Vidyamandir

Vidyamandir Classes
Classes Functions
Functions

Functions

INTRODUCTION Section - 1

1.1 Definition :
Function can be defined as :
To every element in domain, there exists unique image in co-domain.
Generally, we write f : A  B and is read as f maps from A to B and this correspondence is denoted by
y  f ( x ) such that A and B are two non-empty sets, i.e. to every element of A, there exists one and only
one elements in B.
Note : From definition, it follows that there may exist some elements in B which may not have any corresponding
elements in set A. But there should not be any x left (elements of A) for which there is no elements in set B.

i.e. Functions can’t be multi - valued ( A mappying that is multi -valued is called relation from A to B)

1.2 How to test whether relation is a function or Not ?

Graphically :
A relation f : A  B is a function or not can be checked by a graph of the relation. If it is possible to draw
a vertical line in domain which cuts the given curve at more than one point, then the given relation is not a
function and when this vertical line (i.e. parallel to Y- axis) cuts the curve at one and only one point, then it is
a function.

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Illustrating the concepts :

Check whether the following relations are function or not ?

(i) y  x2 : R  R (ii) y  nx : R  R (iii) y  nx : [0,  )  R

(iv) y   nx : (0, )  R (v) y  nx : [1,  )  (0,  ) (vi) y  tan x : [0, ]  R

   
(vii) y = tanx : 0,    ,   R
 2 2 
SOLUTION :
2
(i) y  x ; R  R (ii) y  nx : R  R (iii) y  nx ; [0,  )  R

Illustration - 1

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Vidyamandir Classes Functions
Functions

(iv) y   nx ; (0, )  R (v) y  nx : [1,  )  (0,  ) (vi) y  tan x ; [0, ]  R

    
(vii) y  tan x : 0,    ,   R
 2 2 

1.3 Important terms : Domain, Range, Co-Domain

If a function f is defined from a set A to set B, then for f : A  B , set A is called the Domain of function
f and set B is called the co-domain of function f. The set of all f - images of the elements of A is called
the range of function f .
Domain  All possible value of x for which f ( x ) exists.
Range  For all values of x , all possible values of f ( x).

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Note : Basically, Range is a sub-set of Codomain.

TYPE OF FUNCTIONS : Section - 2

2.1 One - One mapping (Injection) :

Definition
A function f : A  B is said to be one - one mappying or injection, if different element of set A having
different images in B. Thus, no two elements of set A can have same f image.

a  b  f (a)  f (b) for all a, b  A or f ( a)  f (b)  a  b for all a, b  A

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2.2 Onto mapping (surjection) :

Definition
If the function f : A  B is such that each element of B is the f image of atleast one elements in A i.e. every
element of B is paired. It is expressed as f (A) = B i.e. range of f = co-domain of f.

2.3 Bijective Mapping

Definiting
A function f : A  B is a bijection if it is one - one as well as onto, i.e.
f : A  B is a bijection if
(i) it is one – one mapping i.e. f ( x)  f ( y )  x  y  x, y  A
(ii) it is onto mapping i.e.  y  B, there exists atleast one x  A
such that f ( x)  y.
Clearly, f is a bijection since it is both injective as well as surjective.

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INVERSE OF A FUNCTION Section - 3

3.1 Definition
Let f : A  B be a one - one and onto function (i.e. Bijective Mapping), then there exists a unique
function g : B  A such that f ( x )  y  g ( y )  x ; x  A and y  B.
Then g is said to be inverse of f
Thus, g  f 1 : B  A

3.2 Type of mapping and existence of inverse

Case I : Many - One and Into

Points to Note :
(i) f : A  B is a function [all domain elements have exactly one image]
(ii) f : A  B is a many - one function as for the image elements {1}there
are two pre - images in A (domain)
(iii) f : A  B is an into mapping as all the elements in co-domain do not
have pre-images.

But g : A  B is itself not a function as {1} [as an input] has two outputs a and b which is not possible.
Also {2} and {4} do not have any image in A.
So. no inverse exists in this case.
Case II : Many – One and Onto

Points to Note :
(i) f : A  B is an function [all domain elements have exactly one image]
(ii) f : A  B is a many - one function as for the image elements {1}
there are two pre-images {a, b} in A [domain]
(iii) f : A  B is an Onto mapping as all the elements in codomain are
paired [i.e. Range = Codomain]

But g : B  A is itself not a function as {1} [as an input] has two outputs a and b which is not possible.
Hence, no inverse exists in this case.

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Case III : One - One and Into

Points to Note :
(i) f : A  B is a function [all domain elements have exactly one image]
(ii) f : A  B is a one - one function as for each image elements there is
exactly one pre-image in A [Domain]
(iii) f : A  B is an Into mapping as all the elements in Codomain do not
have pre-images.

But g : B  A is itself not a function as {5} does not have any image in A.so, no inverse exists in this case.

Case IV : One - One and Onto

Points to Note :
(i) f : A  B is a function [all domain elements have exactly image]
(ii) f : A  B is one - one function as for each image elements therefore is
exactly one pre-image in A [Domain]
(iii) f : A  B is an onto mapping as all the elements in Co-domain are
paired [i.e. Range = Codomain]

Now g : B  A is a function [as all domain elements in B have exactly one image in A]

Also, g is one - one mapping as all elements in A have exactly one pre - image in B. Also g is onto mapp-
ing as all the elements of set A have pre - images in B [i.e. Range = Codomain]
Hence, g is one - one and onto such that we say g is inverse of f and f is inverse of g.

To conclude, we have :

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3.3 Steps to find the inverse of a function :

Let y  f ( x) : A  B . . . . . . (i)

y  f 1 ( x ) : B  A . . . . . . (ii)
1. Replace x by y and y by x. Also interchange the role of domain and Co-domain.
2. If (ii) i.e. y  f 1 ( x) : B  A is a function, then inverse exists else inverse does not exist.
3. If possible, express y as a function of x.

1
Note : (i) If you want only the graph of f ( x), do not check existence; simply x  y and y  x.
(ii) If y  f ( x) : A  B is injective (one - one) and surjective (Onto) i.e. bijective, then inverse will
exist. [see section 3, 2 for reference]

FUNCTIONS Section - 4

4.1 Introduction to Functions : [Practical Method]

Functions provide us with a convenient way to handle the relationship between the values of one variable
quantity that depends on the values of another variable quantity. For example, let us imagine a spherical
rubber balloon into which air is being pumped. The radius of the balloon (r) is changing with time t. In
mathematics, we say that r is a function of time t and symbolically, it may be written,
r = f (t) : r is a function of time t.

Similarly the volume of the balloon also depends on time t. Hence we can write
V = g (t) : V is function of time t.

Different letters f and g are used because they represent different mathematical relations.
In general, if the values of a variable y depend on the values of another variable x, we write
y = f (x) i.e., y is a function of x.
Explanation : Let y = f (x) be a real valued function.
Here f (x) can be understood as an operator between x and y. ‘x’ is feeded as input and ‘y’ is the
corresponding output.

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Consider y = f (x) = x + 1

i.e.

Ordered Pair : The combination of an input and output is called an ordered pair.
Representation of Ordered Pair : (x , y)
 
input output
So in above example orderd pairs are (0, 1), (–3, –2), (1, 2) etc., which satisfy the function.

4.2 Graph of a Function

It is the pictorial representation of a function. It is formed by plotting ordered
pairs that satisfy function.

Let y  f (x)  x  1. Graph of y  f (x) is shown :

y = f (x) is a linear polynomial whose graph is a straight line.

Note : A unique line passes through two given points. So to draw the graph of linear polynomials we needed to plot
only two ordered pairs and join them.

Illustrating the Concept :

1. Suppose it is given that y is the square of x. Then we may write,
y = f (x) = x2
2. Velocity of uniformly accelerating particle starting from rest depends on time t.
If acceleration is 2 m/s2, we can write, velocity (v) as a function of t.
i.e v (t) = 0 + 2t { Using v = u + at }

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4.3 Intervals and Notations

To express values a variable can take, we use following notations.
(i) Open interval :
If x can take values which lie strictly between a and b then we can write
a<x <b or x  (a, b)
(ii) Closed interval :
If x can take values which lie strictly between a and b or x can be equal to a or x can be equal to b,
then we can write
a< x< b or x  [a, b]
(iii) Half-open interval :
If only one end point is included for values of x, then the interval is called as half-open interval.
a< x  b or x  (a, b]
a < x<b or x  [a, b)
(iv) Infinite intervals :
If x can take all real values, than we can write as
–<x<  x  (– , ) or x  R
(v) Other Notations :
a<x  x  (a, )
a<x  x  [a, )
x< b  x  (– , b)
x<b  x  (– , b]

(vi) If x can take specific values, say x = a, x = b and x = c, then we can write x  {a, b, c}

4.4 Domain
While defining real-valued functions, we have to observe some restrictions. One such restriction is that we
1
can never divide by zero (0). Hence in the function y = f (x) = x  1 , x cannot be equal to 1.

Domain of y = f (x) is collection of all inputs that operator can take so that output of operator exists
OR
The set of values of x for which y takes real values (so that the function is well defined) is known as
the domain for that function.
Hence the domain of y = f (x) in above examples is x  (–, 1)  (1, ) or x  R – {1}.

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Illustrating the Concept :

Find the domain of the following functions.

1
(i) y = 1  x2 (ii) y = 2 sinx (iii) y
x2

1 1
(iv) 3 x  (v) x x (iv) 1  log10 x
log10 x
(i) Square root of a negative number is not defined
 1 – x2  0  x2  1  –1  x  1

Hence the domain of x is the interval [– 1, 1].

