Basics of Electrical Engineering

L.D.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL OF
WORKSHOP/ MANUFACTURING PRACTICES
SUBJECT CODE: 3110012 B.E. 1ST YEAR

INDEX
Sr. Date Sign of

Name of Experiment faculty
No
1 Use basic source and measuring instruments (power supply,
function generator, CRO, DMM)
To study different symbols used in Electrical and Electronics
2 circuits. And preparing the drawing for wiring a newly built
room/house.
3 Wire MCB, ELCB for a given load circuit.
4 Solder and de-solder electronic components on different types of

PCB.
5 Identify and rectify open circuit, and short circuit faults in
PCB/System.
6 Test assembled electronic circuit for various parameters and faults.
7 Wire fan, tube light, two-way control (staircase wiring)
8 Measure voltage, current, frequency, phase difference, power,

power factor for single and three-phase supply.
Prepared a small project based on above topics.
FACULTY SIGN AND DATE OF SUBMISSION

LINE TESTER
EXPERIMENT 1
Use basic source and measuring instruments (power supply, function generator,
CRO, DMM)
OBJECTIVE: 1 To study of Digital multimeter.

A) Measurement of AC and DC voltages
B) Measurement of Current
C) Measurement of resistance
D) Measurement of parameters of diodes and transistors.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sr. Particulars Specification/Range Quantity Make/Model No.

No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
THEORY: A multi-meter or a multi-tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter),

is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions
in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure
voltage, current and resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits analog
multimeters (AMM) and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.)
Analog instruments are usually based on a micro-ammeter whose pointer moves over
a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made; digital
instruments usually display digits, but may display a bar of a length proportional to
the quantity being measured.
Quantities measured:
Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are:
• Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.
• Current, alternating and direct, in amperes.
• The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate must be specified.
• Resistance in ohms.
• Capacitance in farads.
• Frequency in hertz.
Resolution:
The resolution of a multimeter is the smallest part of the scale which can be shown.
The resolution is scale dependent. On some digital multimeters it can be configured,
with higher resolution measurements taking longer to complete. For example, a
multimeter that has a 1mV resolution on a 10V scale can show changes in
measurements in 1mV increments.
The resolution of a multimeter is often specified in the number of decimal digits
resolved and displayed. If the most significant digit cannot take all values from 0 to 9
is often termed a fractional digit. For example, a multimeter which can read up to
19999 (plus an embedded decimal point) is said to read 4^ digits.
Accuracy:
Accuracy essentially represents the uncertainty of a given measurement because a
reading from a digital multimeter (DMM) can differ from the actual input.
The accuracy of an analog instrument usually refers to full-scale deflection; a
measurement of 30V on the 100V scale of a 3% meter is subject to an error of 3V,
10% of the reading. Digital meters usually specify accuracy as a percentage of
reading plus a percentage of full-scale value, sometimes expressed in counts rather
than percentage terms.
There are two types of multimeters

1) Analog multimeter
2) Digital multimeter
A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures current, a voltmeter

measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points, and an ohmmeter
measures resistance. A multimeter combines these functions and possibly some
additional ones as well, into a single instrument.
Digital multimeter
The diagram below shows a switched range multimeter:
Switched range multimeter
Diagrams A and B below show a circuit before and after connecting an ammeter:
 to measure current, the circuit must be broken to allow the

ammeter to be connected in series
 ammeters must have a LOW resistance

We have to make to a practical circuit in order to include the ammeter. To start with,
you need to break the circuit so that the ammeter can be connected in series. All the
current flowing in the circuit must pass through the ammeter. Meters are not supposed
to alter the behavior of the circuit, or at least not significantly, and it follows that an
ammeter must have a very LOW resistance.
Diagram C shows the same circuit after connecting a voltmeter:
 to measure potential difference (voltage), the circuit is not changed:

the voltmeter is connected in parallel
 voltmeters must have a HIGH resistance
This time, you do not need to break the circuit. The voltmeter is connected in parallel
between the two points where the measurement is to be made. Since the voltmeter
provides a parallel pathway, it should take as little current as possible. In other words,
a voltmeter should have a very HIGH resistance.
OBSERVATION:
Sr.
Voltage Current Resistance
no.
CONCLUSION: The digital multimeter gives more acculturate than analog

m multimeter.
OBJECTIVE: 2 To study of controls of CRO and To measure amplitude, time
period and frequency of time varying signals.
APPARATUS:
Sr. Particulars Specification/Range Quantity Make/Model No.

No.
THEORY: An oscilloscope is an electronic measuring device which provides a two

dimensional visual representation of a signal. Because the oscilloscope allows the user to
see the signal(s), their characteristics can be easily measured and observed. The
oscilloscope displays a graph of voltage (on the vertical axis) versus time (on the
horizontal axis). Most electrical circuits can be easily connected to the oscilloscope
typically with probes.
Oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally known as a scope, CRO
(for cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO (for the more modern digital storage oscilloscope),
is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly varying signal
voltages, usually as a two-dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential
differences using the vertical or 'Y' axis, plotted as a function of time (horizontal or 'x'
axis).
Application:
• General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic

equipment and laboratory work.
• Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as analyzing
an automotive ignition system, or to display the waveform of the heartbeat
as an electrocardiogram.
• Some computer sound software allows the sound being listened to to be
displayed on the screen as by an oscilloscope.
Display and general external appearance
The basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is typically divided into four
sections: the display, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls. The
display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is laid out with both horizontal and
vertical reference lines referred to as the graticule. In addition to the screen, most
display sections are equipped with three basic controls, a focus knob, an intensity
knob and a beam finder button.
The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal. This section carries
a Volts- per-Division (Volts/Div) selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector switch
and the vertical (primary) input for the instrument. Additionally, this section is
typically equipped with the vertical beam position knob.
The horizontal section controls the time base or “sweep” of the instrument. The
primary control is the Seconds-per-Division (Sec/Div) selector switch. Also included
is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal beam position
knob is generally located in this section.
The trigger section controls the start event of the sweep. The trigger can be set to
automatically restart after each sweep or it can be configured to respond to an
internal or external event. The principal controls of this section will be the source and
coupling selector switches. An external trigger input (EXT Input) and level
adjustment will also be included.
In addition to the basic instrument, most oscilloscopes are supplied with a probe as
shown. The probe will connect to any input on the instrument and typically has a
resistor of ten times the oscilloscope's input impedance. This results in a .1 (-10X)
attenuation factor, but helps to isolate the capacitive load presented by the probe
cable from the signal being measured. Some probes have a switch allowing the
operator to bypass the resistor when appropriate.
Inputs
The signal to be measured is fed to one of the input connectors, which is usually a
coaxial connector such as a BNC or UHF type.
Probes
Open wire test leads (flying leads) are likely to pick up interference, so they are not
suitable for low level signals. Furthermore, the leads have a high inductance, so they
are not suitable for high frequencies. Using a shielded cable (i.e., coaxial cable) is
better for low level signals. Coaxial cable also has lower inductance, but it has higher
capacitance: a typical 50 ohm cable has about 90 pF per meter. Consequently, a one
meter direct (1X) coaxial probe will load a circuit with a capacitance of about 110 pF
and a resistance of 1 mega ohm.
To minimize loading, attenuator probes (e.g., 10X probes) are used. A typical probe
uses a 9 mega ohm series resistor shunted by a low-value capacitor to make an RC
compensated divider with the cable capacitance and scope input. The RC time
constants are adjusted to match. For example, the 9 mega ohm series resistor is
shunted by a 12.2 pF capacitor for a time constant of 110 microseconds. The cable
capacitance of 90 pF in parallel with the scope input of 20 pF and 1 mega ohm (total
capacitance 110 pF) also gives a time constant of 110 microseconds. In practice,
there will be an adjustment so the operator can precisely match the low frequency
time constant (called compensating the probe). Matching the time constants makes
the attenuation independent of frequency. At low frequencies (where the resistance
of R is much less than the reactance of C), the circuit looks like a resistive divider; at
high frequencies (resistance much greater than reactance), the circuit looks like a
capacitive divider.
The result is a frequency compensated probe for modest frequencies that presents a
load of about 10 mega ohms shunted by 12 pF. Although such a probe is an
improvement, it does not work when the time scale shrinks to several cable transit
times (transit time is typically 5 ns). In that time frame, the cable looks like its
characteristic impedance, and there will be reflections from the transmission line
mismatch at the scope input and the probe that causes ringing. The modern scope
probe uses lossy low capacitance transmission lines and sophisticated frequency
shaping networks to make the 10X probe perform well at several hundred megahertz.
Consequently, there are other adjustments for completing the compensation.
Probes with 10:1 attenuation are by far the most common; for large signals (and
slightly- less capacitive loading), 100:1 probes are not rare. There are also probes that
contain switches to select 10:1 or direct (1:1) ratios, but one must be aware that the
1:1 setting has significant capacitance (tens of pF) at the probe tip, because the whole
cable's capacitance is now directly connected.
Good oscilloscopes allow for probe attenuation, easily showing effective sensitivity
at the probe tip. Some of the best ones have indicator lamps behind translucent
windows in the panel to prompt the user to read effective sensitivity. The probe
connectors (modified BNCs) have an extra contact to define the probe's attenuation.
(A certain value of resistor, connected to ground, "encodes" the attenuation.)
There are special high-voltage probes which also form compensated attenuators with
the oscilloscope input; the probe body is physically large, and one made by
Tektronix requires partly filling a canister surrounding the series resistor with
volatile liquid fluorocarbon to displace air. At the oscilloscope end is a box with
several waveforms trimming adjustments. For safety, a barrier disc keeps one's
fingers distant from the point being examined. Maximum voltage is in the low tens
of kV. Observing a high-voltage ramp can create a staircase waveform with steps at
different points every repetition, until the probe tip is in contact. Until then, a tiny arc
charges the probe tip, and its capacitance holds the voltage (open circuit). As the
voltage continues to climb, another tiny arc charges the tip further.
There are also current probes, with cores that surround the conductor carrying current
to be examined. One type has a hole for the conductor, and requires that the wire be
passed through the hole; it's for semi-permanent or permanent mounting. However,
other types, for testing, have a two-part core that permits them to be placed around a
wire. Inside the probe, a coil wound around the core provides a current into an
appropriate load, and the voltage across that load is proportional to current. However,
this type of probe can sense AC, only. A more-sophisticated probe (originally made by
Tektronix) includes a magnetic flux sensor (Hall Effect sensor) in the magnetic circuit.
The probe connects to an amplifier, which feeds (low frequency) current into the coil
to cancel the sensed field; the magnitude of that current provides the low-frequency
part of the current waveform, right down to DC. The coil still picks up high
frequencies. There is a combining network akin to a loudspeaker crossover network.
Front panel controls Focus control
This control adjusts CRT focus to obtain the sharpest, most-detailed trace. In
practice, focus needs to be adjusted slightly when observing quite-different signals,
which means that it needs to be an external control. Flat-panel displays do not need
focus adjustments and therefore do not include this control.
Intensity control
This adjusts trace brightness. Slow traces on CRT oscilloscopes need less, and fast
ones, especially if not often repeated, require more. On flat panels, however, trace
brightness is essentially independent of sweep speed, because the internal signal
processing effectively synthesizes the display from the digitized data.
Beam finder
Modern oscilloscopes have direct-coupled deflection amplifiers, which means the

