However, SolidWorks is
a native Wi!1dows,appli,cation, that is, it only runs on the Windows OS. You buy the:software
that suits your e~istip.g,9~: :I~e software GUl is independent of the,OS to preventconfusing the
users.
. ..
,J;I.,owever:t he' lopk
_,)i ~>
,. .. ~'
.1
~!1~
~ J:~
feel of the GUl will differ somewhat between operating systems.
. ... 'J '." ' ._ .
For e?Ca,rnple, the look 3;l1:~ (eeJ,of a GUl running on Unix is different than its look and feel when
it runs on Windows. This is due to the fact that the rendering and display functions of a GUl
depend on libraries provided by each OS.
• CAD/CAM ;Applications
" t here are considerable 'numbers of applications for the various existing CAD/CAM
, 'T '
systems. Bach application hag-its own strengths .and is usually targeted toward a specific market
and group of
users. For example, there are mechanical, electrical, and architectural CAD and
CAM products. An inspection of these various systems reveals that they have a generic stni'chIre
and common modules . Awareness of such structure and modules enables users to better
understand system functions for both evaluation and training purposes. The major ayt;}i~kle "
modules are discussed here. ' "., \ / '
The. geometric engine (module) is the heart of a CAD/CAM system. Itprovides users
with ~icti~ns ' to, perform geometric modeling and construction, editing and manipulation of
existing geometry, drafting and documentation. The typical modeling operations that users cait'
engageinaremodel creation, cleanup, documentation , and printing/plotting. Shaded images can
be.~tP,eJ;~~eg ~s part of model documentation.
:,'~
·""The creation of a geometric model of an object represents a means and not a goal for
engineers. Their ultimate goal is to be able to utilize the model for design and manufacturing
purposes. The applications module achieves this goal. This module varies ,from one software
system to another. However, there are common applications shared by . most CAD/CAM
systems. Mechanical applications include mass property calculations, assembly analysis,
tolerance analysis and synthesis, sheet metal design, finite element modeling and analysis,
mechanisms ,analysis, animation techniques, and simulation and analysis of plastic injection
molding. Manufacturing applications include CAPP, NC, ClM, robot simulation, and group
technology.
The programming module allows users to customize systems by programming them to
fit certain design and manufacturing tasks. Chapter 5 covers this module in detail. Programming
10 Chapter 1 Introduction '
a CAD/CAM system requires advanced knowledge of the system architecture, its database
format, and a high-level programming language such as C, C++, Java, Scheme, or others.
The communications module is crucial if integration is to be achieved between the
CAD/CAM system, other computer systems, and manufacturing facilities. It is common to
network the system to transfer the CAD database of a model for analysis purposes or to transfer '
: . ~ '., ' ; -., ~lfi ·. \J" '~""
its CAM database to the shop floor for production. This module also serves the purpose of
translating databases between CAD/CAM systems using graphics standards such as IOES and
STEP.
The collaborative module is emerging as an outcome of the widespread of the \\Todd
Wide Web and the Internet. This module supports collaborative design. Various design teams in
different geographical locations can work concurrently on the same part, assembly, or drawing
file inreal time over the Web. One team can make changes that other teams can view and accept .
or reject. . ",: ---
The various CAD/CAM systems support engineering design, analysis, and manufacturlril '
applications. They all have a flexible pricing structure that allows customers to add.icn .- .... " "; ) ... .
applications as needed. A basic license for a system includes its geometric engine aii.d #Ias~~,;'
',+ ;1,,'~~-i;'..•
properties calculations. The majority of the vendors bundle their applications with the geometric
engine. SolidWorks, however, uses a different approach. It does not get inv()lved ......... :wJtp
applications. It redirects its customers to contact SolidWorks partners directly to acquire
applications from them. '"
'-Acquiring a CAD/CAM System "

Many CAD/CAM systems exist today. We classify them into four groups depending on
the market they serve and the tools, functionalities, and flexibility they provide. The four groups
are low end, midrange, high end, and specialized. We must admit that we run the risk of
misclassification as all CAD/CAM systems have been getting better over the years to' survive
competition. The classification is only a guide; it carries with it the history of the evolutionof
CAD/CAM systems. Low-end systems tend to target users who are not sophisticated andwhose
products are not complex; a typical product consists of a small number of parts whose geometry
is not complicated. These users tend to focus on basic geometric modeling and drafting.
Examples include AutoCAD, Autodesk Inventor, and CADKEY.
Midrange systems target users who have complex modeling needs. The number of parts
per product is large enough for midrange applications. Unlike low-end systems, midrange
systems support design and manufacturing applications. They either bundle them with the: '
geometric modeling engine or work with partners. Examples include SolidWorks , Pro/E, and
MasterCAM.
High-end systems are the legacy CAD/CAM systems that appeared in the 1970s arid
evolved over the years . These systems support the modeling, analysis, and manufacturing of
complex products such as airplanes, cars, and others'. Examples include Unigraphics, Parasolid,
Chapter 1 Introd uction 11
SDRC I-DEAS, and CATIA. Unigraphics , Parasolid, and I-DEAS are offered by EDS. CATIA
and SolidWorks are offered by Dassault Systems.
Specialized systems include ACIS (Spatial Corp.) and Parasolid (EDS). Each provides a
very robust and universal geometric modeling and graphics kernel (software) that companies
can license to build fully functional CAD/CAM systems. ACIS software serves as the core
kernel of these systems. SolidWorks and Unigraphics SolidEdge are ACIS-enabled systems ;
they use ACIS as their kernel.
Which of these systems should a company use? The wide variety of systems makes the
selection process rather difficult. CAD/CAM selection committees find themselves developing
long lists of guidelines to screen available choices. These lists typically begin with cost criteria
and end with sample models or benchmarks chosen to test system performance and capabilities.
In between comes other factors such as compatibility requirements with existing in-house
computers, prospective departments' that plan to use the system, and the credibility of
CAD/CAM systems' suppliers. In addition, the background , skill level, and aptitude of
employees for new technology and its associated training must be considered carefully.
. The selection of a CAD/CAM system is greatly influenced by the size and the complexity
of the company seeking a system. The smaller the size of the company, the more specialized its
CAD/CAM needs and the less CAD/CAM power it needs. For example, a small consulting
agency tends to select an easy-to-use system' such as AutoCAD, CADKEY, SolidEdge, or
SolidWorks.
A midsize company would select from a number of systems such as SolidWorks, ProlE,
Unigraphics, I-DEAS, and CATIA, but often not with the PDM (product data management) or
other high-end software modules.
Large companies tend to buy the same CAD/CAM systems as the midsize entities, but
they acquire most, if not all, of the high-end applications including, PDM. Large organizations
can easily justify the up-front cost of these systems because they have complex products that
span many departments that must share and modify product data concurrently. This is where
PDM becomes a crucial CAD/CAM software module to have.
In contrast to many selection guidelines that may vary sharply from one organization to
another, the technical evaluation criteria are by and large the same. They are usually based on
and are limited by the existing CAD/CAM theory and technology. These criteria are ease of
using the system, the quality of documentation , software maintenance, support and service ,
geometric modeling capabilities, design and manufacturing applications, and programming
languages available for system customizing.
Once a CAD/CAM system is selected and acquired, it needs installation, training, use,
support, and maintenance . A system administrator installs it. Intended designers and users attend
either in-house or vendor training courses. CAD/CAM managers develop policies , guidelines ,
and standards that designers and engineers use daily to achieve their CAD/CAM tasks. The
system administrator is always in charge of maintaining the system, backing it up, and updating
it by installing new revisions that are released by the vendors.
Ongoing system support is important to the success and effective use of a newly acquired
CAD/CAM system. Users typically need help to adapt a CAD system to their company-specific
needs such as setting rules and conventions of filenames, part templates, and so forth.
4DGetting Started
When we acquire and install a CAD/CAM system, we are faced with the question of
where to start. The first goal of using a system should be simple; we would like to create a
simple part such as a box. Regardless of the specific CAD/CAM system that is used, follow the
steps shown in Table 1.1 to get started. Refer to the online users' and reference manuals for your
CAb/CAM system for specific instructions. You should also consult the online help system .
during the daily use. We also recommend that readers apply the generic ~.QJlcepts covered
.c» -« ,
throughout this book to their particular CAD/CAM systems.
Table 1.1 Steps for getting started on a CAD/CAM system.

Goal: log in, understand the system'GUI, use the Help menu, and try to use the system
Step Description
1. Get an account Contact the 'system administrator or manager to obtain an account:
a usemame and a password.
2. Log in Find a computer that can run the software; here we assume a client/server
configuration to run the software, and not a single user installation. This
computer is the client. Type the usemame and the password to log in.
3. Start software Ask the ,system administrator or manager how to start the CAD software.
Or ask for the OS-level command that is required to start up the CAD
software (program) . We essentially run the executable, like any other
program. For example type solidworks, proe, or ug in an as
window (Terminal in Unix) to run SolidWorks, ProlE or Unigraphics,
respectively. Windows (or Linux) provides a shortcut to the CAD
program, like all other programs. Simply double-click it, or click this
command sequence : S tart (Windows menu on the bottom left comer of
computer screen) => All Programs => select CAD program name.
4. Use GUI Take time and browse through the user interface, and become familiar
with it. It is similar to other programs such as Word or PowerPoint. There
should be a menu bar at the top of the software window with menus such
as File Edit View, and so forth. Each menu has menu items-
I I
for example, File has New, Open, and so forth. Try to locate the menu
or buttons (icons) that create geometry.
5. Get help Become familiar with the online Help menu located at the extremeright
of the menu bar. Help comes in handy for consultation while using the
CAD system. It is the online documentation of the software.
table 1.1 Steps for getting started on a GAD/CAM system. (Continued)