(ii) y = 2 sin x
Trigonometric function sin x is defined for all value of x
 x  R i.e. x  (– ,)
(iii) As denominator cannot be zero, x can not be 2
 x  (– , 2)  (2, ) i.e. x  R – {2}
(iv) Square root of a negative number is not defined
 3  x is defined if 3 – x  0
 x 3 . . . . . .(i)
log10x is defined if x > 0 and also denominator cannot be 0
 log10x cannot be 0  x  1
1
Hence log x is defined if x > 0 and x  1
10

 x  (0, ) – {1} . . . . . . (ii)

Combining (i) and (ii), domain is :
x  (0, 1)  (1, 3]
(v) f (x) is defined if : x + | x |  0

  x if x  0  
 x  –x  x>0  Using | x |   
   x if x  0  
Hence domain is x  (0, )
(vi) f (x) is defined if
1 – log10 x  0 and x>0
 log10 x  1 and x>0

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 x  10 and x > 0
 domain is x  (0, 10]

4.5 Range
Range of y = f (x) is collection of all outputs {f (x)} corresponding to each real input in the
domain.
OR
The set of values which y can take is known as the set of Range for that function.

NATURE OF A FUNCTION Section - 5

5.1 Even Function

If a function y = f (x) satisfies f   x   f  x  for all values of x in its domin, then y = f (x) is called an even
function.
Note : As an even function satisfies, f   x   f  x  , f (x) possesses same value for values of x which are equal in
magnitude and opposite in signs.
For example : f  1  f 1 , f  2   f  2  , f  3   f  3  . . . . .
Therefore graph of an even function is symmetrical about y-axis i.e. left half is mirror image of right half and
right half is mirror image of left half, considering y-axis as mirror.

Illustrating the concept :

(i) Consider f  x   x 2

f   x     x 2  x 2
 f  x  f  x
Hence f  x   x 2 is an even function.

Note : Graph of f  x   x 2 is symmetrical about y-axis.

(ii) Consider f (x) = cos x
f   x   cos   x   cos x [using cos     cos ]
 f  x  f  x 

Hence f (x) = cos x is an even function.

Note : Graph of f (x) = cos x is symmetrical about y-axis.

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5.2 Odd function

If a function y = f (x) satisfies f   x    f  x  for all values of x in its domain, then y = f (x) is called an odd
function.
Note : As an odd function satisfies, f   x    f  x  , f (x) possesses values equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
for all values of x which are also equal in magnitude but with opposite signs.

For example : f  1   f 1 , f  2    f  2  , f  3   f  3 , . . . . .

Therefore graph of an odd function is symmetrical about origin i.e. if we rotate the graph in right half about
origin through 180 , then we get graph in left half.

Illustrating the concept :

(i) Consider f  x   x3
3
f   x     x    x3

 f (x) satisfies, f   x    f  x 
Hence f  x   x3 is an odd function.

(ii) Consider f  x   sin x

f   x   sin   x    sin x [Using sin      sin  ]

 f  x  satisfies, f   x    f  x 

Hence f  x   sin x is an odd function.

Note : As graph is symmetrical about origin, left half of the graph can also be drawn by taking reflection of right half
in both x-axis as well as y-axis :

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5.3 Properties of Even and Odd Function

(a) Sum : (i) even + even = even
(ii) even + odd = neither even nor odd
(iii) odd + even = neither even nor odd
(iv) odd + odd = odd
(b) Difference : (i) even – even = even
(ii) even – odd = neither even nor odd
(iii) odd – even = nether even nor odd
(iv) odd – odd = odd
(c) Product : (i) even × even = even
(ii) even × odd = odd
(iii) odd × even = odd
(iv) odd × odd = even
(d) Division : (i) even  even = even
(ii) even  odd = odd
(iii) odd  even = odd
(iv) odd  odd = even
(e) (i) if f (x) + f (– x) = 0  f is odd function
(ii) if f (x) – f (– x) = 0  f is even function
(f) The square of an even or an odd function is always an even function.

5.4 Periodic function :

A function f (x) is said to be periodic function of x, if there exists a positive real number T such that f (x+ T)
= f (x), for all values of x in the domain of f (x).
The smallest value of T is called the fundamental period or period of the function.

Note : The positive T should be independent of x for f (x) to be periodic. In case T is not independent of x, f (x)
is not a periodic function.

Definition (Graphically)
A function is said to be periodic if its graph repeats itself after a fixed interval and the width of that interval is
called its period.

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For example :
 Graph of f  x  = A sin x repeats after an interview of 2 .
Thus, f (x) = A sin x is periodic with period 2 .

Standard Results on Periodic Functions

Properties of Periodic Function

(i) If f (x) has period T , then
(a) cf (x) has also period T
(b) f (x + c) is periodic with period T
(c) f (x)  c is periodic with period T
(d) If constant is added, subtracted, multiplied or divided in periodic function, period remains
same.
(e) Every constant function is always periodic, with no fundamental period.
(f) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist. But in case of trigonometric function since do-
main and range one restricted and defined, hence inverse exists.
(ii) If f (x) is periodic with period T, then
T
k f (cx + d) has period c , hence period is affected by coefficient of x only .
(iii) If f (x) and g(x) are two functions with period T1 and T2 respectively and h  x   a f  x   b g  x 
then h (x) has period = LCM of {T1, T2}

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Note : There are some exceptions to above result :

For Example : Period of {f (x) = | sin x | + | cos x |} = /2 instead of 
Period of {f (x) = sin4x + cos4 x} = /2 instead of 
Period of {f (x) = | tanx | + | cot x |} = /2 instead of 
(v) If f (x) is a periodic function with period T and g(x) is any function such that domain of f is a proper
subset of domain of g, then g (f (x)) is periodic with period T.
For Example : sin (x – [x]) = sin ({x}) is periodic with period 1 as x –[x] is periodic with period 1 .

HOW TO TAKE LCM

p r t LCM of  p ,r, t 
1. LCM of  q , s , u  
  HCF of  q , s , u 
2. (a) LCM of rational with rational is possible
(b) LCM of irrational with irrational is possible but LCM of two irrational number of different
kind (for example 2 3 and 3 2 ) does not exist.
(c) LCM of rational with irrational is not possible
For Example : LCM of (2, 2, 6) is not possible as 2, 6 Irrational and 2  rational.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS Section - 6

Basic functions can be categorised into the following categories.

1. Algebraic functions :
Algebraic functions can be of the following types :
(a) Monomial function (b) Polynomial function
(c) Rational function (d) Irrational function
2. Transcendental functions :
Trancendental functions can be of the following types :
(a) Logarithmic function (b) Exponential function
(c) Trigonometric function (d) Inverse Trigonometric function
3. Piecewise defined functions :
Piecewise defined functions can be of the following types :
(a) Modulus function (b) Greatest Integer function
(c) Fractional Part function (d) Least Integer function
(e) Signum function

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Following chart shows relationship between these functions.

6.1 Algebraic functions

(a) Monomial function :
Any function of the form f  x   kxn , where k is constant and n  N is known as monomial function.

For example : f  x   3x 4 is a monomial function of degree 4.

f  x   2 x3 is a monomial function of degree 3.

(b) Polynomial function :
A function f (x) = a0xn + a1xn  1 +… + an , (a0  0)
where a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are real constants and n is non-negative integer, is called a polynomial
function, where n is the degree of polynomial function.

For example :
f (x) = x1920 + 5x1919 + 6x (polynomial of degree 1920)

g (x) = x2 + 3x + 3 (polynomial of degree 2)

h (x) = 7 = 7x0 (polynomial of degree 0)

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(i) Constant function : If degree of a polynomial function is 0, then polynomial function is called as
constant function.
Constant functions is a function of the form y = f (x) = b, where b is a constant.

Constant function, f (x) = b possesses same value for all values of x.

As y remains constant for all values of x, graph of a constant function is a horizontal line.

For example :

(i) y = f (x) = 2 is a constant functions and

its graph is a horizontal line at y = 2.

(ii) y = f (x) = - 3 is a constant function

and its graph is a horizontal at y = -3.

(iii) y = f (x) function, whose graph is shown, is a constant

function for all values of x between 2 and 3.

i.e., f (x) = 1 (constant)  x [2, 3]

(ii) Identity function : If polynomial function takes the form y = f (x) = x for all x  R, then it is called
as identity function on R.

Consider y = f (x) = x

As y = x, both x and y take identical values. That is why this

function is called an identity function.

Both x and y are defined for all real values of x. So domain and
range of the identity function is all real values i.e.,
x  R and y  R.

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Graph of the identity function, f (x) = x is a straight line passing through the origin and inclined at an
angle of 45 with X-axis. It is also known as angle bisector of I and III quadrant.

(c) Rational algebraic function : A function of the form f ( x)  p( x) , where p (x) and q (x) are
q( x )
polynoials and q( x)  0, is called a rational function.
The domain of a rational function is the set of all real numbers except values where q (x) = 0.

(d) Irrational function : An algebraic function or rational function containing one more radicals
(non-integral rational power of x) is called an irrational function.

x3  x
e.g., , 3x 3  x3/2  9 x  1
2
2x  9

6.2 Transcendental function

(a) Logarithmic Function
Logarithmic function is represented as
y = loga x where x > 0, a  (0, 1) (1, )
If a > 1, y increases as x increases (as seen from graph).
If 0 < a < 1, y decreases as x increases.

Continuity :
The graph of f (x) = loga x is continuous (i.e. no break in the curve) in the respective domain.

Domain and Range :

The Domain of the function f (x) is x > 0 and Range is y  R.

Properties of Logarithmic Function :

(i) loga a = 1
(ii) loga 1 = 0
(iii) loga (mn) = loga m + loga n
(iv) loga (m/n) = loga m – loga n
(v) loga xm = m loga x

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log m b
(vi) log a b  m  1, m > 0
log m a

(vii) a log a x  x (viii) alogc b = blogc a

 x  y , if m  1
(ix) If logm x > logm y   (x) logm a = b  a = mb
 x  y , if 0  m  1

a  mb , if m  1  a  mb , if m 1

(xi) logm a > b   (xii) logm a < b  
 a  mb , if
b
a  m , if 0  m  1 0  m 1

(b) Exponential Function

y = ax where a > 1 or 0 < a < 1 is an exponential function of x.
This function is the inverse of logarithmic function i.e. it can be
obtained by interchanging x and y in y = loga x.
As observed from the graph, if a > 1, then y increases as x increases.
If 0 < a < 1, then y decreases as x increases.

Continuity :
The graph of f (x) = ax is continuous (i.e. no break in the curve)
everywhere.
Domain and Range:
The domain of the function f (x) is x  R and Range is y > 0.