trace could be deflected off-screen. They also might have their CRT beam blanked
without the operator knowing it. In such cases, the screen is blank. To help in
restoring the display quickly and without experimentation, the beam finder circuit
overrides any blanking and ensures that the beam will not be deflected off-screen;
it limits the deflection. With a display, it's usually very easy to restore a normal
display. (While active, beam-finder circuits might temporarily distort the trace
severely, however this is acceptable.)
Graticule
The graticule is a grid of squares that serve as reference marks for measuring the
displayed trace. These markings, whether located directly on the screen or on a
removable plastic filter, usually consist of a 1 cm grid with closer tick marks (often at
1mm) on the centre vertical and horizontal axis. One expects to see ten major
divisions across the screen; the number of vertical major divisions varies. Comparing
the grid markings with the waveform permits one to measure both voltage (vertical
axis) and time (horizontal axis). Frequency can also be determined by measuring the
waveform period and calculating its reciprocal.
On old and lower-cost CRT oscilloscopes the graticule is a sheet of plastic, often with
light- diffusing markings and concealed lamps at the edge of the graticule. The lamps
had a brightness control. Higher-cost instruments have the graticule marked on the
inside face of the CRT, to eliminate parallax errors; better ones also had adjustable
edge illumination with diffusing markings. (Diffusing markings appear bright.)
Digital oscilloscopes, however, generate the graticule markings on the display in the
same way as the trace.
External graticules also protect the glass face of the CRT from accidental impact.
Some CRT oscilloscopes with internal graticules have an unmarked tinted sheet
plastic light filter to enhance trace contrast; this also serves to protect the faceplate of
the CRT.
Accuracy and resolution of measurements using a graticule is relatively limited;
better instruments sometimes have movable bright markers on the trace that
permit internal circuits to make more refined measurements.
Both calibrated vertical sensitivity and calibrated horizontal time are set in 1 - 2 - 5 -
10 steps. This leads, however, to some awkward interpretations of minor divisions. At
2, each of the five minor divisions is 0.4, so one has to think 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, and 1.6,
which is rather awkward. One Tektronix plug-in used a 1 - 2.5 - 5 - 10 sequence,
which simplified estimating. The "2.5" didn't look as "neat", but was very welcome.
Time-base controls
These select the horizontal speed of the CRT's spot as it creates the trace; this process
is commonly referred to as the sweep. In all but the least-costly modern oscilloscopes,
the sweep speed is selectable and calibrated in units of time per major graticule
division. Quite a wide range of sweep speeds is generally provided, from seconds to
as fast as picoseconds (in the fastest) per division. Usually, a continuously-variable
control (often a knob in front of the calibrated selector knob) offers uncalibrated
speeds, typically slower than calibrated. This control provides a range somewhat
greater than that of consecutive calibrated steps, making any speed available between
the extremes.
Hold-off control
Found on some better analog oscilloscopes, this varies the time (holdoff) during
which the sweep circuit ignores triggers. It provides a stable display of some
repetitive events in which some triggers would create confusing displays. It is usually
set to minimum, because a longer time decreases the number of sweeps per second,
resulting in a dimmer trace..
Vertical sensitivity, coupling, and polarity controls
To accommodate a wide range of input amplitudes, a switch selects calibrated

sensitivity of the vertical deflection. Another control, often in front of the
calibrated-selector knob, offers a continuously-variable sensitivity over a limited
range from calibrated to less- sensitive settings.
Often the observed signal is offset by a steady component, and only the changes
are of interest. A switch (AC position) connects a capacitor in series with the input
that passes only the changes (provided that they are not too slow -- "slow" would
mean visible). However, when the signal has a fixed offset of interest, or changes
quite slowly, the input is connected directly (DC switch position). Most
oscilloscopes offer the DC input option. For convenience, to see where zero volts
input currently shows on the screen, many oscilloscopes have a third switch
position (GND) that disconnects the input and grounds it. Often, in this case, the
user centers the trace with the Vertical Position control.
Better oscilloscopes have a polarity selector. Normally, a positive input moves the
trace upward, but this permits inverting—positive deflects the trace downward.
Horizontal sensitivity control
This control is found only on more elaborate oscilloscopes; it offers adjustable
sensitivity for external horizontal inputs.
Vertical position control
The vertical position control moves the whole displayed trace up and down. It is
used to set the no-input trace exactly on the center line of the graticule, but also
permits offsetting vertically by a limited amount. With direct coupling, adjustment
of this control can compensate for a limited DC component of an input.
Horizontal position control
The horizontal position control moves the display sidewise. It usually sets the left
end of the trace at the left edge of the graticule, but it can displace the whole trace
when desired. This control also moves the X-Y mode traces sidewise in some
instruments, and can compensate for a limited DC component as for vertical
position.
Dual-trace controls
Each input channel usually has its own set of sensitivity, coupling, and position
controls, although some four-trace oscilloscopes have only minimal controls for
their third and fourth channels.
Dual-trace oscilloscopes have a mode switch to select either channel alone, both
channels, or (in some) an X-Y display, which uses the second channel for X
deflection. When both channels are displayed, the type of channel switching can
be selected on some oscilloscopes; on others, the type depends upon timebase
setting. If manually selectable, channel switching can be free-running
(asynchronous), or between consecutive sweeps. Some Philips dual-trace analog
oscilloscopes had a fast analog multiplier, and provided a display of the product of
the input channels.
Multiple-trace oscilloscopes have a switch for each channel to enable or disable
display of that trace's signal.
PROCEDURE:
VARIOUS FUNCTIONS OF CRO