Goal: log in, Understand the system GUI , use the Help menu, and try to usethe system
Step Description
.- s
6. Change CAD/cAM systems use the English (inch) or metric (centimeter) system
database units as measurement units for model databases. Each CAD/CAM system uses
one measurement system as the default unit for its databases. Make sure to
change the database measurement unit before beginning construction. If
we forget to change the units before construction, there is no problem.
CAD/CAM systems allow users to change the database units even after a
model has been created. A user simply selects the desired measurement
unit and updates the model database.
7. Use system Use the brute-force approach to create a box (cube). Get help from
someone who knows how to drive (use) the system.
8. Print a copy Locate the Print function and print a hardcopy of the box model. Try
this sequence: File => Print.
9. Save part file Click this sequence: File => Save As => provide a part filename.
Make sure you specify the directory where you wish to save the part file.
We can also use buttons (icons) provided by the GUI to save.
10. Log out Log out, by using an Exi t function on the GUI (File => Exit), or
simply kill the window by clicking its x icon on the top right comer.'
~TutorialS
Throughout this book, tutorials serve as hands-on activities to illustrate the concepts we
cover in each chapter. The reader should do them using a CAD/CAM system of choice.
Coverage of the tutorials is done in a generic way that is independent of any system syntax. We
offer planning strategies and steps for how to create the geometric models of parts and
assemblies. The reader can translate these steps into commands and activities on a particular
CAD/CAM system . We have tested this approach extensively, and it works. The tutorials of this
book have been tested over the years using four major CAD/CAM systems: SolidWorks, ProlE,
Unigraphics, and CATIA. The version included in this book has been created using SolidWorks.
1.8.1 Getting Started
This tutorial shows how to implement some of the steps shown in Table 1.1. Let us
assume that you have logged in and have the CAD/CAM software up and running. Apply the
following concepts to your CAD/CAM system:
14 Chapter 1 tntroductlort .
1. Two ways to execute commands. We can either use the menubar approach or thetoolbar'
approach as shown in the following screenshots. Each of these approaches has advantages '
and disadvantages as shown below. .
Click this icon
to open a new file . Toolbar
Menubar Approach: Toolbar Approach:

Advantages: Advantages:
1. Commands are grouped and placed 1. Provides visual interaction through icons .
under menus. 2. One-click access to commands.
2. It does not occupy a lot of the Disadvantages:
modeling window space. 1. One must activate all the necessary toolbars. .~ .
3. Always available. 2. Makes the screen clumsy and reduces th,~ f
Disadvantages: modeling window space .
1. One must remember how the
commands are grouped together.
2. System-level customization. We can change system settings to fit our modeling needs
and environment, and save them . These settings affect the CAD/CAM system properties.
They apply to all models. System-level options that we can set include database colors,
drawing properties, and others as shown in the upcoming screenshot.
3. Document-level customization. Document-level settings allow users to independently
control the properties of each document. Users can access and change these properties
only when the document is open. Document-level options that we can set include units,
grid, image attributes, and others as shown in the forthcoming screenshot.
4. Modes of CAD/CAM systems. When we create a new file in a CAD system, the system
usually prompts us to select the mode in which we wish to create the new file, as shown in
the upcoming screenshot. The most common modes are Part mode, Drawing mode,
and Assembly mode. Other modes may exist, depending on the CAD system; such as
Simulation mode, Animation mode, Analysis mode, and Machinirig mode.

The screenshot on the right shows the common modes.
The relevance of selecting the right mode
IS that the CAD system will be configured
accordingly to select the right CAD module and
make available the commands that are applicable
to that mode. For example, if you select the
Part mode, the Assembly module and thus Assembly mode
the assembly commands will not appear because Part mode
you do not need them. Thus, mode selection
increases the efficiency of CAD systems and
reduces the time needed to create the model.
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5. Coordinate systems and sketch planes. Coordinate systems and sketch planes are the
most important concepts in a CAD system. They are used to input, store, and display
model geometry and graphics. The three coordinate systems that achieve these tasks are
Model (Master) Coordinate System (MCS), Working Coordinate System (WCS), and
Screen Coordinate System (SCS).
An MCS is the reference space of the model with respect to which all the model's
geometrical data is stored. In a CAD system MCS is generally shown by displaying the X, Y, and
Z axes. The orthogonal planes formed by the axes of MCS are datum planes, sketch planes, or
construction planes.
A WCS can be thought of as a portable coordinate system. It is often used when the
desired plane of sketching is not easily defined as one of the MCS planes. The user can define a
WCS (and thus a sketch plane) for such a condition and relate it to MCS using a transformation
matrix that allows geometric data to be stored with respect to MCS. In SolidWorks or Pro/E
there is no physical display ofWCS; however when you are creating/selecting sketch planes you
are essentially creating WCSs .
An SCS is a 2D device-dependent coordinate system whose origin is located at the lower

left corner of the screen. It is mostly used in view-related clicks such as definitions of view
origin and select views for graphics operations.
Sketch planes, datum planes, or construction planes , as different CAD systems call them,
is also one of the most important concepts in CAD that complements coordinate systems.
Sketch planes are the orthogonal planes created by the axes of MCS or WCS . They can also be
other planes in any orientation. Creating/selecting a sketch plane is the very first step toward
creating a CAD model. Moreover, one has to repetitively create/select sketch planes throughout
modeling activities. How your CAD model will be oriented in 3D space depends on which
sketch plan you use for sketching. As one may have figured out by now, a sketch plane is a
plane that we sketch on. The following screenshot shows MCS and sketch planes of a typical
CAD/CAM system.
6. Sketching (2D operations). In item 5 we said that the first step in CAD modeling is creat-
ing/selecting the sketch plane ; we now proceed to the next step in CAD modeling -
sketching. CAD systems offer many sketching commands/tools, which allow us to create
various 2D shapes using geometrical entities such as lines, circles, arcs, fillets, rectangles,
and chamfers . All CAD systems offer these sketching tools. The upcoming screenshot
shows SolidWorks sketching tools as an example. They can be accessed by clicking the
Sketch icon (identified in the following screenshot) after selecting a sketch plane.
This display indicate s that - - - - - - .

we are currently in the sketch
LtJ. "
.,
mode. Thus the icons in the Sketch icon - ---,;-,.;U'
sketch toolbar are active.
Toolbar approach
7. Modeling (3D operations). Now that weknow how to create sketches using the sketch
tools provided by a CAD system, we can take the sketches that we create and apply
various 3D operations to them to obtain various features and surfaces which we call CAD
models. CAD systems offer many 3D operations for both solids and surfaces such as
extrusion, revolve, cut, holes, ribs, chamfers, fillets, sweeps, and lofts. These commands
can be selected using the menubar or toolbar approach. It is important to know at this stage
that 3D operations may require more than one sketch in order to completely define the
feature or surface. We shall see these in the tutorials of the chapters that will follow.
CAD models can be classified into three types from a geometric construction point of
view: 2Y2D models, 3D models, and a combination of both.
2Vill models are the ones that have uniform cross section and thickness in a direction
perpendicular to the plane of the cross section. Axisymmetric models also fall under this
category . Models that are made up of many 2Y2D features also fall into this category; however
just to distinguish them we may call them composite 2Y2D models.
2Yill models are simple to create and use simple commands such as extrude and revolve.
The creation of a 2Yill model follows two steps. First, we create the model cross section in a
sketch plane. Second, we extrude the cross section if the model has uniform thickness, or we
revolve it if it is an axisymmetric model. The upcoming screenshots show sample 2Y2D models.
I
Uniform thickness models Axisymmetric model Composite model
Sample 2 1/2D models
3D models are the ones that do

not have a uniform cross section and/or
do not have. a constant thickness
. . Such
models usually require more than one
sketch in different sketch planes and
use advanced commands such as sweep
and loft. The screenshots on the right
show two 3D models.
As we have seen, creating a 2Y2D
model is usually much easier than creating a
3D model. It is important to visualize/
interpret if a model can be created as a 2Y2D
model because this may affect the ease with
which a model can be created-whether we
should use simple/fewer commands or
advanced/more commands. Consider the
model shown in the screenshot on the right.
If we realize that cross section is the one in
Top view then it is a simple extrude
command (2Y2D), but if one creates a
rectangle in Front view and extrudes it,
then a cut is also required for the tapered
face, making the model creation more
complex. Front view
8. Viewing. Once we create a model
using 3D operations applied to sketches, or while in the process of creating models and
sketches, CAD systems allow us to view those models in many different ways. Most of the
viewing operations on a CAD system can be classified into three groups : view orientation,
view modes, and view manipulations.
View orientation includes standard views

such as front, top, right, and isometric . They
basically align the model on-screen in a way
that displays the selected view. SolidWorks, for example, provides the view orientation toolbar
shown here.
View modes allow us to change the display of the
model to different types such as wireframe, hidden, or
shaded. In SolidWorks one can access these through the
toolbar shown on the right.
View manipulations allow us to
dynamically rotate, pan, and zoom the model to
gain better control over its viewing. In
SolidWorks one can access these through the toolbar shown here.
9. Productivity tools. All CAD systems provide certain productivity tools/features that
reduce the time required to create a model and also increase the accuracy of the model.
Examples of such productivity tools are geometric modifiers, geometric arrays, and grids.
Geometric modifiers
allow us to use existing Horizontal -~20 Vertical
00
information about a model
or a sketch without having ~30
V
to calculate that informa-
tion. To put this in simple Coincident Midpoint
words, if we want to create a

new line starting from the
end point of an existing line,
CAD systems highlight the
desired end point when the Intersection TlInllent
cursor is moved close to that

point. Three common geo-
metric modifiers are end,
origin (center or mid), and Perpendiculllr
intersection. . Some CAD
systems ,also offer other
modifiers such as tangent,
quadrant, near, perpendicu-
lar, and parallel. The terminology used for modifiers in different CAD systems may be different.
The modifiers also enforce a concept of adding relationship between entities. Some typical
modifiers are shown in the screenshot on this page. Example modifiers are end, midpoint (center
or origin), intersection, horizontal, vertical, coincident, tangent, and perpendicular.
Geometric arrays is a very useful productivity tool offered by all CAD systems. It is a
number of identical entities placed uniformly at specified locations - that is, in a pattern. The
two types of geometric arrays are rectangular and circular. Geometric arrays are offered at both
the sketching stage and modeling stage. At the sketching stage they allow the user to repeat the
sketches in a pattern, and at the modeling stage they allow the user to repeat the features in a
pattern. The screenshots below show sample geometric arrays.
Geometric arrays (patterns)
Grids are useful sketching aids. A grid is a network of uniformly spaced points. There are
two types of grids available : rectangular and radial. A grid is displayed as a series of dots.
Different CAD systems allow many settings for grid properties such as grid spacing, grid
activation, and grid appearance. In SolidWorks grid properties are considered suchas document
properties - that is, document-level settings we discussed in item 3 of this tutorial. The
screenshot below shows how one can customize the grid in SolidWorks .
elaing
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10. Management tools. CAD systems provide management tools so that a user can group
together the entities of similar nature, which in tum assists in editing, visualization, and
efficient access to CAD models. Some management tools that CAD systems offer are
layers and colors.
The primary use of layers is to group together CAD entities of similar nature. Layers can
be thought of as sheets of transparencies, each layer holding some information about the model
such as sketches, features, dimensions , or notes. Layers also have independent properties such as
visibility , color, and selectability. Layers in CAD systems may exist for all modes such as mod-
eling, drawing, assembly, or other modes. In SolidWorks the concept of layers is applicable only
to drawing mode.
Colors are helpful in distinguishing the entities of geometric models from each other. In
SolidWorks, colors is one of the properties that can be customized at both system level and
document level. The following screenshots show color customization in SolidWorks.
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11. Storing and retrieving CAD models. Make sure you save the CAD model you are
working on at the end of each CAD session. You need to retrieve the model later by
opening its file to resume its modeling by performing new CAD/CAM operations. These
operations include either editing the existing model definition or adding new entities to it.
Tutorial 1.8.1 discussion:

In this tutorial we have looked at some fundamental concepts of CAD systems in general.
We have also seen different functionalities and tools that CAD systems offer to aid in the
step-by-step creation of models. We have briefly outlined the steps to be followed to create a
CAD model - open a new file, select the mode, change the software settings, select the sketch
plane, create sketches, create models, and view models. Finally, we have applied all the
concepts we discussed to a CAD software program, SolidWorks.
This tutorial has also covered many concepts that will be explained throughout the book in
more detail. More importantly, we will relate these concepts to their theoretical and
mathematical background. If the tutorial feels overwhelming, that is to be expected. While it is
not intentional, it should make you appreciate the theoretical aspects of geometric modeling .
Tutorial 1.8.1 hands-on exercise:

Apply this tutorial to your CAD/CAM system. Do you see a lot of differences between the
material described here and that which your CAD system offers? Can you find all of the items
easily? Try to construct some of the models shown in the screenshots. Are they easy to create?
Make up your own dimensions.
1.8.2 Use FTP and Telnet Sessions Together

How do we access files anytime, anywhere? The Internet and the Web have made the
answer to this question simple. Use Telnet to access computer accounts remotely,and FTP to
copy files from one computer to another. This is useful in working with CAD/CAM files.
This tutorial shows the use of both FrP (WS_FTP program) and Telnet (Windows Telnet)
sessions together. On the client side (local computer) we use the Windows as, and on the server
side (remote computer) we use the Unix as. We need to create a new directory, called testDir ,
on the Unix computer, upload a file, called myFile.txt, from the local computer to it, and list the
contents of the testDir directory to make sure the file transfer was successful. Follow these
steps:
1. Start a Telnet session on the Windows computer. Click: Start (Windows button) =>
Run => te1net => OK. Type 0 gateway.coe.neu.edu in the DOS window that pops up,
as shown in the following screenshot.
Telnet session
2. Log in to the Unix computer remotely by typing the username and password.
3. Create the directory using this Unix command: rnkdir testDir.
4. Go to this directory using the command cd testDir.
5. List the contents of testDir using the command ls. Nothing should be there.
6. Start an FTP session on the Windows computer. Use a standalone FTP program. Log in.
The forthcoming screenshot shows the client window of the WS_FTP program.
7. Upload the file, myFile.txt, to the testDir directory. Select it in the FI'P local system
window and click the arrow pointing to the remote system window. Make sure the testDir
directory is selected in the remote system window.
8. Check the contents of testDir. Type ls in the Telnet session DOS window. myFile.txt
should be there, as the Telnet screenshot in the previous page shows.
9. Close both sessions. Type logout to close Telnet; click Close to close the WS_FI'P
program .
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Let us assume that you are usinga CAD system at home and you want 'to move CAD files
to your account at work or school. Or, let us assume that you ~e using a CAD system in a
library or in a public lab where you may.not have an account; howdo you save your CAD files?
Obviously you can use a floppy or a zip disk, but more often than not these corrupt data files.
The best solution is to use FIP to upload the CAD files from home, the library, or the lab
computer to your account in your department. Assume that you have created a folder (directory)
called CADFiles. You move the files there; no need for a disk that you may have forgotten at
home.
Download WS_FI'P shareware (or CuteFrP or other FfP shareware) from the Web. It is a
self-extracting file. Double-click it to install. Run a test by uploading or downloading a file from
one computer to another. Use Telnet to make sure the upload or download is successful. Use this
idea all the time in your daily tasks.
PROBLEMS
Part I: Theory
1.1 Perform a literature and/or a Web search on the history of CAD/CAM. Hint: We identify four
generations. First generation is 2D CAD focusing on drafting (early 1970s). Second
generation is 3D wireframes and surfaces running on proprietary systems focusing on
engineering design and detailed drafting (late 1970s through the 1990s). Third generation is
3D CAD, parametrics, feature-based design, associative modeling and drafting, and digital
product (late 1980s through the 1990s). Fourth generation is digital product, value chain and
product lifecycle management (early 2000s to present).
1.2 CAD/CAM is an interdisciplinary field. Many magazines and journals exist. Go to your
library, and check the Web and make a list of available journals, magazines, and newsletters in
CAD, CAM, CAE (Computer Aided Engineering), and CIM (Computer Integrated
Manufacturing). Use Appendix A as a start.
1.3 Make a list of some of the design projects that you were involved with. Apply the CAD tools
defined in Section 1.3 to them.
1.4 Some design applications would be better with CAD than others. Why? What characteristics
make an application a good candidate for CAD?
1.5 What are the three modeling modes offered by CAD/CAM systems? What do they do?
1.6 CAD/CAM systems have one of the following orientations for MCS: XY plane horizontal or
XY plane vertical. Sketch each system in 3D space.
1.7 How do you control the 3D modeling/construction of your geometric modeling activities on a
CAD/CAM system?
1.8 What is a 2 Y:zD model? Sketch some examples.
Part IT: Laboratory
1.9 Familiarize yourself with the CAD/CAM system you will use to do the laboratory assignments
at the end of each chapter. Make sure you can use the user interface (GUI) and online help
(documentation) provided by the system. Use Tutorial 1.8.1 as a guide.
1.10 Let us assume that you are in an office or a computer lab. If you look around you, there are
many objects that serve as good CAD models. Classify each of the following objects as 2Y'2D,
composite 2'hD, or 3D models: keyboard, mouse, mouse cable, computer monitor,
printer, chair, computer tables, a cell phone, a printer cable, your backpack, trash
paper basket, and computer system box.
1.11 Which objects of problem 1.10 have geometric arrays (patterns)? Which of these use
rectangular patterns and which use circular ones?
1.12 Develop a good layering scheme for CAD models. Hint: Think of the model data and use a
layer for each type, for example, a layer for geometry, a layer for dimensions, a layer for
tolerances, and so forth.
1.13 How can you make a good use of grids for sketching? Hint: set up the grid spacing to a value,
and use the grid as a measurement tool if you need it.
1.14 Sketch the following cross sections of two of the parts shown in Tutorial 1.8.1. Submit
screenshots of the sketches. All dimensions are in inches. Make sure to switch database units
from mm (millimeters) to inches before you begin construction .
Part OJ: Programming
1.15 Familiarize yourself with a high-level programming language such as C, C++, or Java.
CHAPTER ~ 2
3D Modeling and Viewing
Understand and master the basic concepts

OAL of 3D modeling and ' viewing, the
difference between them, the control of
modeling via the sketch planes, and the
effective use of CAD/CAM systems in
geometric modeling.
BJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should understand the following concepts :
• Types of geometric models
• Coordinate systems
• Sketching and sketch planes
• Modeling entities and features
• Modeling operations
• Modeling strategies
• Model viewing
• System modes
27
28 -':Chapt~r 2. '
.~~. :" r , .: • ?;" .
3D Modeling and Viewing
~ Introduction
When we use a CAD/CAM system, our first goal is to create a geometric model of an
object. Such a model serves as a digital representation, in a computer, that we can use later for a
variety of engineering activities such as analysis and manufacturing. The representation is well
structured in the model database, and the database structured content is stored in the part file of
the model.
What geometric model do we really create and what kind of digital representation does a
CAD/CAM system use? Solid models are what CAD/CAM systems use. We create a solid
model of an object. A solid model is a complete, unique, and unambiguous representation of an
object. The model resembles the object. An object, such as a cube, has sides (6), edges (12), and
comers (8). Its corresponding solid model has 'faces, edges, and vertices to represent its sides,
edges, and comers, respectively. Figure 2.1 shows the terminology that CAD/CAM systems use
when sketching and creating solid models. Such terminology is universal among all systems.
. - - - - - - - Edg e
, - - - - Face
Plan e
Figure 2.1 Terminology of a solid model.
We use 3D modeling concepts during the process of creating a solid model of an object.
We typically need to define and use different WCSs to control the modeling. As we construct
geometric entities (items), they reside in the sketch plane (XY plane) defined by the current
WCS. The creation of a solid model begins with the creation of points, curves , and surfaces. The
combination of these entities together with 3D operations such as extrusion and revolution
create solid models.
We also utilize the concept of parametrics to create solid models. We simply sketch
geometry freely, similar to freehand sketching; we can assign dimensions at the time of creation
or later. This is a very useful concept that frees us from worrying about dimensions while we are
designing objects and models .
30 Chapter 2 3D Modeling and Viewing
CAD/CAM databases are built to store the full 3D definition of a solid model. As such, the
database is fully 3D, associative, centralized, and integrated. The associativity concept implies
that new information can be derived from users' input. For example , if the two end points of a
line are input, the line length and its orientation in space can be calculated. The centralized
concept means that any change in or addition to a geometric model in one of its views is
automatically reflected in its existing views or any views that may be defined later. The
integrated concept implies that a geometric model of an object can be utilized in all phases of a
product cycle (refer to Chapter 1).
We utilize 3D viewing concepts during solid modeling. We can view the model from
different angles and orientations in 3D space. We create 3D and/or 2D views when we need
them. This chapter is dedicated to the full coverage of the 3D modeling and viewing concepts.
e» The Three Modeling Approaches

While all CAD/CAM systems create parametrics solid models, CAD designers can create
the models in different ways. We identify three modeling approaches that designers can choose
from to create solid models. They are primitives , features , and sketching. The existence of the
three approaches is attributed to the evolution of solid modelers over the years. The early solid
modelers provided only the primitives approach. As science and technology advanced, features,
along with primitives, became available . Further developments have led to sketching , the third
approach.
The primitives approach views a solid model as a combination of simple, generic, and
standard shapes that can be combined. These shapes are the primitives. Primitives include a
block (box), cylinder, sphere, cone, wedge, and torus. These primitives are combined via the
Boolean operations union, subtraction, and intersection. We cover primitives and Boolean oper-
ations in detail later in the book.
The features approach is similar to the primitives approach; it replaces primitives with
features and embeds Boolean operations in the feature definition. For example, let us consider
creating a hole in a block. Using the primitives approach, we follow these steps:
1. Create the block using a block primitive.

2. Create a cylinder in the right location and orientation relative to the block.
3. Subtract the cylinder from the block.
Using the features approach, we follow these steps:
1. Create the block using a block feature.