(c) Trigonometric Functions

(i) y = A sin (mx)
(ii) y = A cos (mx)
(iii) y = A tan (mx)
Period :
Period of y = A sin (mx) and
y = A cos (mx) is T = (2)/m
Period of y = A tan (mx) is T = /m

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Continuity :
The graph of y = A sin (mx) and y = A cos (mx) is continuous
(i.e. no break in the curve) every where.
The graph of y = A tan (mx) is discontinuous

(i.e. break in the curve) at x = (2n + 1)
2m
Domain and Range :
The Domain of y = A sin (mx) and y = A cos (mx) is x  R
and Range is y [A, A].
The Domain of y = A tan (mx) is

x  R   2n  1 and Range is y  R.
2m
(iv) y = A cot mx
Period :
It is a periodic function with period = /m
Continuity :
It can be observe that y = A cot mx is discontinuous at
x = n/m where n  I
Domain and Range :
n
The domain of y = A cot mx is x  R – and the range is y R.
m

(v) y = A sec mx
Period :
It is a periodic function with period = 2/m.
Continuity :
It can be observe that y = A sec mx is
discontinuous at x = (2n + 1)/2m, n  I

Domain and Range :

The domain of y = A sec mx

is x  R   2n  1
2m
and the Range is y     ,  A   A,   .

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(vi) y = A cosec mx

Period :
It is a periodic function with period = 2/m.

Continuity :
It can be observe that y = A cosec mx is discontinuous at
x = n/m.

Domain and Range :

The domain of y = A cosec mx is R – {n /m} and the
range is y     ,  A   A,  

(d) Inverse Trigonometric Functions :

(i) y  sin 1 x  x  sin y
 
As 1  sin y  1   y
2 2

 Domain  x  [1. 1]
   
Range  y   ,
 2 2 
 
Principal value branch  y
2 2

(ii) y  cos 1 x  x  cos y

As 1  cos y  1  0 y 

Domain  x  [1, 1]

Range  y  [0,  ]

Principal value branch  0  y  

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(iii) y  tan 1 x  x  tan y

 
As   tan y    y
2 2
Domain x  R
   
Range y   , 
 2 2
 
Principal value branch  y
2 2

(iv) y  sec 1 x  x  sec y


As x  1 and 0  y   , y
2
Domain  (, 1]  [1, )
 
Range  [0,  ]   
2
Principal value branch  0  y   , y   / 2

(v) y  cos ec 1x  x  cos ec y

 
Here x  1 and  y , y0
2 2

Domain  ( , 1]  [1,  )

   
Range   ,   {0}
 2 2

 
Principal value branch   y , y0
2 2

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(vi) y  cot 1 x  x  cot y

Now   cot y    0  y  

Domain x  R

Range y  (0,  )

Principal value branch  (0,  )

Summary table of Inverse Trigonometric functions :

Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

(A) (i) sin(sin 1 x)  x  x  [1, 1] (ii) cos(cos 1 x)  x  x  [ 1, 1]

(iii) tan(tan 1 x )  x  x  R (iv) cos ec (cos ec 1x)  x  x  ( , 1]  [1,  )
(v) sec(sec 1 x)  x  x  (, 1]  [1, ) (vi) cot(cot 1 x )  x  x  R

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 
(B) (i) sin 1(sin x )  x if x
2 2

 3 
  x ; 2
x
2

    1   
But, if x   , , then sin sin x   x ;  x
 2 2  2 2
  3
  x ; 2
x
2


Now as y  sin 1 sin x is periodic function with period of 2 . So to obtain the graph of
y  f ( x ) we draw the graph for one interval of length 2 and repeat for entire values of x.

(ii) cos 1 cos x  x if 0  x  

1 x ; 0  x 
But if x  [0,  ] then cos cos x  
 2  x ;   x  2

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 
(iii) tan 1 tan x  x if x
2 2

  
 x ; x
     1 2 2
But if x   ,  then tan tan x  
 2 2 x    3
;  x
 2 2

6.3 Piecewise Defined functions :

(a) Modulus or Absolute Value Function
Modulus function is a numerical value function or we also call it as absolute value function.
5   5  5, 1  1,  2.53  2.53 …..etc.
it can also be understood as the distance defined with respect to origin.
For example, if x = 1 means distance covered is one unit on right hand side or left side of origin.
 x =1
 x=+1

x < 1 means distance covered is less than one unit on right hand side or left hand side of origin
as shown in the following figure

Similarly x > 1, means distance covered is more than one unit on right hands side or left hand
side of origin as shown in the following figure

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Modulus of x
f (x) = x = magnitude of x or the positive value of x.
The expression x can be further split as follows :

x ; x  0
y= x = 
 x ; x  0

Continuity :
The graph of y = x is continuous (i.e. no break in the curve) but has a corner at origin as shown.

Domain & Range :

The Domain of the function f (x) is x  R and Range is y  [0, ).

Results :
(A) If a > 0 then;
(i) | f (x) | = a  f (x) = + a
(ii) | f (x) | < a  – a < f (x) < a
(iii) | f (x) | > a  f (x) < – a or f (x) > a

(B) If a < 0 then ;

(i) | f (x) | = a  no solution
(ii) | f (x) | < a  no solution
(iii) | f (x) | > a  all real values of x in domain of f (x)

(b) Greatest integer function (unit step function) :

y = [ x ] = the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
It can also be simplified as :
y=[x]=n if n  x < n + 1
where n is an integer.

Continuity :
The graph of f (x) is discontinuous (i.e. break in the curve) at integral values of x.
Domain & Range :
The Domain of the function f (x) is x  R and Range is y  I (integer).

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Note : (a) [ x ] = x holds if x is integer. (b) [ x + a] = [ x ] + a if a is integer.

(c) x = [x] + {x}, {x} denotes the fractional part of x. (d) [ x ] =  [ x ], x  I
(e) [ x ] =  [ x ]  1, x  I (f) [x + y]  [x] + [y]

 [ x]   x 
(g)  n  = n , n  N
   

(c) Fractional part function :

Fractional part function is represented as y   x  x   x 

If we express y = {x} in intervals  x  0, 4  , we get :

 x 0  x 1

 x 1 1 x  2

y   x  x   x    x  2 2x3

x3 3 x4

 0 x4
Now plot the graph of above definition as shown in the figure.
We can extend graph for other values of x.
Continuity :
If we observe graph, we can see that graph has breaks at all integer values. Hence y = {x} is discontinuous
 x I.
Periodicity :
From graph, we can see that y = {x} repeats after interval 1. Therefore y = {x}is a periodic function with
period 1.
Domain & Range
Domain of y   x is x  R and range is y  0 , 1

(d) Least Integer function : (To be discussed in the later module of Function).
Least Integer function is represented as y  ( x)
(x) represents least integer  x i.e. integer on x integer just on right of x.
Illustrating the concepts :
(0.3)  1, (0.5)  0, (1. 3)  2
It is also known as ceiling of x. If we express y  ( x) in interval x  [0, 4], we get :

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1 0  x  1
2 1  x  2

y  ( x )  3 2  x  3
4 3  x  4

0 x  0

The graph of the above definition is shown in figure.

We can extend this graph for other values of x.

Domain & Range
The domain of y  ( x) is x  R and Range is y  I .
Continuity :
If we observe graph, we can see breaks at all integer values of x. Hence y  ( x) is discontinuous  x  I .
Periodicity :
From graph, we can see that y  ( x) does not repeat after any interval. Therefore y  ( x) is not a periodic
function.

Properties of “Least integer function”

(i) ( x  n)  ( x)  n (ii) x  ( x)   x  1, x  I

 n 1   n  2   n  4 
(iii) ( x )  ( x ), x  I (iv)     ...  2n, n  N
 2   4   8 
 1  2  n 1 
(v) ( x)   x     x    ...   x    ( nx)  n  1, n  N
 n  n  n 

(e) Signum Function :

1 , x  0

y = sgn (x) = 0 , x  0
 1 , x  0


This can also be written as

x
 , x0
y = sgn (x) = x

0 , x0

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Domain and Range

Domain of y = sgn (x) is x  R and range is y  1, 0, 1
Continuity
The graph of f (x) is continuous for all values of x except at x = 0 where there is a break in the curve.

GRAPHS TO REMEMBER Section - 7

You are supposed to remember graphs of all functions that we studied in earlier sections. There are other
graphs that you should learn and remember. See the following graphs that you have to always remember.

1. y=x 2. y=–x

3. y=|x| 4. y=–|x|

5. |y|=x 6. –|y|=x

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7. y2 = 4ax 8. y2 = – 4ax

9. x2 = 4ay 10. x2 = – 4ay

11. y = ax2 greater is ‘a’ steeper is curve.

1 1 1 1
12. y  n , n is odd integer  1 [i.e. graph of y  , , , . . . . can be
x x x3 x5

considered same (for rough sketching)].

1 1 1 1
13. y  n , n is even integer > 1 [i.e. graph of y  , , , . . . . can
x x 2 x4 x6

be considered same (for rough ketching)].

14. y  xn , n is even integer  2 [i.e. graph of y  x 2 , x 4 , x6 , . . . . can be

considered same (for rough sketching)].

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15. y  x n , n is odd integer > 1 [i.e. graph of y  x3 , x5 , x7 , . . . . can be

considered same (for rough sketching)].

TRANSFORMATIONS Section - 8

8.1 Transformations
(i) Transformation 1

(a) y = f (x) 
 y = f (x + a)
To draw y = f (x + a), shift the graph of
y = f (x) through ‘a’ units towards left.

(b)  y = f (x  a)
y = f (x) 
To draw y = f (x – a) shift the graph of
y = f (x) through ‘a’ unit towards right.

Illustrating the concept :

Plot the graph of following :
(i) 4y = 2x (ii) y = 4.2x
(i) 4y =2x  y = 2x – 2 . (ii) y = 4.2x  y = 2x + 2

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(ii) Transformation 2
(a) y = f (x) 
 y + a = f (x)
To draw y + a = f (x), shift graph of
y = f (x) by a units downward.

(b)  y  a = f (x)
y = f (x) 
To draw y  a = f (x), shift the
graph of y = f (x) by a units upward.

Illustrating the concept :

(i) Draw the graph of : y = cos2x.