Carefully look at the front panel of the CRO and try to understand the various
control knobs (you may use the manual supplied by the manufacturer) like vertical
gain switch (volts/div), the horizontal sweep speed selector (time/div), CAL, VAR
switch, Intensity and Focussing knobs, Vertical and Horizontal shifting knobs, X and
Y inputs, Traces (single or double beam), ALT, chop, x10 (magnification),
component test etc.
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
A. DC VOLTAGE
The trace (horizontal) is adjusted to lie along the X-axis passing through the origin
(0,0) of the screen. The d.c input to be measure is fed to the Y-input of the CRO in
the d.c mode. The vertical shift of the trace is a measure of the magnitude of the d.c
voltage.
Care should be taken to keep the vertical gain switch at a suitable position depending
on the magnitude of the input voltage such that the trace lies with the screen. The
measurement can be repeated for various values of the input voltages (both +ve or ve),
at different vertical gain etc. Compare the voltage measured by the CRO with the
voltage measured by a multimeter. Are they equal?
B. AC VOLTAGE
The ac signal from a signal generator is fed to the Y-input of the CRO in the ac mode
and the peak to peak voltage of the signal is measured by noting the height of the
signal on the screen and the vertical gain position of the Y input. This can be
repeated on signals of different frequencies and magnitude Check peak to peak
voltage= 2^ Vrms.
FREQUENCY OF SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL
A. Using horizontal time base (time div)
Connect the signal from the function generator (FG) to the Y-input and adjust the
horizontal sweep speed selector (time/div) to get a steady pattern of the signal on the
CRO screen. Measure the time interval between two peaks, say t secs. Hence
determine the frequency of the signal f=l/t. It is better to note down the time integral
for 5 to 6 peaks then calculate the average time between two adjacent peaks.
USING LISSAJOUS FIGURES
Set the CRO to XY mode and the function switch at XY position. Preferably adjust
(V/divn) of both the channels (X and Y) to be the same. The test signal (of frequency f)
is fed to one of the channels (say Y) and a reference signal (of frequency fr) to the
other channel (x). Adjust the frequency fr until you get a circle or ellipse (Lissajous
figures) as steady as possible. In the condition of single loop f:fr = 1:1. Knowing the
frequency of the reference signal fr, the frequency of the test signal can be obtained.
Repeat the measurement for Different ratio f : fr
= 1:2, 1:3, 2:1, 3:1, 2:3 etc. and the obtain the frequency f.
PHASE MEASUREMENT
Using Dual trace (channels Y1 and Y2):
Peak-to-Peak Voltage:
Use the vertical-position knob to place a peak (positive or negative) on a

horizontal line, keeping the peak on the screen.
Use the horizontal-position knob to set the next (opposite sign) peak on the center
vertical line.
Count the number of divisions between the positive and negative peaks.
Multiply the number of divisions from step 3 by the volts/div setting for the
channel in use.
Period:
Use the horizontal-position knobs to align any edge of the signal with a vertical
line.
Use the vertical-position knob to place the next identical edge crossing on the X-
axis.
Count the number of divisions along the horizontal line to the next crossing in the
same direction.
Multiply the number of divisions from step 3 by the sec/div setting.
Frequency:
Measure the period of the signal (T).
Calculate frequency (f) using f = 1/T.

Measuring a Signal.
• Example:
Assuming the Volts/Div knob reads 2 V/div, the above peak-

to- peak voltage would be:
Vpp = 2 volts/div * 5.2 div = 10.4 volts
Assuming the Sec/Div control knob read 50ms, the above period
would be: T = 50 milliseconds/div * 5.25 div = 262.50
milliseconds =
0.2625 seconds
Measured signal parameter value and calculation of frequency.

OBJECTIVE: 3 To study function generator.
a) Study of controls of Function generator
b) To configure the function generator to output a 10Vpp, 1 KHz sinusoidal wave
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sr.
Particulars Specification/Range Quantity Make/Model No.
No.
THEORY: A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or

software used to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of
frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms produced by the function
generator are the sine, square, triangular and saw-tooth shapes. These waveforms can
be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger
source). Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also be described as
function generator ICs. The function generator is used to generate a wide range of
alternating-current (AC) signals.
A diagram Function Generator is shown below in Figure.
A typical function generator c n provide frequencies up to 20 MHz. RF generators for

higher frequencies are not function generators in the strict sense since they typically
produce pure or modulated sine signals only.
Specifications
Typical specifications for a general-purpose function generator are:
 Produces sine, square, triangular, saw-tooth (ramp), and pulse output.
Arbitrary waveform generators can produce waves of any shape.
 It can generate a wide range of frequencies. For example, the Tektronix FG
502 (ca 1974) covers 0.1 Hz to 11 MHz.
 Frequency stability of 0.1 percent per hour for analog generators or 500ppm
for a digital generator.
 Maximum sine wave distortion of about 1% (accuracy of diode shaping
network) for analog generators.
 Arbitrary waveform generators may have distortion less than -55dB below 50
kHz and less than -40dB above 50 kHz.
The front panel is divided into six major control groups:

1) Frequency Selection Group
2) Sweep Group
3) Amplitude Modulation Group
4) DC Offset Group
5) Function or Waveform Group
6) Output Group.
The three most important groups for this lab are the frequency, function, and output
groups. The remaining three groups are sweep, amplitude modulation, and DC offset.
Frequency Selection Group:
These controls are used to select the operating frequency of the function generator.
This group consists of the frequency control knob and the eight frequency multiplier
selection buttons.
For example,
To set the function generator to an operating frequency of 2000 Hz (2 kHz):

• Rotate the frequency control knob to 2.
• Select the 1 kHz frequency multiplier button.
With the result that: 2.0 1 1 kHz = 2.0 kHz.

To set the function generator to an operating frequency of 5.5 kHz:
• Rotate the frequency control knob to 0.55.
• Select the 10 kHz frequency multiplier button.

With the result that: 0.55 * 10 kHz = 5.5 kHz.
Output Group:
Function/Waveform Selection Group:
• When working with AC signals, there are three properties of the signal
that we are Concerned with: amplitude, period and frequency.

• The amplitude of the wave is defined as the maximum magnitude of the
wave. The maximum voltage of a signal during its cycle is commonly

referred to as the peak voltage
EXPERIMENT 2
To study different symbols used in Electrical and Electronics circuits. And

preparing the drawing for wiring a newly built room/house.
Electronic
Component Circuit Symbol Description
Used to connect one component to

Wire
Wire Circuit Symbol another.
One device may be connected to

another through wires. This is
represented by drawing “blobs” on the
Wires Joined Circuit Symbol point where they are shorted.

Wires Joined
When circuits are drawn some wires

may not touch others. This can only be
shown by bridging them or by drawing
them without blobs. But bridging is
Unjoined Wires Not Joined Circuit commonly practised as there will not
Wires Symbo arise any confusion.
l
Power Supplies
Electronic
Cell Cell Circuit Symbol Used to provide a supply for a circuit.
A battery has more than a cell and is

used for the same purpose. The
smaller terminal is negative and the
Battery Circuit Symbol
larger one is positive. Abbreviated as
Battery
‘B’.
Used as a DC power supply, that is, the

DC Supply Circuit Symbol
DC Supply current will always flow in one
direction.
Used as AC power supply, that is, the