2. Create the hole in the block by creating a hole feature in the right location and orientation
relative to the block.
In the features approach, step 2 combines steps 2 and 3 of the primitives approach.
The sketching approach is similar to the features approach, with one change. Instead of
using predefined shapes only, such as holes and ribs, it allows CAD designers to create much
more elaborate and more general features starting from a sketch. Examples include extrusion,
revolution, linear and nonlinear sweep, loft, spirals, and helicals. A CAD designer uses 2D
operations to sketch a region or a cross section, followed by 3D operations, such as extrusion, to
create the feature.
Which of the three approaches is best for creating solid models? The sketching approach
is the most commonly used approach because it combines the best of the three of them. It allows
the creation of many more features than the features approach. It also enables CAD/CAM ven-
dors to increase the modeling domain of their systems without having to predefine and store
many features in system libraries. We can think of the sketching approach as a way to create
features on demand. Whenever we need a feature, we create it beginning with a sketch.
The primitives approach is the least-used approach. CAD 'designers are not fond of this
approach because its terminology is rooted in the set theory where Boolean operations come
from. Moreover, editing solids created this way is inefficient. For example, the deletion of a hole
requires adding a cylinder to plug the hole, unless we edit the solid tree and prune the hole
branch, and regenerate the solid.
Which CAD/CAM systems support which approaches? Legacy systems such as CATIA,
Unigraphics, and I-DEAS support all three approaches, by the virtue of their existence since
solid modeling started. They must support the three approaches to stay competitive. Newer
systems such as ProlE and SolidWorks support only the sketching approach because it is all that
is needed to create any solid model. They do not support primitives and do not offer Boolean
operations.
The sketching approach utilizes the following steps to create any feature:
1. Select or define a sketch plane. We need a sketch plane to sketch geometry on. The
sketch plane controls the orientation of the sketched geometry in the 3D modeling space.
2. Sketch 2D profile. This profile is typically a cross section of the 3D model that we wish
to construct. The profile typically consists of curves such as lines, arcs, chamfers, and
splines. The sketched geometry resides in the currently active sketch plane.
3. Modify sketch dimensions and update sketch. We modify the dimensions of the profile
to reflect the final dimensions of the solid model under construction. Step 2 provides a
rough sketch that we refine in this step. After changing the dimensions, update the sketch
to reflect the new dimensions.
4. Create the feature. Apply one of the 3D operations, such as extrusions, to create the
feature.
The sketch plane we select or define in step 1 sets the orientation of the finished model in
its 3D space. For example, if we select the Front plane, the 2D profile we sketch in step 2
becomes the front view of the resulting 3D model. If we select the Top plane instead, the same
profile becomes the top view of the model. This is equivalent to rotating the model 90 degrees.
EXA MPLE 2.1 Create a feature using the sketching approach.

Create a block using a CAD/CAM system. Start with a sketch.
SOLUTION We apply the four steps just
described to create the chamfered block, shown on
the right, that has the cross section shown on the
right and a thickness of 60 mm (millimeters). All
dimensions are in mm.
Modeling strategy:
1. Log in and start the CAD/CAM system.
2. Open a new part file.
3. Select the Front sketch plane.
4. Sketch the profile shown on the right. Sketch
freely; ignore the dimensions for now.
5. Use the sketch dimension icon to modify
dimensions to their final values shown on the
right.
6. Use an extrusion feature icon or command
and extrude the sketch by a distance of 60
mm in one direction from the profile plane.
7. Save the file using File => Save As
'.'
=> example21 .
8. Print the model using File => Print.
9. Capture the screen by hitting the Pr in t
Screen key on the keyboard . Then open a
Word document and paste the buffer content by using Edit => Paste.
Example 2.1 discussion:
We can create the profile in two different ways. We create a rectangle and use a chamfer
command to chamfer its top right corner. Or we can sketch five contiguous lines. To modify the
dimension of any line, activate the sketcher dimension mode, click on any dimension value, type
the new value, and click OK or its equivalent. As the screenshots show, the profile sketched in
the Front sketch plane becomes the Front view of the Isometric view.
We will not use steps 1,2, 7, 8, and 9 after this example to eliminate redundancy.
Example 2.1 hands-on exercise:
Re-create the chamfered block by using the Top sketch plane instead of the Front plane.
What happens to the orientation of the resulting Isometric view? Explain your answer.
Create the three through holes shown above. Hole 0 (d = 15 mm) is perpendicular to the
top face and centered. Hole e (d = 15 mm) is perpendicular to the inclined plane and centered.
Hole @) (d = 25 mm) is perpendicular to the front view and is located at distances of 20 mm from
both edges £1 and £2'
. . Types of Geometric Models

We have discussed the types of geometric models briefly in Tutorial 1.8.1. Objects and
their geometric models can be classified into three types from a geometric construction point of
view. These are 2Y2D, 3D, or a combination of both . 2Y2D objects are further classified into three
subtypes: extrusions, axisymmetric, and composite. An extrusion has a constant cross section
and a thickness in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the cross section. Figure 2.2 shows an
example. An axisymmetric object has a constant cross section that is revolved about an axis of
revolution through an angle 0 < 8 s 360 . The composite 21'2D object is a combination of multiple
21'2D objects, as shown in Figure 2.2.
A 3D object is one that does not have any geometric uniformity in any direction, as shown
in Figure 2.2. In such a case, we can start with 2Y2D objects and modify them, or find other
strategies . The 3D object shown in Figure 2.2 is a block trimmed by two inclined planes.
2 1/20 object:
axisymmetric
2 1/20 object:
extrusion
Cross section
Cross 2 1120 object:

section A composite
Figure 2.2 Types of geometric models.

34 ..- Chapter 2 3D Modeling and Viewing
Constructing 2Y2D objects requires only constructing the proper cross sections and,
projecting them along the proper direction by the thickness value. This is a much more efficient '
way of construction than calculating and inputting the coordinates of all of the corner points of
the model. As complex as it might look, the phone model shown in Figure 2.3 is a composite
2Y2D. We extrude the three cross sections in the directions shown, cut out the excess material
between the handset support pins, and use a rectangular array to create the buttons.
, - - - - - Cross
section C
Cross
section B
Cross
section A
' - - - - Rectangular
array of buttons
Figure 2.3 A telephone geometric model.
Create an axisymmetric object.

Create a pin.
SOLUTION We create a pin, shown on the

right, that has the cross section shown on the right. Axis A
All dimensions are in inches.
Modeling strategy:
2. Sketch the profile shown on the right. Sketch
freely; ignore the dimensions for now.
3. Use the sketch dimension icon to modify
dimensions to their final values shown on the
right.
4. Create axis A, to be used as an axis of
revolution.
5. Use a revolve feature icon or command and revolve the profile geometry 360 degrees
around the axis A.
The axis is not a line. It is an axis, a special type of geometry known as datum features or
reference geometry. We discuss this subject in Section 2.8. If you simply create a line, the
revolve command will fail.
Change the pin to a stepped pin along its length. Use a small radius of 0.375 inch starting
at a distance of one inch from the top of its head.
~ Coordinate Systems
Three types of coordinate systems are needed in order to input, store, and display model
geometry and graphics. These are Model Coordinate System (MCS), Working Coordinate
System (WCS) , and Screen Coordinate System (SCS), respect~yely. Other names for MCS are
database , master, or world coordinate system. Another name for SCS is device coordinate
system. Throughout this book, MCS, wCS, and SCS are used. We have covered each briefly in
Tutorial 1.8.1.
2.4.1 Model Coordinate System

The model coordinate system is defined as the reference space of the model with
respect to which all the model geometrical data is stored. It is a cartesian system which forms the
default coordinate system used by a particular software program. The X, Y, and Z axes of the
MCS can.be displayed on the computer screen. The origin of the MCS can be arbitrarily chosen
by the user while its orientation is established by the software. The three default sketch planes of
a CAD/CAM system define the three planes of the MCS, and their intersection P?~ti~-i,~e ~¥E§-:;;~ :
origin. When a CAD designer begins sketching, the origin becomes a corner point'ofthe :profile ) ;
being sketched. The sketch plane defines the orientation of '(he profile in the model 3p.space, .
This is how we attach the MCS to a geometric model. .;~.':~ ,~.:~:_, , "~:'~t::'~~~~ ~~· :{
In order for the user to communicate properly and effectively with a model database.the --
relationships between the MCS orthogonal (sketch) planes and the model views must be
understood by the user. Typically, the software chooses one of two possible orientations of the
MCS in space. As shown in Figure 2.4a, the XY plane is the horizontal plane and defines the
model top view. The front and right side views are consequently defined by the XZ and yz
planes, respectively. Figure 2.4b shows the other possible orientation of the MCS where the XY
plane is vertical and defines the model front view. As a result, the XZ and the YZ planes define
the top and the right side views, respectively.
Existing CAD/CAM software uses the MCS as the default WCS (see Section 2.4.2). In
both orientations, the XYplane is the default construction (sketch) plane . If the user utilizes such
a plane , the first face of a model to be constructed becomes the top or front view, depending on
which MCS is used.
z Y
z
(a ) XYpl ane defines model top view (b) XY plane defines model front view
Figure 2.4 Possible orientations of MeS in 3D space.
The MCS is the only coordinate system that the software recognizes when storing or
retrieving graphical information in or from a model database. Many existing software packages
allow the user to input coordinate information in cartesian (x, y, z) and cylindrical (r, e, z)
coordinates, This input information is transformed to (x, y, z) coordinates relative to the MCS
before being stored in the database.
Obtaining views is a form of retrieving graphical information relative to the MCS. If the
MCS orientation does not match the desired orientation of the object being modeled, users
become puzzled and confused. Another form of retrieving information is entity verification.
Coordinates of points defining the entity are given relative to MCS by default. However,
existing software allows users to obtain the coordinates relative to another system (WCS) by
using the proper commands or modifiers .
EXAMPLE 2.3 Mismatch of model orientation in modeling space.

Show how to control a model orientation in 3D space .
. SOLUTION The
screenshot on the right
shows two' possible ori-
entations of the cham-
fered block of Example
2.1. Each orientation is
decided by the first z
sketch plane chosen for x
construction. In orienta-
tion 0, we use the Orientation 49
Orientation 0
Fran t (XY) sketch
plane to create the model profile and extrude it in the -2 direction. In orientation 49, we use the
Right (YZ) sketch plane to create the model profile and extrude it in the -X direction .

In both cases the orientation of the MCS is the same in space; however, the orientation of
the model, and therefore its views, is different. This orientation problem becomes apparent when
we generate views for an engineering drawing or for other purposes . Some CAD designers do
not view this as an important issue, but it is. Designers usually tend to patch the problem (and
their' lack of understanding of model orientation in the 3D modeling space) by using the CAD
software to rotate the model to generate the right views for engineering drawings. However. .
rotating the model in its space does not change its initial orientation, which is decided by the
first sketch plane used in model construction. .. ; . j'.