1  cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x  cos 2 x

y=  y= + y  a  f ( x ) y=
2 2 2 2

Observation:
In f (x) = cos2 x maximum value of f (x) is 1 and minimum value of f (x) is 0.

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(ii) Plot the graph of following : (a) y = ex –1 (b) y  log e x  1

(a) y = ex –1  y + 1 = ex  y = ex

y  a  f ( x)

(b) y = logex –1  y + 1 = logex  y = logex

y  a  f ( x)

(iii) Transformation 3
y = f (x) 
 y = f (x)
To plot y = f ( x), Draw y = f (x) first then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in the yaxis.

Illustrating the concept :

 π π
Sketch the graph of following function : (i) y –e–x = 0 , (ii) y = cosec (x)  x   – 2 , 2 
 

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(i) y = e–x 

f ( x)  f ( x)
 y = ex

(ii) y = cosec (–x) 

f ( x)  f ( x)
 y = cosec (x)

(iv) Transformation 4
 y =  f (x)
y = f (x) 

To plot y =  f (x), Draw y = f (x) first and then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in x-axis.

Illustrating the concept :

Sketch the graph of following functions :
(i) x2y = 1 ; (ii) y = log 1/x

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1 1
(i) y   y
x 2 f  x   f  x  x2

1
(ii) y  log   log x  y  log x
x f  x   f  x

(v) Transformation 5
y = f (x) 
 y = f (| x |)
To plot y = f (| x |), draw the graph of y = f (x) first, then remove the portion of the graph in left half
and after that take the mirror image of portion of the graph in right half in the Y-axis. Also include the
right portion of the graph of y = f (x).

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Illustrating the concept :

Sketch the graph of following functions :

1
(i) y = |x|+ 1 ; (ii) y = x2 – 2 | x | + 3
1 1
(i) y = | x | + 1 
f ( x )  f (| x |) y =
 y = 1
x 1 f ( x )  f ( x  a)
x

(ii) y = x2 – 2 | x | + 3 
f ( x)  f (| x |)  y = x – 2x + 3
2

(vi) Transformation 6
y = f (x) 
 y = | f (x) |

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To plot y = | f (x) |, draw the curve y = f (x), then take the mirror image of the lower portion of the
curve (the curve below xaxis) in xaxis and then reject the lower part (or flip lower part into upper)
Also include the upper protion of the curve y  f ( x).

Illustrating the concept :

Draw the graph of the following curves :
(i) y = | x2 – 2x – 3| ; (ii) y = | log x | .
(i) y = | x2 – 2x – 3 |   2
f ( x)  | f ( x)| y = x – 2x – 3

(ii) y = | log x | 

f ( x)  | f ( x)| y = log x


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(vii) Transformation 7

y = f (x) 
 | y | = f (x)
To plot | y | = f (x), draw y = f (x) first then remove the lower portion of the curve (part of the
curve below x-axis) and then take the mirror image of upper portion (part of the curve above
x-axis) in xaxis. Also include the upper portion of the curve y = f (x).

Illustrating the concept :

Draw the graph of the following curves : (i) | y | = (x – 1) (x – 2) ; (ii) | y | = sin x

(i) | y | = (x – 1) (x – 2) 
| y |  f ( x) y = (x – 1) (x – 2)


(ii) | y | = sin

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(viii) Transformation 8
y = f (x) 
 y = [ f (x) ].
To plot y = [ f (x) ] use the following working rule :
(i) Draw y = f (x).
(ii) Draw y = k horizontal lines separated by unit distance till they intersect the graph,
where k  I (integer)
(iii) From the point of intersection of above horizontal lines with the graph of y = f(x) draw
vertical line.
(iv) From each intersection point draw horizontal lines upto nearest right vertical line such
that the horizontal line is always below the graph.
(v) Horizontal step drawn in step-(iv) is graph of y = [f (x)]

Illustrating the concept :

Draw the graph of the following curves : (i) y = [2 sin x] in [0, 2] ; (ii) y = [x/2]
(i) y  [2sin x] 
 y  2sin x
f ( x ) [ f ( x )]

Draw horizontal line at y I From each intersection point draw horizontal lines upto
nearest right vertical line such that the horizontal line
is always below the graph

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(ii) y = [x/2]

Draw horizontal line at y I From each intersection point draw horizontal lines upto
nearest right vertical line such that the horizontal line is
always below the graph

(ix) Transformation 9
y = f (x) 
 y = f ( [ x ] ).
To plot y = f ([x]) use the following working rule :

(i) Draw y = f (x).

(ii) Plot the x = k vertical lines till they intersect the graph of y = f (x) where k  I (integer).
(iii) Draw horizontal lines of 1 unit (parallel to x-axis) from point of intersection (y = f ( (x) ) and
vertical lines) to meet the nearest right vertical line. Keep horizontal lines open towards right.
(iv) Horizontal steps drawn in steps (iii) is the graph of y = f ( [x] ).

Illustrating the concepts :

Draw the graph of the following curves :
(i) y = e[x]

y = e[x] 
f ( x )  f [ x]
 y = ex

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Draw vertical x  I Draw horizontal lines (parallel to x-axis) from point of

intersection to meet the nearest right vertical line. Keep
horizontal lines open towards right

(ii) y = sin [x]

y = sin[x]  y = sin x
f ( x )  f [ x]

Draw vertical x  I Draw horizontal lines (parallel to x-axis) from point of intersection
to meet the nearest right vertical line. Keep horizontal lines open
towards right

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(x) Transformation 10
y = f (x)   y = [ f (x) ].
To plot y = [ f (x) ] use the following working rule :
(i) Draw y = f (x).
(ii) Draw y = k horizontal lines separated by unit distance till they intersect the graph,
where k  I (integer)
(iii) From the point of intersection of above horizontal lines with the graph of y = f(x)
draw vertical line.
(iv) From each intersection point draw horizontal lines upto nearest right vertical line
such that the horizontal line is always below the graph.
(v) Horizontal step drawn in step-(iv) is graph of y = [f (x)]

Illustrating the concepts :

Draw the graph of the following curves :

(i) y = [2 sin x] in [0, 2]

y = [2 sin x]  y = 2 sin x

f ( x )  [ f  x ]

Draw horizontal line at y I From each intersection point draw horizontal lines upto
nearest right vertical line such that the horizontal line
is always below the graph

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(ii) y = [x/2]
y = [x/2]

Draw horizontal line at y I From each intersection point draw horizontal lines upto
nearest right vertical line such that the horizontal line is
always below the graph

(xi) Transformation 11
y = f (x) 
 [ y ] = f (x).
To plot [ y ] = f (x) use the following working rule :

(i) Draw y = f (x).

(ii) Draw y = k horizontal lines separated by unit distance till they intersect the graph.
where k  I.
(iii) Mark the intersection points of these horizontal lines with the curve.
(iv) Draw vertical lines of unit length starting from the intersection to the next upper horizontal line.
Do not include upper point of these vertcial lines.
(iv) The vertical lines drawn in step (iv) is the graph of [y] = f (x).

Illustrating the concepts :

Draw the graph of [y ] = x2 + 2
[ y ] = x2 + 2  y = x2 + 2
[ y]  y

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Draw horizontal line at y I Draw vertical lines of unit length starting from the intersection
to the next upper horizontal line. Do not include upper point
of these vertcial lines.

(xii) Transformation 12
x = f (y) 
 x = [ f (y)].
To draw x = [ f (y)] from x = f (y) do the following
(i) Draw x = f (y)
(ii) Draw x = k vertical lines separated by unit distance where k  I.
(iii) Take the projection of the curve over the vertical line just left to it.

Illustrating the concepts :

Draw the graph of x =  y 

x =  y   
[ f ( y )]  f ( y ) x = y

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(xiii) Transformation 13
y = f (x) 
 y = f ({x})
To plot y = f ({x}) from the graph of y = f (x), first draw y = f (x) in the interval x [0,1)
and then repeat the curve for all other intervals of x with periodicity 1.

Illustrating the concepts :

Draw the graph of following :
(i) y = {x}2  3{x} + 2
y = {x}2  3{x} + 2 
 y = x2  3x + 2 = (x  1) (x 2)
f ( x )  f ({ x})

ex
(ii) y=
e[ x ]

ex
y= [ x] = e{x} 
f ( x )  f ({ x})
 y = ex
e

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(xiv) Transformation 14

y = f (x) 
 y = { f (x)}
To Draw y = { f (x)}. Draw y = k horizontal lines corresponding to integral points. Transfer the graph
between two consecutive lines to the interval y  [0, 1). Don’t include points lying on the line y = 1.

Illustrating the concepts :

Draw the graph of following :
(i) y = {ex}
y = {ex} 
 y = ex
f ( x )  { f ( x )}

Draw horizontal line at y I Between two consecutive lines transfer

the graph in the interval y [0, 1)

(ii) y = {2 sinx }
y = {2 sinx } 
 y = 2 sinx
f ( x )  { f ( x )}

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Draw horizontal line at y I Between

two consecutive lines transfer the graph
in the interval y [0, 1)

(xv) Transformation 15
y = f (x) 
 { y} = f (x)

To Draw { y} = f (x). Draw the graph of y = f (x) then retain the graph of y = f (x) which lies between
y  [0, 1) and neglect the graph for other values. Also repeat this graph in the same interval for x, but
for all intervals y  [n, n + 1).

Illustrating the concepts :

Plot the graph of {y} = e–x
{y} = e–x 
 y = e–x
y  { y}

Draw y = f (x) Reject the graph for y  [0, 1) and then repeat
this graph for all y  [n, n + 1).

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(xvi) Transformation 16

x = f (y) 
 x = { f (y)}

To Draw x = { f (y)}. Draw x = f (y). Draw vertical lines corresponding to integral values of x.
Transfer the graph between two consecutive vertical lines to the region x  [0, 1). Don’t include the
points lying on x = 1.

Illustrating the concepts :

Plot the graph of x = {y}
x = {y}   x=y
f ( y )   f  y 

(xvii) Transformation 17
y = f (x) 
 y = sgn ( f (x))

To Draw y = sgn ( f (x)). Draw y = f (x). Then draw y = 1 for which f(x) > 0 and y = –1 for which
f (x) < 0 and y = 0 for which f (x) = 0.