AC Supply AC Supply Circuit Symbol current will keep alternating directions.
Used in circuits where a probability of

excessive current flows. The fuse will
break the circuit if excessive current
flows and saves the other devices
Fuse Circuit Symbol
Fuse from damage.
Used as an ac power supply. Consists
of two coils, the primary and
secondary that are linked together
through an iron core. There is no
physical connection between the two
coils. The principle of mutual
Transformer Circuit Symbol inductance is used to obtain power.
Transformer
Abbreviated as ‘T’.
Used in electronic circuits to represent

the 0 volts of the power supply. It can
also be defined as the real earth ,
when it is applied in radio circuits and
Earth Circuit Symbol power circuits.
Earth/Ground
Resistor
Electronic
A resistor is used to restrict the

amount of current flow through a
Resistor Resistor Circuit Symbol device. Abbreviated as ‘R’.
A rheostat is used to control the

current flow with two contacts.
Applicable in controlling lamp
Rheostat Circuit Symbol
Rheostat brightness, capacitor charge rate, etc.
A potentiometer is used to control
the voltage flow and has three
contacts. Have applications in
changing a mechanical angle change
Potentiometer Potentiometer Circuit to an electrical parameter.
Symbol
Abbreviated as ‘POT’.
Presets are low cost variable

resistors that are used to control the
charge flow with the help of a screw
driver. Applications where the
resistance is determined only at the
Preset Circuit Symbol
Preset end of the circuit design.
Capacitor
Electronic
Capacitor is a device that is used to

store electrical energy. It consists of
two metals plates that are separated by
a dielectric. It is applicable as a filter,
that is, to block DC signals and allow
Capacitor Capacitor Circuit Symbol AC signals. Abbreviated with the letter
‘C’.
Capacitor-Polarised
Capacitor – Capacitor can be used in a timer
Circu
Polarized circuit by adding a resistor.
it Symbol
Used to vary the capacitance by
turning the knob. A type of variable
Variable Capacitor capacitor is the trimmer capacitor that

Variable
is small in size. The notations are all
Circuit Symbol
Capacitor
the same.
Diode
Electronic
A diode is used to allow electric

current to flow in only one direction.
Diode Circuit Symbol Abbreviated as ‘D’.
Diode
LED is used to emit light when a

current is passed through the device.
Light Emitting
LED Circuit Symbol It is abbreviated as LED.
Diode (LED)
After a breakdown voltage, the

device allows current to flow in the
Zener Diode Zener Diode Circuit Symbol reverse direction as well. It is

abbreviated as ‘Z’.
Photodiode works as a photo-

detector and converts light into its
Photo Diode Photo Diode Circuit Symbol corresponding voltage or current.

Tunnel Diode is known for its high-
speed operation due to its application
Tunnel Diode Tunnel Diode Circuit in quantum mechanical effects.
Symbol
The Schottky Diode is known for its

Schottky Diode
large forward voltage drop and hence
Circuit Symbol
Schottky Diode has great applications in switching
circuits.
Transistor
Electronic
This is a transistor with a layer of P-

doped semiconductor fixed between
two layers of N-doped
Transistor NPN Circu semiconductors that act as the

it emitter and collector. Abbreviated
Symbol
NPN Transistor
as ‘Q’.
This is a transistor with a layer of

N- doped semiconductor fixed
between two layers of P-doped
Transistor PNP Circu semiconductors that act as the

it emitter and collector. Abbreviated
Symbol
PNP Transistor
as ‘Q’.
The working of a phototransistoris
similar to that of a bipolar transistor
with a difference that it converts
light into its corresponding current.
The phototransistor can also act as a
Phototransistor Circuit
photodiode if the emitter is not
Symbol
Phototransistor connected.
Like a transistor, a FET has three

terminals, the Gate, Source and
Drain. The device has an electric
field that controls the conductivity of
Field Effect Transistor
Field Effect a channel of one type charge carrier
Circuit Symbol
Transisto in a semiconductor substance.
r
The Junction Field Effect

Transistor (JFET) is the simplest
type of FET with applications in
Switching and voltage variable
resistor. In an N-channel JFET an
n-channel Fiel
N-type silicon bar has two smaller
Junction d
N-Channel pieces of P-type silicon material
Effect Transistor (JFE diffused on each sides of its middle
Junction FET
Circuit Symbol T)
part, forming P-N junctions.
P-channel JFET is similar in

construction to N-channel JFET
p-channel Junction Field except that P-type semiconductor
Effect Transistor (FET) base is sandwiched between two N-

P-Channel
Circuit Symbol type junctions. In this case majority
Junction FET
carriers are holes.
Abbreviated as MOSFET.
Metal MOSFET is a three terminal device
Oxid and is controlled by a gate bias. It is
e Given Below known for its low capacitance and
Semiconductor low input impedance.
FET
The enhancement MOSFET

structure has no channel formed
during its construction. Voltage is
applied to the gate, so as to develop
a channel of charge carriers so that a
current results when a voltage is
Enhancement applied across the drain-source
MOSFET terminals. Abbreviated as e-

e-MOSFET Circuit Symbol
MOSFET.
In the depletion-mode construction

a channel is physically constructed
and a current between drain and
source is due to voltage applied
Depletion across the drain- source terminals.
MOSFET d-MOSFET Circuit Symbol Abbreviated as d- MOSFET.

Logic Gates
Gate Standard Symbol IEC Symbol Description
If all the inputs of an

AND gate are HIGH,
then the output will also
be HIGH. If any one of
AND them is LOW, the output
Gate AND GATE Symbol will also be LOW.

AND Gate IEC Symbol
Short form for NOT

AND Gate. Of all the
inputs are HIGH, the
output will be LOW. If
NAND any one input is LOW,

NAND Gate Symbol NAND Gate IEC the output will be
Gate
Symbol
HIGH.
If any one of the input is

HIGH, the output will
also be HIGH. If both
OR inputs are LOW, the

OR Gate Symbol OR Gate IEC Symbol output will also be
Gate
LOW.
Short form for NOT OR.

If both inputs are LOW,
the output will also be
NOR LOW. For other cases,

NOR Gate Symbol NOR Gate IEC Symbol the output will be HIGH.
Gate
Short form for Exclusive
NOR. If both inputs are
either in LOW state r
HIGH state, the output
will be LOW. If both
inputs are different, the
EX-OR
EX-OR Gate Symbol EX-OR Gate IEC output will be HIGH.
Gate
Symbol
Short form for Exclusive

NOT OR. If both the
inputs are the same, the
EX- output will be HIGH. If

EX-NOR Gate IEC both are different, the
NO
EX-NOR Gate Symbol Symbol output will also be
R
Gate different.
Also known as the

inverter Gate. There is
only one input for this
gate. If the input is
HIGH, the output will
be LOW. If the input is
NOT
NOT Gate Symbol NOT Gate Symbol LOW, the output will be
Gate
HIGH.
Meters
Electronic
Voltmeter is used to measure the

Voltmeter Circuit Symbol
Voltmeter voltage at a certain point in the
circuit.
An Ammeter is used to measure the

current that passes through the
Ammeter Circuit Symbol circuit at a particular point.
Ammeter
A galvanometer is used to measure

very small currents in the order of 1
Galvanometer Circuit milli ampere or less.
Galvanometer Symbol
Resistance of the circuit is measured

Ohmmeter Circuit Symbol
Ohmmeter using an Ohmmeter.
An oscilloscope is used to measure
the voltage and time period of
Oscilloscope Circuit Symbol signals along with their shape
Oscilloscope
display.
Sensors
Electronic
It is abbreviated as LDR. Light

Dependent Resistor is used to
convert light into its corresponding
Light resistance. Instead of directly
Dependent measuring the light, it senses the heat
Resistor LDR Circuit Symbol content and converts it onto
(LDR) resistance.
Instead of directly measuring the

light, a thermistor senses the heat
content and converts it into resistance.
Thermistor Circuit Symbol Abbreviated as ‘TH’.
Thermistor
Switches
Electronic
This is an ordinary switch that passes

Push Switch current only upon pressing.
Push Switch Circuit Symbol
The push to break switch is usually

kept in the ON state (closed). It
Push to Break Switch Circuit turns to OFF state (open) only
Push to Break Symbol when the switch is pressed.
Switch
Also known as the ON/OFF

switch. This switch allows the flow
Singe Pol
On Off (SPST) Circuit of current only when it is kept ON.
Singl e
Switch Abbreviated as SPST.
e Thro
Symbol
Switc w
h
Also known as the 2-way switch. It

can be also called as an
ON/OFF/ON switch as it has an
OFF position in the center. The
Single Pole switch causes the flow of current

2-Way (SPDT Circuit in two directions, depending on its
Double
)
Switc position. It can be abbreviated as
Throw
h Symbol SPDT.
Switch
Abbreviated as DPST. Can also be

called as a dual ON-OFF switch.
Doubl Pol This is used to isolate between the
Dual On- Switch (DPST)
e e live and neutral connections in the
Off Circuit
Single Thro main electrical line.
Symbol
Switc w
h
Abbreviated as DPDT. The switch
Double Pole
uses a central OFF position and is
Double
DPDT Circuit Symbol applied as reversing switch for
Throw
motors.
Switch
Relay is abbreviated as ‘RY’. This

device can easily switch a 230 Volt
AC mains circuit. It has three
switching stages called Normally
Open (NO). Normally Closed
Relay Circuit Symbol
Relay (NC), and Common (COM).
Audio and Radio Devices
Electronic
This device is used for converting

sound to its corresponding electrical
Microphone Circuit Symbol energy. Abbreviated as ‘MIC’.