Create the chamfered block in orientation @. Generate the three standard views: top, front,
and right. Now rotate the model to create orientation O. Generate the same three views. What do
you get? Why?
2.4.2 Working Coordinate System
It is often convenient in the development of geometric models and the input of geometric
data to refer to an auxiliary coordinate system instead of the MCS. This is usually useful when a
desired plane (face) of construction is not easily defined as one of the MCS orthogonal planes ,
as in the case of inclined faces of a model (see Example 2.1). The user can define a cartesian
coordinate system whose XY plane is coincident with the desired plane of construction. That
system is the Working Coordinate System, WCS. It is a convenient user-defined system that
facilitates geometric construction . It can be est~blished at any position and orientation in space
thatthe user desires. While the user can input data in reference to the WCS, the CAD software
performs the necessary transformations to the MCS before storing the data. The ability to use
two separate coordinate systems within the same model database in relation to one another gives
the user great flexibility. Some commercial software refers to the WCS as is; Unigraphics offers
an example. Other software refers to it as a sketch plane (ProlE and SolidWorks) or construction
plane.
A WCS requires three noncollinear points to define its XY plane. The first defines the ori-
gin, the first and the second define the X axis, and the third point with the first define the Yaxis.
The Z axis is determined as the cross product of the two unit vectors in the directions defined by
the lines connecting the first and the second (the X axis), and the first andthe third points (Y
axis). We will use the subscript w to distinguish the WCS axes from those of the MCS . The ,
XwYw plane becomes the active sketch (working) or construction plane if the user defmes a
WCS. In this case, the WCS and its corresponding XwYw plane override the MCS and the default
sketch plane, respectively. As a matter of fact, the MCS with its default sketch plane is the
default WCS with its XwYw plane. All CAD/CAM software packages provide users with three
standard WCSs (sketch planes) that correspond to the three standard views: Front, Top, and
Right sides. The user can define other WCSs or sketch planes .
There is only one active WCS (sketch plane) at anyone time. If the user defines multiple
WCSs in one session during a model construction, the software recognizes only the last one and
stores it with the model database if the user stores the model. The model tree displayed by the
CAD software shows the last selected (activated) sketch plane.
How is the WCS related to the MCS, and vice versa? Once a WCS is defined, user
coordinate inputs are interpreted by the software in reference to this system. The software
calculates the corresponding homogeneous transformation matrix between the WCS and the
MCS to convert these input values into coordinates relative to the MCS before storing them in
the database. The transformation equation can be written as:
Pm = [T]P w (2.1)
where Pm is the position vector of a point relative to the MCS and P w is the vector of the point
relative to the activ~.~~S. Ea~~ l f t9r is given by: . " "~I'{~! f :
. .:, ' P = [x y z IJ T (2.2)
The matrix [TJ is the homogeneous transformation matrix. It is a 4 x 4 matrix and is given
by:
I
t 11 t 12 t13 1t14
[T] = t 21 t 22 t 231t 24 (2.3)

t 31 t 32 t 33 1 t 34
-0-0-011-
where [R]: is the rotation matrix that defines the orientation of the WCS relative to the Mc;S
and P;, org is the position vector that describes the origin of the WCS relative to the MCS. The "
columns of [R]: give the direction cosines of the unit vectors in the XJ:V' Ywand Zw directions
relative to the MCS as shown in Figure 2.5. These direction cosines are the components of the
unit vectors along the axes of the MCS.
If the WCS axes are along the MCS axes, then the
x,x'"
direction cosines become 1, -1, or 0, and Figure 2.5 is
Y,Z",
greatly simplified. In such a case, we can write the columns
of [T] by inspection. Also, if we know two unit vectors, we
cross multiply them to find the third vector. For example, if
Xw and Yw are aligned along the Z and X axes of the MeS,
respectively, as shown at right, the transformation between x, Y",
the WCS and MCS is given by:
o10 0 o0 10
= 0 0 1 0 , [T] w = 1 000 (2.4)
1 000 m o10 0
000 1 000 1
Observe that one of the matrices in Eq. (2.4) is the inverse ofthe other; their multiplication
produces the identity matrix, [I] .
z
/
Figure 2.5 Direction cosines of WCS relative to MCS.
_ Relate WCS and MeS.

Find the centers ofholes 0 and • relative to the MeS. The holes are centered in their
respective planes.
SOLUTION The screenshot on the right shows the
two holes. We use the dimensions of Example 2.1. The
sketch plane required to create hole. is the Front plane of
the MCS. Thus the WCS for this hole is identical' to the
MeS. Therefore, [T] = [I]. Thus, the center of hole «) is
(20, 20, 0) relative to the MCS.
For hole 49, we need to define a sketch (XwYw) plane
on the inclined plane to create the hole. Let us assume that
the hole center is P. Using the geometry of Example 2.1, we
write:
Using the orthogonal axes of the WCS, and using the right-hand rule, we write:
~ . .
i j k 0
. . . 0 0 -1 0
z., = xwxYw = =5 /JJjk=
-3 2 5
-- 0 -
JJj
JJjJJj
The transformation matrix becomes:
o -3 / JJj o 65
[T] = o 2/ JJj o 30
-1 0 5/(JJj) 0
o 0 o 1
The coordinates of the center P relative to the MCS becomes:
63.
85
30.77 1
-30
1 1
, , -; ,".., -.-. ~:.... .,". t·.
Example 2.4 discussion: " :~:;_\' -':"'~:~':: '
This example illustrates what goes on behind the scenes with the CAD/CAM software
when a CAD designer selects different sketch planes to create geometric models. Equations.,
(2.1) to (2.3) are programmed into the software and are called repeatedly for each const~ttioir
the designer makes in the sketch plane.
The coordinates of the center, Pm' make sense given the dimensions of the problem . For
example, zm= -30 makes sense because the hole center is located in the negative direction of
the Z axis.
Example 2.4.hands-on exercise:
Repeat the above calculations to find the coordinates of the center of hole 0 relative to the
MCS. Do the calculations match the hole location by inspection?
2.4.3 Screen Coordinate System

In contrast to the MCS and WCS, the screen coordinate system (SCS) is defined as a
2D device-dependent coordinate system whose origin is usually located at the lower left comer
of the graphics display, as shown in Figure 2.6. The physical dimensions of a device screen
(aspect ratio) and the type of device (raster) determine the range of the SCS. The SCS is mostly
used in view-related clicks such as definitions of view origin and window or clicking a view to
select it for graphics operations.
(Xmax' Ymax )
r----------------,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
y, ~-----------"
(0,0) x,
Figure 2.6 Typical SCS.
A 1024 x 1024 display has an SCS with a range of (0,0) to (1024,1024). The center of the
screen has coordinates of(512,512). This SCS is used by the CAD/CAM software to display rel-
evant graphics by converting directly from MCS coordinates to SCS (physical device)
coordinates. A normalized SCS can also be utilized. The range of the SCS can be chosen from
(0,0) to (1, I). Such representation can be translated by device-dependent codes to the
appropriate physical device coordinates. The third method of defining an SCS is by using the
drawing size that the user chooses. If a size A drawing is chosen, the range of the SCS becomes
(0,0) to (11,8.5) while size B produces the range (0,0) .to (17,11). The rationale behind this
method stems from the conventional drawing board so that the drafting paper is represented by
the device screen.
A transformation operation from MCS coordinates to SCS coordinates is performed by the
software before displaying the model views and graphics. Typically, for a geometric model ,
there is a data structure to store its geometric data (relative to MCS), and a display file to store
its display data (relative to SCS).
4fD Sketching and Sketch Planes

When a CAD designer defines a sketch plane, he or she invokes the sketcher of the CAD
system. Some CAD - systems 'like SdlidWorks ' and ProlE have -only the sketcher to create
geometry and eventually solid models. Legacy systems such as Unigraphics and CATIA require
CAD designers to invoke the sketcher specifically .,
Sketchers provide CAD designers with various sketching entities and tools such as lines,
circles and so forth as shown in the forthcoming screenshot. Sketchers have been designed to
read the CAD designer's mind. They understand design intent to a degree. For example , when a
designer moves the mouse cursor near a line, the sketcher can flash the end point or midpoint,
depending on which point it is closer to. It can also predict when two lines should be
perpendicular, as in the case of defining two datum axes. Another example is that the sketcher
can use an existing point in the vicinity of sketching as a center for a circle. ProlE has an Intent
Manager (1M) that designers can turn on and off. SolidWorks simplifies this issue a great deal;
no 1M, just a sketch plane.
Line Axis Circular arra y
Sketchers also provide geometric constraints and relationships. A sketcher provides

relations icons that a designer clicks, and then selects the entities to apply relations to. Based on
the selected entities, the sketcher makes available what it thinks will be the correct set of
constraints to choose from. The following screenshot shows an example.
Constraints
(select Concentric )
If we need sketch planes beyond the standard Top, Front, and Right offered by a
sketcher, we must create them. Because a new sketch plane is considered geometry that is not
part of the model under construction (but it is part of the model's geometric definition), it is
referred to as a datum plane, which is part of the model reference geometry. There are various
ways to create datum planes. The following screenshots show some ofthem.
A sketch status is a very important issue to the sketcher. If a sketch (profile) is not
correctly defined, a valid solid cannot be generated from it. Sketchers use color codes to display
sketch geometry to alert designers. After a sketch is created, it can exist in one of three states.
An underdefined (underconstrained) sketch is displayed in blue; additional dimensions or
relations are required. A fully-defined (fully-constrained) sketch is displayed in black; no
additional dimensions or relations are required. An overdefined (overconstrained) sketch is
displayed in red; the sketch contains conflicting dimensions or relations or both. They must be
removed. The following screenshots show the three sketch states.
Overdefin ed sketch
. . Parameters and Dimensions

Modifying solid models easily is a key to testing "what-if' scenarios during product
design in search of the best design. The ease of such modification is rooted in the concept of
parametrics, where a model is parametrized automatically by the CAD/CAM system during
construction, at no (mental) cost or effort to the designer. A CAD designer can simply change
the values of parameters and ask the CAD/CAM system to regenerate or re-create the model.
Figure 2.7 shows a simple parametric solid model. The CAD/CAM system keeps track of all the
geometric constraints that are required to maintain the validity of the model topology.
J4----P,----.,.\
Figure 2.7 Parameters of a solid model.