Illustrating the concepts :

Plot the graph of y = sgn (logx)
y = sgn (log x)   y = logx
f  x   sgn  f  x  

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COMPOSITE FUNCTION Section - 9

Let A, B and C be three non-empty sets.

Let f : A  B and g : B  C be two functions then gof : A  C. This function is called Composite
Function.
Note :
(i) fog(x) = f (g (x)) ; (ii) fof (x) = f (f (x)) ;
(iii) gog(x) = g(g(x)) ; (iv) gof (x) = g (f (x)).

Explanation :
(i) To undrestand the concept of composite function consider fog(x) :

In the above diagram, for Ist block, ‘x’ is the independent variable and corresponding g(x) is the
dependent variable. But for IInd block, g(x) i.e. the dependent variable of Ist block is independent
variable corresponding fog(x) is the dependent variable.

(ii) fof (x) is

(iii) gof (x) is

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(iv) gog(x) is

Illustrating the concept :

If f (x) and g(x) are two functions such that f (x) = sin x and g(x) = x2 then
(i) Show that fog  gof ; (ii) Find the values of (fog)  π /2  and (gof) (/3).
(i) As (fog) (x) = f {g (x)} = f (x2) = sin x2 . . . . . . (i)
and (gof) (x) = g {f (x)} = g (sin x) = sin2 x . . . . . . (ii)
From (i) and (ii), ( fog) (x)  (gof) (x)

   1
(ii) From (i),  fog  x  sin x2   fog   2   sin    
  4 2

2
  2    3   3
and From (ii),  gof  x  sin2 x   gof     sin
3 3  2  4

Illustration - 1
The period of the following functions f (x) = sin4 x  cos 4 x is :
 
(A) 2 (B)  (C) (D)
2 4
SOLUTION : (C)

f (x) = sin4 x  cos 4 x 1 3 1

= 1 1  cos 4 x    cos 4 x
4 4 4
2
=  sin2 x  cos 2 x   2sin2 x cos 2 x 2 
Period = 
1 1 4 2
2
= 1  2 sin x cos x   1  sin2 2 x
2 2
[Using sin 2 = 2 sin cos)

Illustration - 2 The period of the functions f (x) = a sin kx + b cos kx is :

2  
(A) (B) (C) (D) None of these
k k 2k
SOLUTION : (A)
f (x) = a sin kx + b cos kx

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 a b 
f  x   a2  b2  sin kx  cos kx 
 a2  b2 a 2  b2 

 a 2  b2 sin  kx    , where   tan1 b

a
2
Period of f  x   k

Another Approach :
2 2
We know, period of sin kx  and period of coskx 
k k
 2 2  2
Hence period of f  x   a sin kx  b cos kx = LCM of  , =
 k k  k

Illustration - 3
sin 2nx 
If f  x   , n  N has as it’s fundamental period. then n.=
2
1  cos nx 6
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 6 (D) 12
SOLUTION : (C)
sin 2nx 2 sin 2nx 
f  x   Hence period of f  x  
 3  cos 2nx
1  1  cos 2nx 
 n
 2 

But period of f (x) = (given)
2  6
T1 : period of sin 2nx  
2n n  n=6
T2 : period of cos 2nx  2  
2n n

Illustration - 4
If f  x   sin    x  is a periodic function with period  where [.] denotes greatest inte-
ger function, then   :
(A) (4, 5) (B) [4, 5) (C) (2, 3) (D) [2, 3)
SOLUTION : (B)
2
Period =   [ ] = 4  4    5


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Illustration - 5
The domain of the function f  x   x  1  x 2 is x 

 1   1   1   1   1 
(A)  1,  , 1 (B) 1, 1 (C)   ,   ,  (D)  , 1
 2  2   2  2   2 
SOLUTION : (D)

For f  x  to be defined, we must have x  1  x2  0 or x  1  x2

1 1 1
 x2  1  x2  x2   x or x
2 2 2

But x  1 x2  x0

1
 x ....(i)
2

Also, 1 x2  0  x2  1  x 2  1  0   x  1  x  1  0  x 1, 1 ....(ii)

 1 
From (i) and (ii) we get : x   , 1
 2 

Illustration - 6  x  1  x  3
The domain of the function f  x    x  2
is x 

(A) 1, 2 3,  (B) 1, 2 3,  (C) 1, 2  3,  (D) None of these
SOLUTION : (A)

For f  x  to defined  Critical points are -1, 2, 3

 x  1  x  3 
0
 x  2
 x 1, 2 3, 

Illustration - 7
1 x
The domain of the function f  x   2  x is x  

(A) 1, 1    ,  2  2,  (B) 1, 1   ,  2   2, 

(C) 1, 1  ,  2   2,  (D) None of these

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SOLUTION : (C)

1 x Put x  t
f  x  is defined, if 2  x  0 and

2 x  0   t  1  t  2  0

 t  1 or t  2

 1 x  2  x   0 and x  2, 2
2  x  1 or x  2
2  x 
 1 x  1 or  x  2 or x  2
  x  1 x  2  0 and x  2, 2
Domain of f is 1, 1    ,  2  2, 

Illustration - 8
The domain of the function f  x   log10  3  x  is x  
 x 

 3  3  3
(A)  0, (B) (0, 3) (C)   , (D)  0,
 2   2   2 

SOLUTION : (D)

 3 x   3 x  For f ( x )  loga x is defined for

log10   is defined for log10  0
 x   x 
 x  0, a  0, a  1
3 x  3
  100  1  x   0,  ....(i)  3 x 
x  2 log10   is defined for
 x 

3 x
0  0 x3 ....(ii)
x

 3
From (i) and (ii), we get domain of f is x   0,  .
2  

Illustration - 9 1
The domain of the function f  x   is x  
 x 2   x   6
(A)   ,  2 4,  (B)   ,  2  4, 

(C)  ,  2 4,  (D) None of these

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SOLUTION : (A)

f  x  is defined for  x  2

Also  x  3 for  x   4, 5, 6 ...

 x2   x  6  0   x  3  x  2  0
 x4
  x  2 or  x   3
Domain of f is x  ,  2  4, .
But  x  2 for  x   3,  4,  5, ...

Illustration - 10 x
The range of the function y  is y 
1  x2

 1  1 1  1 
(A) 0, 2  (B)  2 , 2  (C)   2 , 0 (D) None of these
    

SOLUTION : (B)
Clearly, y is defined for all real x. 1  4 y 2  0, y  0

 Domain of y is x  ,.

 1  2 y  1  2 y   0, y  0

We have, y 
x
 y  x2 y  x
 2y  1  2 y  1  0, y  0
1 x 2
1 1
   y  , y 0
2 2
 x2 y  x  y  0
Also, if y = 0, we get x = 0 so that y = 0 isalso in
For x to be real, discriminant of above quadratic
the range.
equation  0
 1 1
 Range of y    , 
 2 2

Illustration - 11 x2
The range of the function y  is y 
1  x2
(A) [0, 1) (B) (0, 1) (C) [0, 1] (D) None of these
SOLUTION : (A) 2 y y y 1  y 
 x  1 y  x  
y is defined for all real x. 1 y 1  y
For x to be real,
 Domaain of y is x    ,  
1  y  0 i.e., y  1 and y 1  y   0
x 2 2
we have, y  x y  yx
1  x2  y  y  1  0 and y  1
Range of y  [0, 1)

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Illustration - 12 If f  x  is an odd function with period 2, find the value of f  4.

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) None of these
SOLUTION : (A)
As f  x  is an odd function f  x  2  f  x  4 ...(iii)
 f  x    f  x  Using (ii) and (iii) we have :

Put x  0  f  0    f  0 f  x   f  x  4

 f 0  0 ...(i) Put x  0

As f  x  is periodic with period 2  f 0  f  0  4

 f  x   f  x  2 ...(ii) But f  0  0 ....[Using (i)]

Replace x by x  2 Hence value of f  4  0

Illustration - 13 2
The domain of the function f  x   x 2   x 2  , where [x] is greatest integer less than
 
or equal to x is :
(A) R (B) 0,   (C)   , 0  (D) None of these
SOLUTION (D) :
For f (x) to take real values, expression inside
square root should be non-negative.
2
i.e., x 2   x   0

2
Let us draw graph of y = x2 and y   x  and
observe graphically where their difference can
be non-negative. From graaph it is obvious that
difference of x 2 and x 2 is non-negative for all
 
x  0,   i.e. region right of y-axis as well as  domain is x  [0, )  n where n  N
negative integers.

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Illustration - 14   2 
The domain of the function f  x   log10 1  log10  x  5x  16   is x
 
(A) (2, 3) (B) [2, 3] (C) (2, 3] (D) [2, 3)
SOLUTION : (A)
Domain of y  log10 x is x > 0 and x 2  5 x  16  10
 For f (x) to be defined,
 x R and x 2  5x  6  0
1  log10  x 2  5 x  16   0
   x R and  x  2  x  3  0
 log10  x 2  5 x  16   1  x  R and x   2 , 3
 
On combining we get :
 x 2  5 x 16  0
Domain of f (x) is x   2, 3 .