Microphone
Does the reverse process of

microphone and converts electrical
Earphone Circuit Symbol
Earphone energy into sound.
Does the same operation as an
earphone, but converts an amplified
version of the electrical energy into
Loudspeaker Loudspeaker Circuit Symbol its corresponding sound.
Piezo- PiezoTransducer It is a transducer that converts electrical

Transducer Circu energy into sound.
it Symbol
Used to amplify a signal. It is mainly

used to represent a whole circuit
Amplifier Amplifier Circuit Symbol rather than just one component.
This device is used to transmit/receive

Aerial Circuit Symbol
Aerial
signals. Abbreviated as ‘AE’.
Output Devices
Electronic
Lighting
Lamp Circuit Symbol
Lamp This is used to provide light for the
output.
Used to convert electrical energy into

Indicator light. The best example is the warning
Lamp Indiator Circuit
Lamp Symbol light on a car dashboard.
This transducer is used to change

electrical energy into heat.
Heater Heater Circuit Symbol
Inductor is used to produce a magnetic

field when a certain current is passed
through a coil of wire. The wire is
coiled on a soft iron core. Have
applications in motors, and tank
circuits. Abbreviated as ‘L’.
Inductor Inductor Circuit Symbol
This device is used to convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy. Can be
used as a generator as well.
Motor Circuit Symbol Abbreviated as ‘M’.
Motor
Used to produce a sound as the output,

according to the electrical energy
Bell Circuit Symbol produced as the input.

Bell
It is used to produce an output sound

corresponding to the electrical energy
Buzzer Circuit Symbol in the input.

Buzzer
PRACTICE WORK:
Electronic Component Circuit Symbol Description
Wire
Wires Joined
Unjoined Wires
Power Supplies
Cell
Battery
DC Supply
AC Supply
Fuse
Transformer
Earth/Ground
Resistor
Resistor
Rheostat
Potentiometer
Preset
Capacitor
Capacitor
Capacitor – Polarized
Variable Capacitor
Diode
Diode
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Zener Diode
Photo Diode
Tunnel Diode
Schottky Diode
Transistor
Electronic
NPN Transistor
PNP Transistor
Phototransistor
Field
Effec
t Transistor
N-Channel
Junction FET
P-Channel
Junction FET
Metal
Oxid
e
Semiconductor
FET
Enhancement
MOSFET
Depletion
MOSFET
Logic Gates
Gate Standard Symbol IEC Symbol Description
AND
Gate
NAND
Gate
OR
Gate
NOR
Gate
EX-OR
Gate
EX-
NOR
Gate
NOT
Gate
Meters
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Galvanometer
Ohmmeter
Oscilloscope
Sensors
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Thermistor
Switches
Push Switch
Push to Break Switch
Singe Pole Single Throw Switch
Single Pole Double Throw Switch
Double Pole Single Throw Switch
Double Pole Double Throw Switch
Relay
Audio and Radio Devices
Microphone
Earphone
Loudspeaker
Piezo-Transducer
Amplifier
Aerial
Output Devices
Lighting Lamp
Indicator Lamp
Heater
Inductor
Motor
Bell
Buzzer
RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING USING SWITCHES, FUSE INDICATOR,
LAMP AND ENERGY METER
OBJECTIVE: To implement residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator,

lamp and energy meter.
Apparatus Required:
S.No. Components equired Range Quantity

1 Switch SPST 3 Nos.
2 Incandescent lamp 40W 2 Nos.
3 Lamp Holder - 2 Nos.
4 Indicator - 1 No
5 Socket 10A 1 No
6 Wires - As per required
7 Energy Meter 1-phase, 300V, 16a, 750rev, 1 No.
50Hz
Tools required: Wire mans tool Kit-1 No.
Precautions:
1. The metal covering of all appliances are to be properly earthed in order to avoid
electrical shock due to leakage or failure of insulation.
2. Every line has to be protected by a fuse of suitable rating as per the requirement.
3. Handle with care while giving connections and doing experiments.
Circuit Diagram
Theory:
Conductors, switches and other accessories should be of proper capable.of carrying the
maximum current which will flow through them. Conductors should be of copper or
aluminum. In power circuit, wiring should be designed for the load which it is supposed to
carry current. Power sub circuits should be kept separate from lighting and fan sub-circuits.
Wiring should be done on the distribution system with main branch distribution boards at
convenient centers.
Wring should be neat, with good appearance. Wire should pass through a pipe or box,
and should not twist or cross. The conductor is carried in a rigid steel conduit conforming
to standards or in a porcelain tube. A switch is used to make or break the electric circuit. It
must make the contact finely. Under some abnormal conditions it must retain its rigidity
and keep its alignment between switch contacts. The fuse arrangement is made to break
the circuit in the fault or overloaded conditions. The energy meter is used to measure
he units (kWh)
consumed by the load should not twist or cross. The conductor is carried in a rigid steel
conduit conforming to standards or in a porcelain tube.
Procedure:
1. Study the given wiring diagram.
2. Make the location points for energy meter, main witch box, Switchboard, and lamp.
3. The lines for wiring on the wooden board.
4. Place the wires along with the line and fix.
5. Fix the bulb holder, switches, socket in marked positions on the wooden board.
6. Connect the energy meter and main switch box in marked positions on the wooden board.
7. Give a supply to the wires circuit.
8. Test the working of light and socket
Result:
Thus the simple house wiring by using switches, fuse, indicator, filament lamps and
energy meter was studied.
Exercises:
1. For the circuit diagram given below draw the electrical layout using the required
components.
The layout diagram of the circuit given is shown below

1. Draw the electrical plan for a sample residential building
2. Draw the connection diagram from the service main to the distribution of loads.
3. Electrical layout for residential building – A sample
4. Draw the electrical layout for your living room

EXPERIMENT 3
Wire MCB, ELCB for a given load circuit.
Working Principle of ELCB and RCB:
 An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a device used to directly detect

currents leaking to earth from an installation and cut the power and mainly used in
TT earthing systems.
 There are two types of ELCBs,
1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (voltage-ELCB)
2. Current Earth Leakage Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Current-ELCB).
 Voltage-ELCBs were first introduced about sixty years ago and Current-ELCB was
first introduced about forty years ago. For many years, the voltage operated ELCB
and the differential current operated ELCB were both referred to as ELCBs because
it was a simpler name to remember. But the use of a common name for two
different devices gave rise to considerable confusion in the electrical industry. If
the wrong type was used on an installation, the level of protection given could be
substantially less than that intended. To ignore this confusion, IEC decided to apply
the term Residual Current Device (RCD) to differential current operated ELCBs.
Residual current refers to any current over and above the load current
Voltage Base ELCB.