44 Chapter 2 3D Modeling and ViewJng
During the construction of a sketch, a solid modeler derives the requires set of parameters
that are required to fully define the sketch. The dimensions that the designer inputs for these
parameters make up the values of these parameters. Consider the part shown in Figure 2.7. It is a
block with a hole in it. The five parameters, PI to P4 and R, fully define the sketch. We can
assign any values to these parameters and redraw the sketch by using a regeneration function of
a CAD system.
• ; ~, J ~ . . ;
The sketch parameters and dimensions work together. Parameters are the generalization of
the sketch definition; they create a template of the sketch. Dimensions are the specification of
the sketch definition; they create a specific instance of it. This is analogous to the concept
objects in OOP (object-oriented programming). The parametrized sketch is analogous to a class,
and the dimensioned sketch is similar to an instance of the class. Similar to the relationship
between a class and an instance, the dimensioned sketch derives its definition from the
parametrized sketch. ,.:,;",. I..
A sketch parametrization is not usually unique. There may be multiple ways to

parametrize the same sketch. If we think of the geometric and topological constraints or
relations between the sketch entities, in addition to its geometry, the choices of parametrization
, could be many. However, regardless of the parametrization way we choose, there is always a
minimum set of parameters that we must use to fully define the sketch geometry and topology.
Consider Figure 2.7. The five parameters shown are the minimum required set. However, we
can add relations such as P3 = O.5P 1, P4 = O.5P z, and R = O.25P 1. In addition, we may add.
.. ;- .
perpendicular or parallelism constraints between the sketch entities.

CADI CAM systems present sketch parameters and constraints to designers at different
levels of sophistication. Legacy systems, such as Unigraphics and CATIA, allow designers to
get very involved in defining relations and constraints manually. This could become very
involved and confusing for complex sketches, such as those found in the automotive industry.
The parametrization of the sketch could fail many times before a correct set of parameters is
found.
Other systems such as ProlE and SolidWorks use the automation approach. After the
designer creates a sketch, the designer adds dimensions to it. Pro/E uses a two-step approach.
First, the designer clicks a Dimension icon on the sketcher and dimensions the sketch. In this
step, Pro/E generates parameters and displays them. When the designer regenerates the sketch,
ProlE assigns values to the parameters based on the size of the initial sketch. In the second step,
the designer manually selects one dimension at a time (from the set of step I), modifies it using
a Modi fy icon, and then regenerates the entire sketch for the final dimensions. The
forthcoming screenshots show the two steps.
SolidWorks uses a simpler approach. It does not display the sketch parameters to the
designer because the designer does not care too much about them. SolidWorks displays only the
sketch dimensions. It provides the designer with a Dimension icon on the sketcher toolbar.
Upon clicking this icon, a dimension Modi fy window pops up. The window displays the
current value of the dimension; this is similar to the Pro/E first step . The designer inputs the new
desired dimension value and clicks a tick mark, 0 ; this similar to the ProlE second step .
ProlE step 1 ProlE step 2
The sketch parametrization offers a great design tool for CAD designers. They can freely
sketch their ideas without having to worry about dimensions. While sketching, they try to keep
the proportions of the sketch reasonable. After a sketch is complete, they can look at the
dimensions and accept them or modify them. For example, a designer may adjust a value of 3.45
inches (or 35.79 rom) to 3.5 inches (36 rom).
We summarize the parameterics solid modeling approaches into these three steps:
Generate parameters (via sketching) => Assign dimensions => Regenerate
We follow this approach throughout the book. Sometimes, to avoid clutter, we do not provide
dimensions for a geometric model. Interested readers can simply generate sketches on their
CAD systems that look similar to the model presented in the book. The sketcher in tum
generates the dimensions.
at Basic Features
An analysis of existing CAD/CAM systems reveals that they all offer a basic set of
features. This set is universal among them, although each system may use different names to
designate them. This basic set includes the following features: extrusion, revolution, hole, cut,
sweep, loft, fillet, chamfer, rib, shell, draft, patterns, spiral, and helix. The forthcoming
screenshot shows typical features of a CAD/CAM system. We cover how each feature is defined
and created.
SolidWorks features toolbar
Revolved Revol ved Loft Chamfer Draft Move/size Circular

bosslbase cut feature pattern
Extruded Extruded cut Sweep Fillet Shell Hole Linear pattern Mirror feature
bosslbase
An extrusion feature is used to create a uniform-thickness model. It requires a cross

section and an extrusion vector (direction and a distance) as shown below: We have also already
covered it in Section 2.3 and Tutorial 1.8.1.
Extrusion ----,,,.;--:-,
distance ~.:..-......;.-...:._......;.-
~ DJ,h.i.n.r~.~.~~r.~ :: ~
~~, ;"';'~"~,",, .-.~,,,,... ,"":".f \. ;·',· -·iv'·-'
A revolution feature is used to create axisymmetric models . It requires a cross section, an