Illustration - 15 The domain of the function f  x   log cos x  x   ,  is x 

x  
          
(A)  2 , 2   1 (B)  2 ,
2 
 1 (C)  ,
2 2  (D) None of these
   

SOLUTION : (D)
log g  x  f  x  is defined for

f  x   0 and g  x    0, 1  1,  

 cos x > 0 and x   0 , 1  1,   . . . . .(i)

From graph, cos x > 0
Combining (i) and (ii),
 
 x   , 
Domain of f (x) is x   0,   - {1}
. . . . . .(ii)
 2 2
 2

Illustration - 16
The range of the function is : f  x   log e  3x 2  4 x  5  is :
 

 11   11   11 11
(A)   , log e (B) log e ,  (C)   log e 3 , log e 3  (D) None of these
 3   3   

SOLUTION : (B)
 D  Where D is the discriminant and a is coefficient of x2
Range of 3x 2  4 x  5 is  4a ,  
 
of quadratic expression 3x 2  4 x  5

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  16  60   11 11 
 Range of 3x 2  4 x  5   , 

t
 
,   , log e t  log e ,  
 43  3   3 
 2  11 
 Range of 3x 2  4 x  5  11 ,      3x  4 x  5    3 ,  
 
3 
From graph of y  log e t , we can observe that
 11 
log  3x 2  4 x  5   log e ,  
   3 
 2 
Hence range of log  3x  4 x  5  is
[loge 11/3,  )

Illustration - 17
The range of the function is : f  x   3x 2  4 x  5 is :

 11   11   11   11 
(A)  ,  (B)   ,  (C)  ,   (D)  ,  
 3   3   3  3
    
SOLUTION : (C)
 D 
Range of 3x 2  4 x  5 is  4a ,  
 

Where D is the discriminant and a is coefficient of x2

of quadratic expression 3x 2  4 x  5
  16  60  
 Range of 3x 2  4 x  5  , 
43   2  11 
 
   3x  4 x  5    3 ,   ,
 
11 
 Range of is 3x 2  4 x  5 is  3 ,    11 
  3x 2  4 x  5   ,  
 3 
From graph of y  t , we can observe that  11 
Hence range of is 3x 2  4 x  5 is  3 ,  
11   11   
 t   , , t   ,  
3   3 

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Illustration - 18 x x x x x
The period of the function h (x) = sin x  tan  sin 2  tan 3  . . . .  sin n 1  tan n
2 2 2 2 2
is :
(A) 2 (B) 2n 1 (C) 2n  (D) 2n 1
SOLUTION : (C)
x x
Let f  x   sin x  sin 2  . . . .  sin n  1
2 2
x x x
g  x   tan  tan  . . . . .  tan
2 23 2n
x x x
sin x, s in , sin . . . . . . . . , sin
22 24 2n  1
   
Period : 2 22(2) 24 (2) 2 n  1  2 

Period of f (x) = LCM of  2 , 22  2  , 24  2  . . . . 2n 1  2    2n  1  2   2n 

Now consider g (x)

x x x x
ta n , ta n , ta n . . . . . . tan n
2 23 25 2
   
   
Period : , , . . . . . . . . .
1/ 2 1 / 23 1 / 25 1 / 2n
 2, 23  , 25  . . . . . . . . . 2 n 

Period of g (x) = LCM  2 , 23 . . . . .2n    2n

Period of h (x) = f (x) + g (x)

= LCM of  2n  , 2n    2n 

Illustration - 19 The period of the function f  x   cos  2 2 x   sin  2 2 x where [.] is fractional
part of x is :
(A) 1 (B) 1/2 (C) 1/4 (D) /2
SOLUTION : (B)
We know, {2x} is a periodic function with period 1
1/2 Hence cos  2 2 x has period of T 
2

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and similarly sin  2 2 x has period of Hence f (x) has period
1 1 1 1
T  = LCM  ,  
2 2 2 2

Illustration - 20
The period of the function f  x   sin  3 x   cos  5 x  is :

2 2 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) f (x) is not periodic
3 5 15

SOLUTION : (D)
We know,
2  2 2 
Period of sin  3 x   ,
3 LCM of   does not exist, hence
 3 5
2 f (x) is not a periodic function.
and Period of cos  5 x  
5

Illustration - 21  
sin 2 x  sin 2  x    cos x cos  x  
The period of the function f  x   a  3  3  is :

(A)  (B) 2 (C) /2 (D) Periodic no fundamental point

SOLUTION : (D)
   
Let g  x   sin2 x  sin 2  x    cos x cos  x  
 3  3

 2    
1  cos  2 x   cos  2 x    cos
1  cos 2 x  3   3 3
  
2 2 2
[Using 2 cosA cosB = cos (A + B) + cos (A  B)]
1 5   2     
=   cos 2 x  cos  2 x    cos  2 x    
2 2   3   3  

1 5        5
= 2  2  2 cos  2 x   cos 3  cos  2 x     4
  3  3 

 A B   A B 
[Using cosA + cosB = 2 cos   cos  ]
 2   2 

Hence f  x   a5 / 4 is constant

 f (x) is periodic function with no fundamental period.

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Illustration - 22
The period of the function f  x   e x   x  |cos  x|  |cos 2 x|  . . . . .  |cos n x| is :

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) None of these

SOLUTION : (A)

f  x   e x  |cos  x|  |cos 2 x|  . . . . .  |cos n x|

g  x    x  |cos  x|  |cos 2 x|  . . . . .  |cos n x|

Period = LCM 1, 1, 1 , 1 . . . . . ., 1
2 3 n 
    LCM 1, 1, 1, . . . . 1 1
  ...................    1
Period 1 HCF 1, 2 , 3, . . . . n 1
 2 n
1 1 1
1 , 1, , . . . . . . ,
2 3 n

Illustration - 23  1, x is rational 
The period of the function f  x    0 , x is irrational  is :
 
(A) 1 (B) 1/2 (C) 2 (D) No fundamental period
SOLUTION : (D)
For every rational no. T, we have but there is no least value of T for which f (T + x) =
f (x) because there are infinite rational numbers
1, when x is rational  between any two rational numbers. Therefore, f (x)
f T  x      f  x
0 , when x is an irrational  is periodic function having no fundamental period.

Illustration - 24 sin  sin nx 

If f  x   has period 6 where n N then find the minimum value of n is :
x
tan
n
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) No value of n
SOLUTION : (B)
2  2 
T1 : period of sin nx   Period of f (x) = LCM  , n 
n  n 
x   2 n 2 n 
T2 : 
period of tan  n = LCM  2 ,
n 1/ n 
 n 2 
f (x) can repeat only when sin (sin nx) and
x L C M  2 n  , 2 n 
tan repeats at the same time. =
2 HCF  n2 , 2

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Case : I n2 is multiple of 2 Case : II n2 is not multiple of 2 i.e. n2 = 2k + 1

 n2 = 2k 2n
2n
Period of f  x   
2n HCF  2k  1, 2 1
Period of f  x  
HCF  2k , 2 
 2n = 6   n=3
2n
  n  n = 6 
2
 n=6

Illustration - 25
1
 
2
The domain of the definition of the function f  x  sin log2 x  3x  4  is :
 1  1 
(A) 4, 4  (B)   3 , (C) 2,  1 (D) None of these
   3 
SOLUTION : (C)
Domain of sin1 x is x  1, 1  2x 2  6x  7  0

  
1  log 2 x 2  3x  4  1 and  x  1  x  2   0
1  x R . . . . . .(i)
  x 2  3x  4  2
2
and x  2 ,  1 . . . . . .(ii)
2
2x  6 x  8  1
Combining (i) and (ii),
and x 2  3x  2  0
domain is x  2 ,  1 .

Illustration - 26 The domain of definition of function f x  cos  1 x   x  , where [x] represents great-
    
est integer less than or equal to x, is :

(A)  0 , 1  (B) R–I (C)  0,   (D) None of these

SOLUTION : (A)
Draw graphs of
The domain of cos 1 x is x  1, 1
y   x  , y  1  x and
 1  x  x  1
y  1 x
1  x   x  1  x From graphs, we observe where graph of y = [x]
lies between graphs of y  1  x and y = 1 – x.

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  x  0, 1 , 1  x   x  1 x

Therefore domain is x  0 , 1

Illustration - 27 The range of the function

 x2 
y  sin 1   is :
1 x2 
 
        
(A)  0, 2  (B) 0 , 2  (C)  0 , (D) None of these
     2 
SOLUTION : (B)

x2
Let us find range of first.
1 x2

x2
Let y   y  yx 2  x 2
2
1 x
  y  1 x 2  y  0 , y 1
From graph of y  sin 1 t , we can observe that
As x  R , we can take D  0 1   
 t   0 , 1  , sin t   0 , 
 2 
 0 2  4 y  y  1  0
x2  x2    
  0, 1 , sin1    0,
 y  y  1  0  y 0, 1 
1 x 2  1 x 2   2 
 
x2
 Range of is [0, 1)  x2    
1 x2 Hence range of sin  1   is 0 ,
2   .
[Using y  1] 1 x   2

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Illustration - 28 If f x  sec 1 1  cos 2 x  wheree

   
[.] denotes greatest integer function, then range of f (x) is :

(A) [1, 2] (B) [0, 2] (C) sec 1

1, sec 1 2  (D) None of these
SOLUTION : (C)

We know cos 2 x  0, 1 sec 1 cos 2 x  sec 11, sec1 2

 

 cos 2 x 1 1, 2  Range of sec 1 x  cos 2 x  is

 

 cos 2 x  1, 2
 
sec 1

1, sec 1 2

Illustration - 29 Find out whether the given function is even, odd or neither even nor odd where,
 x| x| , x  1

f  x    1  x   1  x  , 1  x  1
 x | x | , x 1

where | | and [ ] represents modulus and greatest integral function.
(A) Odd (B) Even (C) Neither even nor odd (D) None of these

SOLUTION : (B)
We can re-write the function as :
  x2 x  1
  x2 x  1 
 2  1  1 1  x  0
f  x    2   x     x  1  x  1 
  f x    2 x  0
  x2 x 1 2  1  1 0  x  1


  x2 x  1

  1 if x  I 
   x     x    
 0 if x  I 
It is clear that f  x   f   x 
Hence f (x) is an even function.

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Illustration - 30 Find whether given function is even or odd function, where

x  sin x  tan x 
f  x  wheree [ ] denotes greatest integer function.
x    1
    2
 
(A) Odd x  n (B) Even  x  n (C) Even for all x (D) Neither even nor odd
SOLUTION : (AB)
Here,  x  sin x  tan x 
 ; x  n
 x 1
x  sin x  tan x x  sin x  tan x  f   x    1    
f  x      2
x    1 x 1  0 x  n
  2    2
   
  f  x  if
 x  n
 x  sin   x   tan   x   
f  x   f  x  if x  n
 x  1
    2
Hence f (x) is an odd function  if x  n 
and f (x) is an even function  if x  n 

Illustration - 31 The number of solution of the equations

| y |  sinx and y  cos 1(cos x )  x  [  2 , 2 ] is :

(A) 0 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) None of these
SOLUTION : (B)
1
System of equation is complex so, analytical solu- (ii) Plot y  cos  cos x  x   2 , 2 
tion is not possible. In these type of question graphi-
cal method is the best way. x  2 2  x   
 x   x  0
1 
cos  cos x   
 x 0 x 
2  x   x  2

Graph is shown in figure.