 Voltage-ELCB is a voltage operated circuit breaker. The device will function when
the Current passes through the ELCB. Voltage-ELCB contains relay Coil which it
being connected to the metallic load body at one end and it is connected to ground
wire at the other end.
 If the voltage of the Equipment body is rise (by touching Phase to metal Part or
Failure of Insulation of Equipment) which could cause the difference between earth
and load body voltage, the danger of electric shock will occur. This voltage
difference will produce an electric current from the load metallic body passes the
relay loop and to earth. When voltage on the equipment metallic body rose to the
danger level which exceed to 50Volt, the flowing current through relay loop could
move the relay contact by disconnecting the supply current to avoid from any
danger electric shock.
 The ELCB detects fault currents from live to the earth (ground) wire within the
installation it protects. If sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB’s sense coil, it
will switch off the power, and remain off until manually reset. A voltage-sensing
ELCB does not sense fault currents from live to any other earthed body.
 These ELCBs monitored the voltage on the earth wire, and disconnected the supply
if the earth wire voltage was over 50 volts.
 These devices are no longer used due to its drawbacks like if the fault is between
live and a circuit earth, they will disconnect the supply. However, if the fault is
between live and some other earth (such as a person or a metal water pipe), they
will NOT disconnect, as the voltage on the circuit earth will not change. Even if the
fault is between live and a circuit earth, parallel earth paths created via gas or water
pipes can result in the ELCB being bypassed. Most of the fault current will flow via
the gas or water pipes, since a single earth stake will inevitably have much higher
impedance than hundreds of meters of metal service pipes buried in the ground.
 The way to identify an ELCB is by looking for green or green and yellow
earth wires entering the device. They rely on voltage returning to the trip via the
earth wire during a
fault and afford only limited protection to the installation and no personal protection
at all. You should use plug in 30mA RCD’s for any appliances and extension leads
that may be used outside as a minimum.
Advantages
 ELCBs have one advantage over RCDs: they are less sensitive to fault conditions,
and therefore have fewer nuisance trips.
 While voltage and current on the earth line is usually fault current from a live wire,
this is not always the case, thus there are situations in which an ELCB can nuisance
trip.
 When an installation has two connections to earth, a nearby high current lightning
strike will cause a voltage gradient in the soil, presenting the ELCB sense coil with
enough voltage to cause it to trip.
 If the installation’s earth rod is placed close to the earth rod of a neighboring
building, a high earth leakage current in the other building can raise the local
ground potential and cause a voltage difference across the two earths, again tripping
the ELCB.
 If there is an accumulated or burden of currents caused by items with lowered
insulation resistance due to older equipment, or with heating elements, or rain
conditions can cause the insulation resistance to lower due to moisture tracking. If
there is a some mA which is equal to ELCB rating than ELCB may give nuisance
Tripping.
 If either of the earth wires become disconnected from the ELCB, it will no longer
trip or the installation will often no longer be properly earthed.
 Some ELCBs do not respond to rectified fault current. This issue is common for
ELCBs and RCDs, but ELCBs are on average much older than RCB so an old
ELCB is more likely to have some uncommon fault current waveform that it will
not respond to.
 Voltage-operated ELCB are the requirement for a second connection, and the
possibility that any additional connection to earth on the protected system can
disable the detector.
 Nuisance tripping especially during thunderstorms.
.
Disadvantages:
 They do not detect faults that don’t pass current through the CPC to the earth rod.
 They do not allow a single building system to be easily split into multiple sections
with independent fault protection, because earthing systems are usually use common
earth Rod.
 They may be tripped by external voltages from something connected to the

earthing system such as metal pipes, a TN-S earth or a TN-C-S combined neutral
and earth.
 As electrically leaky appliances such as some water heaters, washing machines and
cookers may cause the ELCB to trip.
 ELCBs introduce additional resistance and an additional point of failure into the
earthing system.
Can we assume whether Our Electrical System is protected against Earth
Protection or not by only Pressing ELCB Test Switch?
 Checking the health of the ELCB is simple and you can do it easily by pressing
TEST Push Button Switch of ELCB. The test push-button will test whether the
ELCB unit is working properly or not. Can we assume that If ELCB is Trip after
Pressing TEST Switch of ELCB than your system is protected against earth
protection? Then you are wrong.
 The test facility provided on the home ELCB will only confirm the health of the
ELCB unit, but that test does not confirm that the ELCB will trip when an electric
shock hazard does occur. It is a really sad fact that all the while this
misunderstanding has left many homes totally unprotected from the risk of electric
shocks.
 This brings us or alarming us to think over second basic requirement for earth
protection. The second requirement for the proper operation of a home shock
protection system is electrical grounding.
 We can assume that the ELCB is the brain for the shock protection, and the
grounding as the backbone. Therefore, without a functional grounding (Proper
Earthing of Electrical System) there is totally no protection against electrical
shocks in your house even if You have installed ELCB and its TEST switch show
proper result. Looking after the ELCB alone is not enough. The electrical Earthing
system must also be in good working order for the shock protection system to work.
In addition to routine inspections that should be done by the qualified electrician,
this grounding should preferably be inspected regularly at shorter intervals by the
homeowner and need to pour Water in Earthing Pit at Regular interval of Time to
minimize Earth Resistance.
Current-operated ELCB (RCB):

 Current-operated ELCBs are generally known as Residual-current devices (RCD).
These also protect against earth leakage. Both circuit conductors (supply and return)
are run through a sensing coil; any imbalance of the currents means the magnetic
field does not perfectly cancel. The device detects the imbalance and trips the
contact.
 When the term ELCB is used it usually means a voltage-operated device. Similar
devices that are current operated are called residual-current devices. However,
some companies use the term ELCB to distinguish high sensitivity current operated
3 phase devices that trip in the milliamp range from traditional 3 phase ground fault
devices that operate at much higher currents.
 Typical RCB circuit:
 The supply coil, the neutral coil and the search coil all wound on a common
transformer core.
 On a healthy circuit the same current passes through the phase coil, the load and
return back through the neutral coil. Both the phase and the neutral coils are wound
in such a way that they will produce an opposing magnetic flux. With the same
current passing through both coils, their magnetic effect will cancel out under a
healthy circuit condition.
 In a situation when there is fault or a leakage to earth in the load circuit, or
anywhere between the load circuit and the output connection of the RCB circuit, the
current returning through the neutral coil has been reduced. Then the magnetic flux
inside the transformer core is not balanced anymore. The total sum of the opposing
magnetic flux is no longer zero. This net remaining flux is what we call a residual
flux.
 The periodically changing residual flux inside the transformer core crosses path
with the winding of the search coil. This action produces an electromotive force
(e.m.f.) across the search coil. An electromotive force is actually an alternating
voltage. The induced voltage across the search coil produces a current inside the
wiring of the trip circuit. It is this current that operates the trip coil of the circuit
breaker. Since the trip current is driven by the residual magnetic flux (the resulting
flux, the net effect between both fluxes) between the phase and the neutral coils, it
is called the residual current devise.
 With a circuit breaker incorporated as part of the circuit, the assembled system is
called residual current circuit breaker (RCCB) or residual current devise (RCD).
The incoming current has to pass through the circuit breaker first before going to
the phase coil. The return neutral path passes through the second circuit breaker
pole. During tripping when a fault is detected, both the phase and neutral
connection is isolated.
 RCD sensitivity is expressed as the rated residual operating current, noted IΔn.
Preferred values have been defined by the IEC, thus making it possible to divide
RCDs into three groups according to their IΔn value.
 High sensitivity (HS): 6- 10- 30 mA (for direct-contact / life injury protection)
 Standard IEC 60755 (General requirements for residual current operated
protective devices) defines three types of RCD depending on the characteristics of
the fault current.
 Type AC: RCD for which tripping is ensured for residual sinusoidal alternating
currents Sensitivity of RCB:
 Medium sensitivity (MS): 100- 300- 500- 1000 mA (for fire protection)
 Low sensitivity (LS): 3- 10- 30 A (typically for protection of
machine) Type of RCB:
Type A: RCD for which tripping is ensured
 for residual sinusoidal alternating currents
 for residual pulsating direct currents
 For residual pulsating direct currents superimposed by a smooth direct current of
0.006 A, with or without phase-angle control, independent of the polarity.
Type B: RCD for which tripping is ensured
 as for type A
 for residual sinusoidal currents up to 1000 Hz
 for residual sinusoidal currents superposed by a pure direct current
 for pulsating direct currents superposed by a pure direct current
 for residual currents which may result from rectifying circuits
 three pulse star connection or six pulse bridge connection
 two pulse bridge connection line-to-line with or without phase-angle monitoring,
independently of the polarity
 There are two groups of
devices: Break time of RCB:
1. G (general use) for instantaneous RCDs (i.e. without a time delay)