axis of revolution, and an angle of revolution, as shown below.
t
Angle of ;;
revolution = - '
360 degrees
_-,--_ Cross
section
A hole feature is used to create holes in models. It requires a hole diameter or radius
(size), a length, and an axis to define orientation.
A cut feature is used to cut material from another existing feature. Different CAD systems
use different names for the cut feature. Different types of cuts can be made such as extruded or
revolved cuts. A slot is also a form of a cut feature.
A sweep feature is used to create a model with a constant cross section along a nonlinear
axis. It is a generalization of the extrusion feature. It requires a cross section and asweep curve,
as shown below. If the sweep curve is linear, the sweep becomes an extrusion.
A loft feature is used to create a model with a variant cross section along a
linear/nonlinear axis. It is a generalization of the sweep feature. It requires a set of cross sections
as shown below. A guide curve may be used to blend the cross sections. if noguide curve is
specified, a linear blending is assumed.
The fillet and chamfer features are used to change the comers of a model. A fillet rounds
the comer, thus eliminating its sharpness . This is a good engineering 'practice because it reduces
the stresses around the comers. A chamfer creates a transition between two edges of a model.
A rib feature is used as a stiffener for models . It can be viewed as an extrusion. It requires
a line, the faces to stiffen, and a thickness as shown below.
A shell feature is used to carve out material from a model by "shelling" it. It requires a
face to shell and thickness to keep as shown below.
A draft feature is used to create a slant (taper) in model faces. It is a required feature when
we create models of injection molds. These molds must have drafts to be able to remove the
molded parts from the molds. These drafts release the vacuum pressure generated by pulling the
plastic parts out of the molds. A draft feature requires a draft angle (usually a small one between
five and ten degrees) and the faces to draft.
A pattern feature is a geometric array that is used to create repeated geometry in a
specific order, as we have shown in Tutorial 1.8.1. A pattern can be rectangular (linear) or
circular. A linear pattern requires the feature to repeat, the distance between the repetitions, and
the number of repetitions. A circular pattern requires the feature to repeat, an angle between the
repetitions, and the number of repetitions. Or, we can specify the total angle that the pattern
sweeps and the number of repetitions. The CAD system calculates the angle between repetitions
from this data, by dividing the total angle by.the number of repetitions.
A spiral feature is used to create spirals . The spiral is considered a sweep along a helix
curve as shown below. It requires a cross section and a helix curve . The helix curve requires a
pitch and a number of revolutions.
i . · "':- ,>
""':"i
A helix feature is used to create helical springs. The helix is considered a sweep along a
helix curve as shown below. It requires a (circular) cross section and a helix curve. The helix
curve requires a pitch and a number of revolutions. The helix can be created tapered if needed.
Featured-based modeling uses these features and others, depending on what a CAD
system offers, to create geometric models of imaginative objects or engineering parts , products,
and assemblies. Some systems, such as SolidWorks, call the first feature we create or an existing
feature a base feature. We add or subtract from the base feature until we create the final model.
We should realize that many current CAD/CAM systems, such as ProlE and SolidWorks,
do not allow more than one solid during any geometric construction. These systems do not allow
what we call "disjoint solids" or "multiple bodies" during construction. We will discuss this
50 Chapter 2 30 Modeling and Viewing
issue later in more detail. Legacy systems, such as Unigraphics and CATIA, do allow multiple
solids to exist concurrently in the same database. This is sometimes useful because a CAD
designer may generate disjoint solids during intermediate modeling steps before combining
them using Boolean operations.
Let us investigate = = ,.". . ,.",
this issue further by
using SolidWorks. The
creation of any feature
of any part begins by
creating a cross section
that is adjacent to a 'face
of an existing feature;
that is, it is constructed
off a face. Thus, all
existing features and
cross sections are joined
during any phase of
construction. ProlE and
SolidWorks do not
allow the creation of
disjoint solids. An
example of a disjoint
solid is two blocks
placed apart from each
other in the modeling L....- This web eliminates _ _-----..
the above error
space. The error that
appears on the screen
when we attempt to
create a disjoint solid is
shown in the screenshot
on the right. To avoid
this error, we make sure
that we adopt a model-
ing strategy such that
creates cross sections,
and hence features, that are adjacent to or penetrate existing faces/planes.
The part shown here is a disjoint solid, which we have to connect with a web. If a
CAD/CAM system does not allow the creation of disjoint solids like this, we must create the
web first.
G» Datum Features
The creation of a solid model begins with a sketch that is used in conjunction with a
feature operation to create features. As we create more and more features, we create models. A
CAD system makes the assumption that any geometry created during sketching is part of the
profile under construction. More often than not, we need to create geometry to define construc-
tion operation. Such geometry is not part of the profile. How can we tell the sketcher and the
CAD system not to treat that geometry in a regular way? We define reference geometry'.
Reference geometry is a special type of geometry that is used to define other geometry. It
is not ordinary geometry. Consider the cross section and the axis that are used to create a
revolved feature. The cross section is ordinary geometry while the axis is reference geometry.
Reference geometry is part of the feature definition, and it cannot be deleted unless the feature is
deleted first.
Reference geometry comes in the form of datum features. CAD systems allow designers
to create these types of datum features: planes, axes, curves, 'points, and coordinate systems.
Think of these datum features as ordinary features, with the difference that they are not part of
the sketch (profile) geometry. Thus, their creation requires the same definitions as their ordinary
counterparts. Pro/E makes extensive use of datum features. It has an extensive Datum menu
under its Feature Class menu. Any of the above-listed datum features are available under
the ProlE Datum menu. SolidWorks offers only three datum features under its Referende
Geometry menu (click View = > Toolbar => Reference Geometry). They are
Coordinate System, Datum Axis, and Datum Plane.
A datum plane is used when we need a nonstandard construction plane. We have covered
datum planes in Section 2.5. A CAD system offers a rich menu of defining datum planes as
shown in Section 2.5.
A datum axis is used for various purposes including defining an axis of revolution for
revolved features or an axis for a circular pattern. Some CAD systems, such as SolidWorks,
offer an axis feature as part of other menus, depending on the context for modeling and whether
a feature creation needs it or not.
A datum curve or point feature is used when we need to create curves or points in the
model database that are needed to define a sketch. For example, consider a set of points-that
define a spline curve. We may create the pointsexplicitly first, before using them to create the
spline. In this case, we must create them as datum points, as ProlE does.
A datum coordinate system feature is useful when we need a CAD system to use it
temporarily in some calculations, such as measuring entity length or calculating mass properties,
instead of using the MCS. It can also be used to export documents to IGES, STL, STEP, or other
formats. The required information for creating the coordinate system is X axis, Yaxis and origin.
For example, we can select an edge as the origin and two faces as the X and Y axes as shown in
the forthcoming screenshot. Or we can select a vertex as an origin and two edges as the X and Y
axes as shown in the screenshot.
Face <I>
(Y axis)
Edge<l>
(Origin)
~ Geometric Constraints
We use geometric constraints or relations as part of sketch definition. These constraints
could be geometrical (such as a length equals another) or topological (such as two lines are
always perpendicular) . They are useful in relating sketch entities together. For example, the
length of a line could be set to be twice the length of another line. When the value of the latter
length changes, the length of the former line changes as well, thus maintaining the geometric
constraint. Another example includes centering a hole in a rectangle; whenever the rectangle
changes size, the hole is always in the center of the rectangle.
We can use equations to express more elaborate constraints. We cover this subject in more
detail later in the book.
~ Modeling Operations
As we create feature after feature to create a solid model, what happens to all these
features? Do they remain individually in the model database? CAD systems combine them as
we create them. We begin with the first feature, which represents the total solid at this point.
When we create the next feature, the CAD system can add it or subtract it from the first feature,
and so forth.
CAD systems utilize Boolean operations to combine features. These operations are union,
subtraction, and intersection. For example, when we use an extrusion, the resulting feature is
added to the existing feature or solid. When we create a cut, the resulting feature is subtracted
from the existing feature or solid. The intersection happens as a supporting operation.
Legacy CAD systems such as Unigraphics, CATIA, and I-DEAS support Boolean
operations explicitly. CAD designers can find them under a Tools or Edi t menu. Systems
such as SolidWorks or ProlE do not have Boolean operations explicitly. The interesting question
is how do we intersect two solids explicitly on these systems? The answer is that we do not;
these systems do not support the existence of disjoint solids.
The details of Boolean operations and the set theory behind them is covered later in the
book in more detail.
~ Heterogeneous Modeling
The construction of a solid model is a series of sketches and features that are combined to
create the final solid . We begin with a sketch that we draw on a sketch plane. We then apply a
3D operation to transform the 2D sketch to a 3D feature. We repeat these two steps to create
other features. As features are created, the CAD system combines them to produce the solid.
A sketch is a collection of curves. A curve may be a line, circle, arc, chamfer, or spline. In
more complex solids, we may use the curves to create surfaces before creating a feature or the
final solid. We cover curves and surfaces in more detail later in the book. Thus , a model data-
base may contain three types of modeling classes: curves, surfaces, and solids .
Some CAD systems, such as ProlE and SolidWorks, only allow the existence of curves
and surfaces as part of a sketch definition. The only valid entity that these systems allow to exist
individually is a solid, and only one solid, as we discussed at the end of Section 2.7.
Legacy CAD systems, such as Unigraphics and CATIA, allow the existence of curves,
surfaces, and solids at the same time in a model database. These systems allow designers to
create curves and surfaces that are not part of a solid definition yet. We can view this
coexistence as three modeling modes: curves , surfaces, and solids . We refer to the existence of
these three modeling modes as heterogeneous modeling. Whether heterogeneous modeling is
good or bad is a debatable issue that we do not cover here . We can only point out that it may be
good for research purposes and other experimentation activities in geometric modeling.
f8 Modeling Strategies
CADICAM software is complex and requires training and understanding of its philosophy
and underlying principles. It should be considered a complex engineering modeling tool, like
other software for computational fluid dynamics and finite element analysis. CAD designers
should use it with care if they wish to be efficient in using it.
The efficient use of a CAD system begins with developing a modeling strategy. A
modeling (planning) strategy is a sequence of thoughts about the best, easiest, and fastest way
to create the geometric model of the object we wish to model. This modeling strategy is the
high-level thoughts of what we need to do on a CAD system. This strategy may change when we
execute it.
We view a modeling strategy as a way for CAD designers to organize their thoughts. It is
similar to a flowchart or pseudocode in programming activities. The development of an effective
modeling strategy requires a CAD designer to answer a series of questions:
1. Determine model type and subtype. Is it 2V2D or 3D? Within 2Y2D type, is it extrusion,
revolution, or composite 2Vill? A large percentage of engineering parts fall into the 2Vill
group.
2. Observe geometric characteristics of model. Is the model symmetric with respect to one
plane or more? If so, a CAD designer can construct only half of the model and then use the
Mirror command to create the full model. The Translate and Rotate commands .
can also be used.
3. Choose model orientation in 3D space. How is the model oriented in 3D? Which model
face or view is aligned with which view? This decides the first sketch plane of the model
whether it is Top Front or Right.
I I
4. Choose model origin. Where is the MCS origin located on the model sketch? Is it the
bottom left comer of the sketch (profile) or somewhere else?
5. Decide on other geometric details. Do we need geometric modifiers to speed up
construction? What color and layer scheme do we need?
6. Avoid unnecessary calculations. Can we use the CAD system to perform geometric
calculations for us, to save time? For example, we may use an intersection or end modifier
instead of explicitly making calculations by hand.
These six questions offer a.guide, CAD designers may amend or change them. We should
mention that CAD designers tend to naturally jump to a CAD workstation and begin building a
model, just like a programmer jumps to writing code. Wisdom has it that the faster we build
models or write code, the worse the final product is. We simply ask designers to spend a few
minutes to investigate the geom~tric properties of the model under construction and find the
smartest and fastest way to create it.
Once we answer the above six questions, what does a modeling strategy look like?
Examples 2.1 and 2.2 offer examples. It consists of steps on how to construct a model. Each step
does not have to include deep-level details about each dimension or number used in the step.just
a high-level plan as Examples 2.1 and 2.2 show. The best presentation of a planning strategyis
to include screenshots as shown in Examples 2.1 and 2.2.
~ Master Model
The use of CAD/CAM systems in practice requires a lot of preparation. It is not just an
issue of getting CAD designers to create models and assemblies. It is also an issue of
consistency and reuse of these models and assemblies. A typical company has many
departments (including design, manufacturing, and marketing) and subcontractors. The
company may also outsource various CAD activities. In such a case, all these groups and
individuals must have a way of knowing how to read a CAD file. This is where the concept of a
master model becomes useful.
A master model is a template file that has the structure of CAD data in a consistent way
for all groups to use and follow. CAD managers in companies usually develop the content and
structure of master models and their files. The content of a master model includes layering
schemes , modeling and drawing conventions, model views, model coloring schemes, and so
forth.
CAD designers learn the structure of the master models and their files. They also learn
how to use them. A CAD designer may begin a model. Another designer can then continue the
model because they all know where model information is and how to add new information.
~ System Modes
Constructing geometric models and producing drawings are two basic and popular
functions of CAD/CAM software. The software provides users with two basic modes to enable
them to perform the two functions . These are the model and drawing modes. Only one mode can
be active at anyone time. Both model and drawing modes utilize existing information in the
model database. However, if the model mode is active, the result of every modeling operation is
recorded in the model database. The drawing mode offers two options: local and associative. In
the local option, changes to a drawing are local to the drawing; they do not affect the model
database. In the associative option , changes in the drawing mode affect the model geometry and
database.
While the main purpose of the model mode is to construct a model geometry, the main
purpose of the drawing mode is to generate engineering drawings. The three major activities of
the drawing mode are model cleanup, documentation, and plotting. Model cleanup is the most
tedious and time-consuming activity a user can engage in. Starting with the three standard
orthographic views from the model database, the user should hide or change fonts of entities
according to the standard drafting rules. The user is usually faced with two main problems
during model cleanup. The first is overlapping entities. This problem appears if the user has to
blank (hide) these entities or change their fonts to dashed font. Reliable automatic hidden line
removal algorithms are helpful in model cleanup.
The second problem is that cleanup work is usually not recoverable. If the user destroys a
view during the cleanup process , the only alternative is to start from scratch by repeating the
work on a "fresh" view and discarding any previous cleanup work. It is also possible that the
CAD/CAM system might crash in the middle of a drawing session, which results in loss of the
drafting work also. The general advice is that the user must save more frequently during an
active session.
Once the cleanup work is completed, model documentation includes adding dimensions
and text notes, generating drawings, and producing bills of materials. Users are assumed to
know the standard rules of dimensioning and tolerancing. CAD/CAM systems provide users
with rich menus and commands for dimensioning and tolerance purposes.
Obtaining high-quality plots of the generated drawings is usually achieved by issuing the
proper plot command. The following standard drawing sizes are supported by all systems:
SIZE A 8 1/2 x 11
SIZE B 17 x 11
SIZE C 17 x 22
SIZE D 34 x 22
SIZE E 34 x 44
In addition to these standard sizes, user-defined drawing sizes are always provided. There
is always one of these sizes that is used as a default by the software. The mapping between the
orientation of a drawing on the display screen and on the drafting paper mounted on the plotter
must be understood by the user to avoid surprises. There is a modifier that can be used with the
plotter command to rotate the drawing orientation on the screen by 900 before it is plotted on the
paper.
fa Model Viewing
While model construction involves the creation of the model database , viewing affects the
way the model is displayed on the screen. Modeling and viewing are interrelated. Views are
defined by the various angles from which a model can be observed, as Figure 2.8 shows.
Essentially, the observer changes position in the MCS, while the model maintains its original
orientation. This effectively lines up the view with the plane of the computer screen. The
geometric transformation that generates the orthographic views is covered later in the book. An
infinite number of views can be defined for a model. Most software provides commands for the
standard views. Figure 2.9 shows the standard six 2D views of a model. Any 3D view of a model
can be generated by rotating the model in real time in its modeling space.
Observer
1line of sight
Front view
Figure 2.8 Standard viewing angles.