(i) Plot | y | = sin x (graph is shown in figure.)

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Combining both the plots we get :

Number of point of intersection = 3
Hence, Number of solution = 3.

Note : Look carefully in the graph, 2 is also a solution.

Illustration - 32
The number of solutions of the equation min{| x |,| x  1|,| x  1| } = 1/2 is :
(A) 0 (B) 2 (C) 4 (D) 6
SOLUTION : (C)
First plot the graph of :

y  |x|, y  |x  1| and y  |x  1| by a dotted curve as seen from the graph Now select the lowest curve for
each value of x in the plot (resulted graph is shown by bold line.)

  x  1 x  1

 x 1 1
1  x 
 2
 1
 x  x0
 2
y  min |x|, | x 1|, | x  1|  
 1
x 0x
 2
 1
   x  1  x 1
 2
 x  1 x 1

From the graph, it is clear that number of point of intersection

of y  min { | x |, | x  1 |, | x  1 | } and y=1/2 is 4.

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Illustration - 33  |x|
The number of solution of | y|  1  e and y = x2 is :
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5

SOLUTION : (B)
Graph and steps are as follows :

y  e x
(i) x  x y   e |x|
 f  x   f  x

y  ex y  1  e |x|

 f  x   | f  x |

y  e|x | y  1  e| x|

(ii)  x  | x|  y y

y  1  e |x|  Number of solution = 3

 y  y 1 Note : If you interchange the step (i) and step (ii)

you will land up with a different curve.
Reason : we don’t have any transformation
for |x|  |x|

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Illustration - 34 Check whether the following function are one – one or many one ?

(i) y  n n n x : (e,  )  R (ii) y  5 x3  sin x : R  R

x
x3  3 x  2 4 e  e x
(iii) ye : (, 1)  (0, e ) (vi) y :R R
e x  e x
SOLUTION :
(i) y  n n n x : (e,  )  R
Draw graph of y  n n n x
As x  e  ne 1  n n e  0
n (n ne)  n ( 0)  y  
x  e is the vertical asymptote

y  0 occurs when n n x  1  x  ee

Method 2 : By Calculus approach

dy 1 1 1

dx n n x n x x
As x  (e, )  n x  (1, ) and n (n x)  (0, )

dy
Hence  0  Function is increasing (strictly)
dx
Hence mapping is injective.
(ii) y  5 x3  sin x : R  R
dy
 15 x 2  cos x
dx
dy
Lets check !  0 occurs for what value of x.
dx
15x2  cos x  0  15x2   cos x
From graph ; 15 x 2   cos x occurs  x R.
Hence mapping is injective.
3
(iii) y  e x 3 x  2 ;(, 1)  (0, e 4 )

dy 3 3
 (3 x 2  3) e x 3 x  2  3( x  1) ( x  1) e x 3 x  2  0 x  (, 1)
dx
Hence mapping is injective

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x
e  e x
(iv) y ; RR
e x  e x

 e x  e  x 
 x ; x0  2 
 e  ex   ; x  0 
y
x x
  y  1  e 2 x 
e  e   1 ; x  0 
 x x ; x  0  
e  e 

From graph, for all x  0, f ( x)  1

Hence many inputs give same output.
Hence mapping is many – one (not injective).

Illustration - 35 Check whether the following functions are onto or into ?

(i) y  n n n x : (e, )  R (ii) y  5x3  sin x : R  R

3
(iii) y  e x 3 x  2 : (, 1)  (0, e4 )
SOLUTION :
(i) y  n n n x : (e, )  R
Graphically :
Range  R (from graph)
Codomain  R
Range = Codomain
 The given mapping is surjective
Special Approach :
and  Range  R

 Range = Codomain
Hence mapping is surjective.
(ii) y  5 x3  sin x

lim (5x3  sin x)  ( )  [1,1]     and

x  oscillating

lim (5 x3  sin x)  ( )  [1,1]   

x  oscillating

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 Range = CoDomain = R
Hence mapping is surjective.

3
(iii) y  e x 3 x  3 : (, 1)  (0, e 4 )
As we know that function is strictly increasing in (,  1) and is continuous, hence mapping will have range
for end values of domain.
3 3
lim e x  3x  2  e( )  0 and lim e x 3 x  2  e4
x  x 1

Hence, Range  (0, e4 )

 Range = CoDomain
Hence mapping is surjective.

Illustration - 36
Check whether the following functions are bijective or not ?
(i) y   n  n  n x : ( e,  )  R (ii) y  5 x3  sin x : R  R
3
(iii) y  e x 3x  2 ; (, 1)  (0, e 4 )
SOLUTION :
1. y  n n n x : (e, )  R
f is a bijection since it is both one - one and onto.
2. y  5 x3  sin x : R  R
f is a bijection since it is both one - one and onto.
3
3. y  e x 3 x  2 ; (,  1)  (0, e 4 )
f is a bijection since it is both one - one and onto.

Illustration - 37 Find the inverse of the following functions (if it exist)

(i) y  2x 1 : R  R (ii) y  n n n x : (e, )  R

3
(iii) y  5 x3  sin x : R  R (iv) y  ex 3x 2 : (, 1)  (0, e4 )

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SOLUTION :
(i) y  2 x  1: R  R

x  2 y 1
x 1 x 1
y is a function. Hence y  represents the inverse of y  2 x  1.
2 2
Another Approach :
As the function y  2 x  1 is bijective (Check yourself) ;
hence inverse exists and it is obtained by
replacing x  y and y  x i.e. x  2 y  1
x 1
 y :RR
2
(ii) y  n n nx : (e, )  R
As y  n n nx : (e,  )  R is a bijection ; hence inverse exists.
Replace x by y and y by x

ex
x  n n ny  y  ee : R  ( e,  )

(iii) y  5 x3  sin x : R  R
As mapping is a bijection ; hence inverse exists.
Replace x by y and y by x.
x  5 y 3  sin y : R  R
But we cannot express above as y in terms of x
3
(iv) y  e x 3 y  2 : ( , 1)  (0, e4 )
As mapping is a bijection ; hence inverse exists.
Replace x by y and y by x.
3
x  e y 3 y  2 : (0, e4 )  ( , 1)  y 3  3 y  2  nx : (0, e4 )  ( , 1)

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x 1
Note : As y  2 x  1 and y  are inverse of each other, lets plots their graph.
2
x 1
See carefully, y  2 x  1and y  graph intersect on
2
y  x line. This should be so as y  f ( x ) and y  f 1 ( x)
occur when we replace x  y and y  x.

If both graphs, have to intersects, they will have same x values and same y values of points intersection.

Illustration - 38 Find the area enclosed by y  x  sin x and the inverse of y  x  sin x  x  [0, 2]

SOLUTION :
Draw the graph of y  x  sin x first.
Graph of y  x  sin x is same as that of y  sin x except
the loops will be on y  x line (now not on X-axis)
For all x = 0, , 2 ..., sin x  0, but y  x  sin x will be
, 2 ... Inv. of y  x  sin x is the reflection in y  x line.
 
Area  4 {[ x  sin x ]  x}dx  4  sin xdx  8sq.units
0 0

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THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. Intervals and Notations

Interval Notation

Open interval a<x <b x  (a, b)

Closed interval a< x< b x  [a, b]

Half-open interval a< x  b x  (a, b]

a < x<b x  [a, b)

Infinite intervals –<x< x  (– , )

Other Notations a<x x  (a, )

a<x x  [a, )
x< b x  (– , b)
x<b x  (– , b]

2. Domain
The set of values of x for which y takes real values (so that the function is well defined) is known as
the Domain for that function.

3. Range
The set of values which y can take is known as the set of Range for that function.

4. Nature of a function

Even function f (x) = f (x) eg : f (x) = x2, cos x

Odd function f (x) =  f (x) eg : f (x) = x3, sin x

5. Properties of Even and Odd function :

(a) Sum : (i) even + even = even
(ii) even + odd = neither even nor odd
(iii) odd + even = neither even nor odd
(iv) odd + odd = odd
(b) Difference : (i) even – even = even
(ii) even – odd = neither even nor odd

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(iii) odd – even = neither even nor odd

(iv) odd – odd = odd
(c) Product : (i) even × even = even
(ii) even × odd = odd
(iii) odd × even = odd
(iv) odd × odd = even
(d) Division : (i) even  even = even
(ii) even  odd = odd
(iii) odd  even = odd
(iv) odd  odd = even
(e) (i) if f (x) + f (– x) = 0  f is odd function
(ii) if f (x) – f (– x) = 0  f is even function
(f) The square of an even or an odd function is always an even function.

6. Periodic function
A function f (x) is said to be periodic function of x, if there exists a positive real number T such that
f (x+ T) = f (x), for all values of x in the domain of f (x).
The smallest value of T is called the fundamental period or period of the function.

7. Standard Results on Periodic Functions

Function Period
1. sin n x, cos n x , If n is even
secn x, cosecn x 2, If n is odd or fraction

2. tan n x , cot n x , n is even or odd

3. | sinx |, | cos x |
| tan x |, | cot x | 
| sec x |, | cosec x |

4. x   x    x 1

5. x , x 2 , x3  5 etc. These functions are not periodic

8. Properties of Periodic Function

(i) If f (x) has period T , then

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(a) cf (x) has period T also

(b) f (x + c) is periodic with period T
(c) f (x)  c is periodic with period T
(d) If constant is added, subtracted, multiplied or divided in periodic function, period remains
same.
(e) Every constant function is always periodic, with no fundamental period.
(f) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist. But in case of trigonometric function since
domain and range is restricted and defined then inverse exists.
(iii) If f (x) is periodic with period T, then
T
k f (cx + d) has period c , hence period is affected by coefficient of x only .
(iv) If f (x) and g(x) are two functions with period T1 and T2 respectively and h  x   a f  x   b g  x 
then h (x) has period = LCM of {T1, T2}

9. Constant function It is a function of the form y  f  x   b , where b is a constant.

Consider y  f  x   x
Identify function As y = x, both x and y take identical values. That is why this function is called
an identify function.
Both x and y are defined for all real values of x. So domain and range of the
identify function is all real values of x i.e., x  R and y  R .