 Minimum break time: immediate
 Maximum break time: 200 ms for 1x IΔn, 150 ms for 2x IΔn, and 40 ms for 5x IΔn
1. S (selective) or T (time delayed) for RCDs with a short time delay (typically used in
circuits containing surge suppressors)
 Minimum break time: 130 ms for 1x IΔn, 60 ms for 2x IΔn, and 50 ms for 5x IΔn
 Maximum break time: 500 ms for 1x IΔn, 200 ms for 2x IΔn, and 150 ms for 5x IΔn
MCB (MINIATURE CIRCUIT BRAKER)
Introduction:
MCB or MCCB are widely used in electrical distribution system for ON/OFF
Electrical supply and it also gives over current and short circuit protection. Selection
of MCB or MCCB involved technical, Mechanical parameters. Some parameters are
important but some parameters are confusing and mislead to wrong selection of
MCCB. Some parameters are directly affected on cost of MCCB.
Specification / Name Plate Details of MCB/MCCB:
Following specifications are required to select appropriate MCB or MCCB.
(A) Current Related:
 Frame Size (Inm): Amp
 Rated current (In/ Ie): Amp
 Ultimate short circuit breaking capacity (Icu): KA
 Rated short-circuit breaking capacity (Ics): % of Icu
(B) Voltage Related:
 Rated voltage (Ue): Volt
 Rated Insulation voltage (Ui): Volt
 Rated impulse withstand voltage(Uimp): KV
 No’s of Pole : SP,DP,TP,TPN,FP
(C) Application Type:
 Utilization Category/ Characteristic : B,C or D curve
(D) Accessories:
 Rotary Handle: Extended/ Direct
 Alarm Contact:
 Shunt Trip:
 Under voltage Trip:
 Mechanical interlocking:
 Manual /Auto operation
 Motorized Operation:
(E) Protection Type:
 Protection : Over current / Short circuit
 Trip Mechanism: Thermal / Magnetic / Solid / Microprocessor
 Trip Mechanism adjustment : Fixed / Adjustable
(F) Others:
 Frequency;
 Reference temperature: (if different from 30°C)
 Pollution degree:
 Suitability for isolation:
 Type of Mounting arrangement
 Electrical Life Cycles:
 Mechanical Life Cycles:
 Dimension: mm
 Weight: Kg
 Reference Standard: IEC: 60947-1/2, IS: 13947-1/2
(A) Current Related:

(1) Frame Size (Inm):
 Breaker Frame Size indicates the basic framework of the Plastic shell of MCCB that
can hold the biggest rated current.
 It is the maximum current value for which the MCCB is designed (upper limit of
the adjustable trip current range) and it also determines the physical dimensions of
the device.
 There are varieties current ratings MCCB for the same series frame Size.
 For example, DX100 Frame Size MCCB for rated current of 16A, 20A, 25A, 32A,
40A, 50A, 63A, 80A, 100A.
 Same DX225 Frame Size MCCB for rated current of 100A, 125A, 160A, 180A, 200A,
225A.
 In above DX100 and DX225 has two Type of frame Size for rated current of 100A,
but the shape and size of breaking capacity of circuit breakers is not the same.
(2) Rated Current (In /Ie):
 It is the current value above which overload protection is tripped.

 For MCB it is fixed while in MCCB the rated current is an adjustable range instead
of a fixed value.
 Standard rating of MCB is 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 6A, 10A, 13A, 16A, 20A, 25A, 32A,
40A, 50A, 63A, 100A for MCB.
(B) Voltage Related:

(3) Ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity (Icu):
 Breaking capacity can be defined as the maximum level of fault current which can
be safely cleared.
 It is the highest fault current that the MCCB can trip without being damaged
permanently.
 The MCCB will be reusable after interrupting a fault, as long as it doesn’t exceed this
value.
 It is indicate operation reliability of MCCB
 This parameter may increase or decrease the cost, so it should be properly decided.
Breaking capacity should be higher than the possible fault level. For domestic
application fault level may be 10kA.
(4) Operating short-circuit breaking capacity (Ics):

 It is expressed as a percentage ratio of Icu and tells you the maximum short-circuit
current if a circuit breaker can break three times and still resume normal service.
 The higher the lcs, the more reliable the circuit breaker
 It is the maximum possible fault current that the MCCB can clear. If the fault
current exceeds this value, the MCCB will be unable to trip and another protection
mechanism must operate.
 If a fault above the Ics but below the Icu occurs, the MCCB can interrupt it
successfully but will need a replacement due to the damage suffered.
 The Main difference between Ultimate Short Circuit (Icu) and Service Breaking
Capacity (Ics) that Icu (Ultimate Braking Capacity) means Circuit breaker can
remove the fault and remain usable but Ics (Service Braking Capacity) means
Circuit breaker can remove the fault, but it may not be usable afterwards.
 For example, if a circuit breaker has an Ics of 25,000 Amperes and an Icu of 40,000
Amperes:
 Any fault below 25kA will be cleared with no problem.
 A fault between 25kA and 40kA will cause permanent damage when cleared.
 Any current exceeding 40 kA can’t be cleared by this breaker.
(5) Rated working voltage (Ue):
 It is the continuous operation voltage for which the MCCB is designed.

 This value is typically equivalent or close to a standard system voltage.
 In three phase it is usually 400V or 415 V. For single phase it is 230V or 240V.
(6) Rated Insulation voltage (Ui):
 It is the maximum voltage that the MCCB can resist according to laboratory tests.
 It is higher than the rated working voltage, in order to provide a margin of safety
during field operation.
(7) Rated impulse withstands voltage (Uimp):
 It is the value of transient peak voltage the circuit-breaker can withstand from
switching surges or lighting strikes imposed on the supply.
 This value characterizes the ability of the device to withstand transient over
voltages such as lightning (standard impulse 1.2/50 μs).
 Uimp = 8kV means Tested at 8 kV peak with 1.2/50μs impulse wave.
(8) Number of Poles:
 No of Pole for MCCB depends on Single Phase & Three Phase Power Controlling
/Protection
 Single Pole (SP) MCB:
 A single pole MCB provides switching and protection for one single phase of a circuit.
 Used: for Single Phase circuit
 Double Pole (DP) MCB:
 A two Pole MCB provides switching and protection both for a phase and the neutral.
 Used: for Single Phase circuit
 Triple Pole (TP) MCB:
 A triple/three phase MCB provides switching and protection only to three phases of
the circuit and not to the neutral.
 Used: for Three Phase circuit
 3 Pole with Neutral (TPN (3P+N) MCB):
 A TPN MCB, has switching and protection to all three phases of circuit and
additionally Neutral is also part of the MCB as a separate pole. However, Neutral
pole is without any protection and can only be switched.
 Used: for Three Phase circuit with Neutral
 4 Pole (4P) MCB:
 A 4 pole MCB is similar to TPN but additionally it also has protective release for
the neutral pole. This MCB should be used in cases where there is possibility of
high neutral current flow through the circuit as in cases of an unbalanced circuit.
 Used: for Three Phase circuit with Neutral
Utilization category / Characteristic (B, C, D, K, Z curve):
 Characteristic of Trip curves of MCCB tell about the trip current rating of MCCB.
 MCB will trip instantaneously according to their Tripping Characteristic at 0.1 sec.
 There are various type of MCCB
 Type B MCCB
 Type C MCCB
 Type D MCCB
 Type K MCCB
 Type Z MCCB
Type B MCCB:
 Operating Current: This type of MCB trips between 3 and 5 times rated current (In).
 Operating Time:04 To 13 Sec
 For example a 10A device will trip at 30-50A.
 Application: Domestic applications or light commercial applications where
connected loads are primarily lighting fixtures, domestic appliances with mainly
restive elements.
 Suitable for: Restive Load application (Lighting , Small Motor)
 Surge Current: The surge current level is relatively low.
 Installation at: At Sub feeder of Distribution Board.
Type C MCCB:
 Operating Current: This type of MCB trips between 5 and 10 times full load current.
 Application: commercial or industrial type of applications, fluorescent lighting,
motors etc where there could be chances of higher values of short circuit currents in
the circuit.
 Suitable for: Inductive Load application (Pumps, Motor, fluorescent lighting.)
 Surge Current: The surge current level is relatively moderate level.
 Installation at: At incoming / Outgoing of Distribution Board.
Type D MCCB:
 Application: specialty industrial / commercial uses (Transformers or X-ray
machines, large winding motors, discharge lighting, large battery charging). Where
current inrush can be very high.
 Suitable for: Inductive- Capacitive Load application (Pumps, Motor)
 Surge Current: The surge current level is relatively High
 Installation at: At incoming of Distribution Board / Panels.
Type K MCCB:
 Application: Suitable for inductive and motor loads with high inrush currents.
 Surge Current: The surge current level is relatively High
 Installation at: At incoming of Distribution Board / Panels.
Type Z MCCB:
 Application: These types of MCBs are highly sensitive to short circuit and are
used for protection of highly sensitive devices such as semiconductor devices.
 Surge Current: The surge current level is relatively too low
 Installation at: At Sub feeder of Distribution Board for IT equipment.
EXPERIMENT 4
Solder and de-solder electronic components on different types of PCB.
OBJECTIVE: TO LEARN SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING PROCESS ON