Right
Front
Left
Rear Bottom
Figure 2.9 Standard 20 views of a typical CAD model.
fa VRML Web-Based Viewing

The Internet has affected CAD/CAM as it has many other fields. One noticeable change is
that we can view CAD models in a Web browser without having the CAD systems that have
created them up and running. This is a significant advantage, especially for marketing engineers
and mobile designers. A marketing engineer may need to share product 3D shaded views with a
group of customers. Or, a CAD designer may want to present a CAD model to a group of
engineers in a meeting.
VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) enables us to display CAD models in a Web
browser. Moreover, we can manipulate these models. For example, we can rotate a 3D view in
the browser window to look at other invisible sides of it.
We need to download a VRML plug-in and install it in the browser. Search the Web using
a search engine, such as http.Z'www.google.com. for VRML plug-in freeware (free software).
Silicon Graphics' website provides VRML plug-in. Open a Web browser and type
http://www.cai.com/cosmos as the URL. Look for a VRML link and follow instructions. The
downloaded file is self-extracting. Double-click it and follow instructions to install it.
We need to use a CAD system to generate a VRML file before we can use the VRML
plug-in. While the CAD system is running, save the CAD file in VRML format to generate a
VRML file. Simply click this sequence : File = > Save As => select the VRML format and
type a filename. The VRML file extension is .wrl (for world) . See the upcoming screenshot.
We now open a browser window and open the .wrl file to view it. Use this sequence to
open the file: File (menu on browser menu bar) => Open => select the .wrl file => OK.
While the VRML file is open in the browser window, we can manipulate it using the buttons
offered by the plug-in as shown in the following screenshot.
Browser window
J~~:~1t~.;~~~,rii#""'i#Ii Fi" '0'; ';ii,g""'i iii""',j;; ,';;,;:;

IPart Files (',prt;' ,sldprt)
PartFiles [' ,prt;' .sldprt)
LibFealPart Files (' .sldlfp)
Part Templates (' ,prldol)
Parasolid Files ('.x_l)
Parasolid Binary Files (' .x_b)
IGES Files (' .igsJ
STEP AP203 (' ,slep)
STEP AP214(' ,step)
ACIS Files (' ,sal)
STLFiles (',sU)
VDAFS I',vdal :.S~ve file in this'!'
VRML(' ,wrl) -'--- Jo~atforWeb .
i~ERGF~~:s\:,ii~l ;~iewing. . >'
Viewpoinl MTX/MTS Files (' ,mts)
RealityWave ZGL Files (', 2gl)
Hcg Files ('.hcg)
VTU Files (' ,vlu)
HOOPS HSF Files (',hsfl
Til Files [' ,tifl
Clic k any of these buttons

to rotate model
fa Tutorials » :
2.17.1 Create a Rectangular Plate

This tutorial shows how to
create a 2'hD uniform thickness
model. We create the rectangular
plate, shown on the right. All
dimensions are in inches.
Modeling strategy:
1. Select Front sketch plane.
2. Sketch the profile shown in
the Front view.
3. Use extrusion with a
thickness of 3 inches, to create
the plate with no hole.
4. Select the Top sketch plane.
5. Sketch the circle in the center of the plate with a diameter of 1 inch.
6. Use a cut (extrude cut) operation to cut the hole from the plate.
If we swap steps 1 and 4 in the modeling strategy, the Front and Top views shown
would swap places.
There is an easier way to create this model. Start with the Top sketch plane, create the
rectangle and the circle inside it, and extrude the sketch with a 0.5 inch thickness.
2.17.2 Create a Base Plate

create a 2~D uniform thickness Top view
model. We create the base plate,

shown on the right: All dimensions
are in inches.
Modeling strategy:
1. Select the Front sketch
plane.
2. Sketch the profile shown in
the Front view.
thickness of 3 inches, to create
the plate with no hole.
4. Define the top of the plate as a
sketch plane .
5. Sketch the circle in the center
ofthe plate with a diameter of
1 inch.
6. Use a cut (extrude cut) operation to cut the hole from the plate.
If we swap steps 1 and 4 in the modeling strategy, the Front and Top views shown
would swap places .
We must define a sketch plane in step 4 although it is in the same orientation as the Top
sketch plane . The Top sketch plane of a CAD system passes through the origin of the system
MCS. Thus, the sketch plane parallel to it must be defined by selecting the top plane of the plate.
Re-create the model in a different way. Start with the Top sketch plane. Create a 3 x 3
rectangle with a circle, of 1 inch diameter, in the center of it. Extrude the sketch 2 inches up. Use
the top plane of the resulting extrusion as a sketch plane, sketch a 3 x 0.5 rectangle, and extrude
the rectangle half an inch up to finish the model.
2.17.3 Create a Support Bracket

create a 2Y2D uniform thickness
model. We create a support
bracket, shown on the right. All
dimensions are in inches .
Modeling strategy:
1. Select the Front sketch
plane.
2. Sketch the profile shown
in the Front view.
thickness oK~.75-
inches to 1
create the bracket without
the cutouts shown in the
screenshot on the right.
The creation of this
support bracket in any other way
becomes inefficient. The above modeling strategy is the most efficient one. Think of other
strategies and compare them with the one presented here.
The above modeling strategy creates the model shown in the accompanying screenshot, no
cutouts . Create the cutouts to complete the construction of the support bracket. Hint: Define a
sketch plane for each cutout, create a rectangular extrusion , and cut it out from the model shown
below. The dimensions of the rectangular extrusion do have to match those of the model on the
right. Make the dimensions large enough to make the extrusion stick in the front and the back of
the model. It does not really matter because the extrusion acts as a knife to cut material from the
model.
2.17.4 Create a Golf Ball

This tutorial shows
how to create a 2Y2D axi-
symmetric model with a
circular.pattern. We create a
golf ball , shown on the right.
All dimensions are in inches.
The golf ball diameter is
1.25 inches. The dent profile Dent
diameter is 0.06 inch with a
depth of 0.015 inch .
Modeling strategy:
2. Sketch a circle with diameter 1.25 inches. Also sketch an axis that passes through the
circle center.
3. Revolve the circle about the axis an angle of 180 degrees to create a sphere that makes up
the profile of the golf ball.
4. Sketch
.. .
' -.::the dent
~ '. ;
profile in the Front sketch plane.'Revolve
.. ,....
cut
.
it to create one dent. Also
~. , " ',
inthe same.sketch, create an axis which is 7 degreesi~<::.li~ed to the vertical axis, as shown
in ~~. ~sree!is~9t beI9w. . . '. .' .~"~:, " .
5. Circular pattern the dent profilewith an instance of 2.-Usethe angular dimension of 7
degrees'~s 'th6:nq~~enc~ drred ion of the pattern and the arigie'a s 7 degrees, shown in the
" , ;',. ~_. ' '"10:.; " ~ . ; • .- .• I • ..
is
-~
screenshot below;" .,..

6. Now using the central axis of the sphere as the reference, create the circular pattern of the
dent as shown in the screenshot below.
Step 6
Steps 4 and 5
7. Repeat step 5 but now create an instance of the dent at 14 degrees from the central axis.
After that, repeat step 6 to create a circular pattern of that instance. Select the number of
instances to fit the perimeter.
8. Repeat steps 5 and 6 to create the dent instance up to 90 degrees with increments of 7
degrees (21 degrees, ..., 84 degrees, 90 degrees -last increment is 6 degrees) and create
the circular pattern at each level of instance as shown on the screenshot below. .
9. Create the mirror image of the top half of the golf ball dent pattern (select all the patterns) ,
by using the Top plane as the mirror.plane, to complete the model as shown in the
following screenshot below.
Step 8 Step 9

As complex as the golf ball looks, it is an axisymmetric model with a circular pattern of
the dents. The circular pattern has a different number of dent instances, depending on the dent
level. Think of the earth's equator and the altitude lines above it and below it.
Can you think of another way to create the golf ball model?
PROBLEMS
Part I: Theory
2.1 Give an example of how the centralized integrated database concept can help with the what-if
situations that arise during the design process.
2.2 Discuss the contents of a database for a line, a circle, and an arc.
2.3 Can you define a nonorthogonal WCS? How is three-point definition interpreted by software?
Chapter 2 3D Modeling and Vjewing 63
2.4 What is underdefined, fully-defined and overdefined sketching? Explain your answer with
sketches.
2.5 What are the different types of geometric relations? Why would you use them in 3D geometric
modeling?
2.6 What information do you need to define a coordinate system? Why do CAD/CAM systems
allow you to define a coordinate system (i.e., what is the use of it)? Provide an example.
Part IT: Laboratory
Use your in-house CAD/CAM system to answer the questions in this part.
2.7 How can you define a sketch plane?
2.8 Create the following sketch FULLY DEFINED, without having to calculate any other
dimensions explicitly. Use only geometric modifiers (do not use any trim option), geometric
constraints, and the shown dimensions. The parallel lines in the sketch indicate that the lines
are of equal length.
2.9 Provide the mmimum required dimensions

needed to fully define the following sketch. Is
your answer the only option to fully define this
sketch? Support your answer by providing at
least three different options of fully defining
this sketch.
64 Chapter 2 3D Modeling and Viewing .
2.10 Create the model that has these two views.
Front view Top view
2.11 Create this axisymmetric model. All dimensions in mm.
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66 Chapter 2 - ~." 3D Modeling and Viewing
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IrSRECIAL.

McGraw Hill Education Offices

III McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Special Indian Edition 2007

MASTERING CAD /CAM

Copyright © 2005, by The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.

Fifteenth reprint 2014

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

ISBN (13 digit): 978-0-07-063434-3

Dr. Abe Zeid is a professor of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering at Northeastern

Part I: Using CAD/CAM Systems

Part II: Geometric Modeling

Part III: Computer Graphics

Part IV: Product Design and Development

Part V: Product Manufacturing and Management

Part I: Using CAD/CAM Systems

2.4.1 Model Coordinate System 35

3.11 Geometric Arrays 81

5.4.3 Membership Access 129

Part II: Geometric Modeling

Chapter 6 Curves 149

6.16.2 Create a Stop Block 224

7.19.3 Design a Pipe Elbow 294

9.7.2 Euler Equations 378

10.9.2 Create a Loft Feature 433

Part III: Computer Graphics

Chapter 11 Graphics Display 443

12.11.3 Isometric Projections 496

14.6 Animation Techniques 562

Part IV: Product Design and Development

>. 16.10 Managing Assemblies 642

17.15.1 Perform FEM/FEA on a CAD System 724

19.6 Traditional Design . 764

Part V: Product Manufacturing and Management

Chapter 20 Engineering Tolerances 775

20.16 Tutorials 834

22.8 G-Code and M-Code 877

r FEATURES. This book has many pedagogical and content features :

AUDIENCE. This book fills an important need in the market. Students in

ORGANIZATION. This book can be used in a series of semester courses-for

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. I am indebted to all of the people who helped

David Ben-Arieh, Kansas State University

Jan Helge Behn, Virginia Technological University

Rajesh N. Dave, New Jersey Institute of Technology

Hazim El-Mounayri, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis

Louis J. Everett, University of Texas-El Paso

Georges Fadel, Clemson University

Mustapha S. Fofana, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Jaime Hemandez-Mijangos, University of Wisconsin-Platteville

Kent L. Lawrence, University of Texas at Arlington

Sang-Joon Lee, San Jose State University

Jami J. Shah, Arizona State University

Yin-Lin Shen, George Washington University

Dusan Sormaz, Ohio University , Athens

Silvanus J. Udoka , North Carolina A&T State University

Shih-Liang (Sid) Wang, North Carolina A&T State University

Chun Zhang, Florida A&M University

Jack G. Zhou, Drexel University

Using CAD/CAM Systems