Two functions y  f  x  and y  g  x  are said to be equal if

(i) both functions f (x) and g (x) have same domain and same range,
Equal Functions (ii) As well as they should be equal for all values of x in domain i.e.,
f  x  g  x  x 
domain
Equal functions are also known as identical functions.

10. Classification of function :

(i) Algebraic functions

Function Definition
Monomial function Any function of the form f  x   kx n where k is constant and
n  N is known as monomial function.

Domain Range Continuity Periodic

x  R Depends upon k and n always continuous not periodic

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Function Definition
Polynomial function A function f (x) = a0x + a1xn  1 +… + an , (a0  0)
n

where a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are real constants and n is non-negative

integer, then f (x) is called polynomial function where n is the degree
of polynomial function.
Domain Range Continuity Periodic
xR depends always continuous not periodic
p ( x)
Rational function A function of the form f (x) = , where p(x) and q(x) are
q ( x)
polynomial and q (x)  0, is called rational function.

Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR  {q (x) = 0} depends discontinuous at not
x q x   0 periodic
Irrational function An algebraic function or rational function containing one or more
radicals (non-integral rational power of x) is called irrational function.
Domain Range Continuity Periodic
xR  {q (x) = 0} depends discontinuous at not
x q x   0 periodic

(ii) Transcendental functions

Function Definition
Logarithmic Logarithmic function is represented as y = loga x where x > 0,
function a  (0, 1) (1, )
If a > 1, y increases as x increases, if 0 < a < 1, y decreases as x
increases.
Domain Range Continuity Periodic
x>0 yR always continuous not periodic

Exponential y = ax where a > 1 or 0 < a < 1

function This function is the inverse of logarithmic function i.e. it can be obtained
by interchanging x and y in y = loga x.
If a > 1, then y increases as x increases, if 0 < a < 1, then y decreases
as x increases.
Domain Range Continuity Period
xR y>0 always continuous not periodic

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Trigonometric Domain Range Continuity Period

functions
y  sin x xR y   1, 1 always continuous periodic with
period 2
y  cos x xR y   1, 1 always continuous periodic with
period 2

y  tan x x R   2n  1  yR discontinuous at periodic with
 2

x   2n  1 period 
2
y  cosecx x  R  n  y  R   1, 1 discontinuous at periodic with
x = n period 2

y = sec x x R   2 n  1  y  R   1, 1 discontinuous at periodic with
 2

x   2n  1 period 2
2
y  cot x x  R  n  yR discontinuous at periodic with
x = n period 

(iii) Piecewise defined function :

Function Definition
Modulus f (x) = x = magnitude of x or the positive value of x.
The expression x can be further split as follows :
x ; x  0
y= x = 
 x ; x  0
Domain Range Continuity Periodic
xR y0 always continuous not periodic

Function Definition
Greatest Integer y = [ x ] = the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
It can also be simplified as : y = [ x ] = n if n  x < n + 1 where n is
an integer.
Domain Range Continuity Periodic
xR yI discontinuous at not periodic
xI

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Function Definition

Fractional part Fractional part function is represented as y   x  x   x

Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR y   0, 1 discontinuous at periodic with
xI period 1
Function Definition

1 , x  0

0 , x0
Signum y = sgn (x) = 
1 , x  0


Domain Range Continuity Periodic

xR 1, 0, 1 discontinuous at not periodic
f (x) = 0

11. Transformations
S.No. Transformation How to transform
1. (a) y = f (x) 
 y = f (x + a) Shift the graph of y = f (x) through ‘a’ units towards left.
(b)  y = f (x  a)
y = f (x)  Shift the graph of y = f (x) through ‘a’ unit towards right.

2. (a) y = f (x) 
 y + a = f (x) Shift graph of y = f (x) by ‘a’ unit downward.

(b)  y  a = f (x)
y = f (x)  Shift the graph of y = f (x) by ‘a’ unit upward.

3. y = f (x) 
 y = f (x) Draw y = f (x) first then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in the
yaxis.

4.  y =  f (x)
y = f (x)  Draw y = f (x) first and then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in
x-axis.

5. y = f (x) 
 y = f (| x |) Draw the graph of y = f (x) first, then remove the left portion of the
graph after that take the mirror image of the right portion of the
curve in the Y-axis. Also include the right portion of the graph of
y = f (x).

6. y = f (x) 
 y = | f (x) | Draw the curve y = f (x), then take the mirror image of the lower
portion of the curve (the curve below xaxis) in xaxis and reject
the lower part (or flip lower part into upper)

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7. y = f (x) 
 | y | = f (x) Draw y = f (x) first then remove the lower portion of the curve and
then take the mirror image of upper portion of the curve in xaxis.
Also include the upper portion of the curve y = f (x).

8. y = f (x) 
 y = [ f (x) ]. (i) Draw y = f (x).

(ii) Draw y = k horizontal lines separated by unit distance till

they intersect the graph, Where k  I (integer)
(iii) From the point of intersection of above horizontal lines with
the graph of y = f(x) draw vertical line.
(iv) From each intersection point draw horizontal lines upto
nearest right vertical line such that the horizontal line is always
below the graph.
(v) Horizontal step drawn in step-(iv) is graph of y = [f (x)]

12. Composite functions

Let A, B and C be three non-empty sets.
Let f : A  B and g : B  C be two Functions then gof : A  C. This function is called Composite
Function.
Note :
(i) fog(x) = f (g (x)) (ii) fof (x) = f (f (x))
(iii) gog(x) = g(g(x)) (iv) gof (x) = g (f (x))

13. Introduction :
Function
Function can be defined as :
To every element in domain, there exists unique image in co-domain.
Generally, we write f : A  B and is read as f maps from A to B and this correspondence is denoted by
y  f ( x ) such that A and B are two non - empty sets. i.e. to every element of A, there exists one and only
one elements in B.

How to test whether relation is a function or Not ?

A relation f : A  B is a function or not can be checked by a graph of the relation. If it is possible to draw
a vertical line in domain which cuts the given curve at more than one point, then the given relation is not a
function and when this vertical line (i.e. parallel to Y-axis) cuts the curve at one and only one point, then it
is a function.

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Functions Vidyamandir Classes

Important terms : Domain, Range, Co-Domain

If a function f is defined from a set A to set B, then for f : A  B set A is called the Doman of function f
and set B is called the co-domain of function f. The set of all f- images of the elements of A is called the range
of function f.
Domain  All possible value of x for which f (x) exists.
Range  For all values of x, all possible values of f (x).

Number of function :
Let X and Y be two finite sets having ‘m’ and ‘n’ elements respectively. Then each element of set X can be
m
associated to any one of n elements of set Y. So, total number of functions from X to set Y is n .

14. Type of functions

One - One mapping (injection) :

Definition
A function f : A  B is said to be one - one mapping or injection, if different elements of set A having
different images in B. Thus, no two elements of set A can have same f image.

a  b  f ( a )  f (b) for all a, b  A or f ( a )  f ( b)  a  b for all a, b  A

How to decide whether mapping is one - one (or Injective) or many - one ?
1. Theoretically / Analytically :
 Take two arbitrary elements, x1 and x2 in the domain of f (i.e. in set A)
 Operate f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ).
 Solve f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ). If f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) gives x1  x2 only, then f : A  B is a one - one
function otherwise many - one.
2. Graphically

 Draw the graph of function in Domain and Co - Domain.

 Draw horizontal lines. If horizontal line cuts the graph at atmost one point, then function is one - one
else many - one.
3. By calculus Approach

dy
 Find (First derivative of y.w.r.t. x)
dx

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Vidyamandir Classes Functions

dy dy
 If  0 (Function is strictly increasing curve) or  0 (Function is strictly decreasing curve),
dx dx
then mapping is one - one (injective) else many - one.

Number of one - one functions :

If A and B are two finite sets having m and n elements respectively. then number of one - one functions from
A to B is :

 n Cm  m ! ; n  m 
 
 0 ; n  m 

Onto mapping (surjection) :

Definition

If the function f : A  B is such that each element of B is the f image of atleast one element in A i.e. every
element of B is paired. It is expressed as f ( A)  B i.e. range of f = co-domain of f.

How to decide whether mapping is surjective (Onto) or Into ?

1. Theoretically / Analytically :

 Find range of the function (Not Easy !)

 If range = Co - domain, then mapping is surjective (onto) else Into.
2. Graphically
 Draw the graph of y  f ( x )
 If the vertical spam of the graph is same as the co-domain, then mapping is Onto else Into.
3. Special Approach [Valid only for continuous functions with Co-domain  Real]
 If the function f : A  B is f : A (a, b)  R

such that lim f ( x)  C1 and lim f ( x )  C2

xa x b
If {C1   and C2  } or {C1   and C2   },
then range of function f is R.
Hence mapping is onto else Into

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Number of Onto function :

If A and B are two sets, having m and n elements respectively such that 1  n  m, then number of onto
functions from A to B is :
n n
nm  C1(n  1) m  C2 (n  2)m  nC3 (n  3)m . . . .
Bijective Mapping
Definition
A function f : A  B is a bijection if it is one - one as well as onto. i.e.
f : A  B is a bijection if
(i) it is one - one mapping i.e. f ( x )  f ( y )  x  y  x, y  A
(ii) it is onto mapping i.e.  y  B, there exists atleast one x  A such that f ( x)  y.

15. Inverse of a function

Definition
Let f : A  B be a one - one and onto function (i.e. Bijective Mapping), then there exists a unique function
g : B  A such that f ( x)  y  g ( y )  x ;  x  A and y  B.
Then g is said to be inverse of f
Thus, g  f 1 : B  A
Type of mapping and existence of inverse

Steps to find the inverse of a function :

Let y  f ( x ) : A  B . . . . . (i)

y  f 1 ( x ) : B  A . . . . . (ii)
1. Replace x by y and y by x. Also interchange the role of domain and Co-domin.
2. If (ii) i.e. y  f 1 ( x) : B  A is a function, then inverse exists else inverse does not exist.
3. If possible, express y as a function of x.

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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