GENERAL PCB.
Step 1 Initial stage
 To start, let's solder a large component held to a circuit board with through-hole solder pads.
 A capacitor was already removed from the two solder pads. Each pad was heated
while the capacitor was pulled away from the board.
 Notice how the solder holes are completely covered with solder. Opening these holes --
so the capacitor lead can be pushed through -- will greatly simplify installation.
Step 2
 To open the hole blocked by solder, heat the solder pad with the tip of a soldering iron.
Push through the molten solder from the other side with a staple or sewing needle.
 In our case, we decided to use a right angle pick. Lead solder will not stick to steel, so
pretty much any thin steel can be used.
 Pushing the tool all the way through the hole may require heating the pad several
times. As a rule of thumb, heat the solder just enough for it to melt, then remove the
soldering tip from the pad. Excessive heat will damage electronic components.
Step 3
 When the tool has completely passed through the hole, enlarge the hole by heating the
top side of the solder pad while pressing through with the tool.
 Both solder holes should now be open enough to insert the bare leads of your component.
Step 4
 Prepare your component for soldering by removing any excess solder from the
contacts. The contacts should be clean enough to pass through the solder pad holes.
 Run the soldering iron tip down the lengths of each contact to wipe the solder away
from the component. Clean the iron's tip between strokes by wiping it against a moist
sponge.
 Excessive heat will damage the components, so do not apply the soldering iron to the
component for long amounts of time.
Step 5
 Insert the contacts into and through the holes made in the solder pads.
 To ease in soldering, slightly bend the contacts protruding through the holes so they
hold themselves in place.
Step 6
 To solder each connection:
o Place the tip of the soldering iron against the solder pad.
o Melt just enough solder onto the solder pad so that the capacitor's contact lead
holds firmly in place.
o Remove both the solder and the soldering iron tip from the connection as soon as
enough solder melts onto the pad.
Step 7 Intermediate Guide
 Next we will cover a moderately difficult soldering application. In our case, we will be
soldering very thin and delicate leads to a circuit board with small solder pads.
 Small electronic components, including wires, cannot dissipate heat as quickly as
larger components. This makes them very susceptible to overheating. Make sure to
heat the connection just long enough to melt the solder.
 The leads were removed from the solder pads by heating the joint on the top side of
the board, while pulling out the leads with a pair of tweezers.
Step 8
 It is common for solder to cover up some of the holes through solder pads on the
board. Opening these holes greatly simplifies soldering.
 Open the holes through the solder pads by pressing a straightened staple against the
blockage while heating the same pad from the other side of the board.
 A "third hand" tool (or a friend) can greatly help in this procedure.
Step 9
 After clearing all of the holes, insert the bare ends of the leads with a pair of tweezers.
 To keep the leads in place, it may be helpful to first bend the battery leads into their
final shape, then insert the stripped ends into the holes.
Step 10
 To solder each connection:

o Melt just enough solder onto the solder pad so that the contact leads hold firmly in place.
o Remove both the solder and the soldering iron tip from the connection as soon as
Step 11 Advanced Guide
 For the last section, battery leads will be soldered to surface-mount solder pads. These
type of joints are harder to solder because the lead has no solid anchor point (such as a
thru-hole) to hold it in place during soldering.
 To de-solder the joint, place a solder wick on top of the existing solder ball and press
down on the solder wick with the soldering iron.
 Once the solder melts and flows into the wick, remove the wick from the joint.
 Repeat the same procedure on the remaining leads.
 When a section of solder wick is saturated with solder, it should be trimmed and discarded.
Step 12
 We recommend that you clean the surface-mount solder pads with a soft cloth or
sponge and a small amount of rubbing alcohol.
 To melt a small bead of solder onto each solder pad:
o Melt solder so that it forms a dome on top of the pad.
o Remove both the solder and the soldering iron tip from the solder pad as soon as
Step 13
 The solder bead should look like a small dome or hemisphere. If it is flat or jagged,
simply place the soldering iron back on the solder to re-melt it and then pull the
soldering iron away. It may require a little more solder if this does not work.
Step 14
 To solder the new leads to the board, place the bare end of one lead onto the bead of
solder on its corresponding solder pad.
 Press the tip of the soldering iron onto the solder bead until it melts.
 Slide the exposed end of the lead into the liquid solder until it is in the center of the
bead, then remove the soldering iron.
 Continue with the other connections the same way, taking special care not to solder two
of the pads together.
EXPERIMENT 5
OBJECTIVE: Identify and rectify open circuit, and short circuit faults in PCB/System.
A check for short circuits is one of the most basic tests you can perform with a
multimeter. On the simplest meters, you use the resistance setting; sophisticated
models have a continuity setting that flashes a light or beeps a tone to let you know a
connection is a short circuit.
Turn Off Power
Turn off all power to the circuit or device under test. Unplug the equipment from the
AC outlet.
Warning
Probing an electrical circuit with a multimeter may pose a dangerous shock hazard if
the circuit's power is on.
Set Multimeter to Resistance or Continuity
Switch the multimeter on and turn its selector knob to the resistance setting. Use the
continuity setting if your meter has that function.
Tip
Some multimeters may have several resistance settings; choose the lowest resistance
scale on the meter.
Touch Probe Tips Together
Touch the test probes together and observe that the resistance reading goes to nearly
zero. For continuity, the light flashes or a tone sounds.
Locate Circuit Component
Locate the component or portion of the circuit you want to check for a short. The
tested part should not normally have zero electrical resistance; for example, the input
of an audio amplifier should have a resistance of at least several hundred ohms.
Touch Probe Tips to Circuit

Touch the metal tip of the black probe to the circuit’s chassis or electrical ground, and
touch the tip of the red probe to the parts of the circuit you suspect may have a short.
The tips of the probes must touch metal parts of the circuit, such as a component lead,
circuit board foil or wire.
Observe Meter Display
Observe what the meter does when you touch the probes to the circuit. A high
resistance signifies an open circuit. Very low resistance -- about 2 ohms or less --
indicates a short circuit. A meter with a continuity setting flashes or beeps only if it
detects a short circuit.
EXPERIMENT 6
OBJECTIVE: Test assembled electronic circuit for various parameters and faults.
PURPOSE OF CIRCUIT:
FAULTS OCCURRED IN CIRCUIT:
TROUBLESHOOTING:
OUTPUT:
EXPERIMENT 7
HOUSE WIRING
OBJECTIVE 1: To study different types of wiring and to prepare the following wiring:
(i) Staircase wiring

(ii) Fluorescent lamp wiring
(iii) Corridor wiring
Apparatus Required:
Sr. Fluorescent Lamp Staircase Wiring Corridor Wiring Tools

No. Wiring
1 Fluorescent lamp with Two way switches Switches Screw
fitting driver
2 Joint clips Bulb, Bulb holder Bulb, Bulb Hammer
holder
3 Wires Clamps Clamps Cutting
pliers
4 Screws Screws Screws Line tester
5 Switch board Ceiling rose Ceiling rose
6 Choke Switch board Switch board
7 Switches Connecting wires Connecting wires
Types of Wiring
There are various types of wiring used in the residential and commercial buildings. They
are
1. Cleat Wring
2. Batten Wiring
(a) PVC Batten Wiring
(b) TRS/CTS Wiring
(c) Lead Sheath Wiring
3. Casing Capping Wiring
(a) Wood Casing Capping Wiring
(b) PVC Casing Capping Wiring

4. Conduit Wiring
(a) Surface Conduit
Wiring Metal
Conduit Wiring
PVC
Conduit Wiring
(b) Concealed Conduit Wiring
1. Cleat Wiring:
Cleat wiring is recommended only for temporary installations. The cleats are made in
pain having bottom and top halves. The bottom half is grooved to receive the wire and
the top half is for cable grip. Initially the bottom and top cleats are fixed on the wall
loosely according to the layout. Then the cable is drawn, tensioned and the cleats are
tightened by the screw. Cleats are of three types, having one, two or three grooves, so
as to receive one, two or three wires. This system uses insulated Cables sub protected
in porcelain cleats. This is of wiring suitable only for temporary wiring purpose. In
lamp or wet location the wire used should be moisture proof and a weathering proof.
2. Batten Wiring
Tough rubber-Sheathed (T.R.S) or PVC - Sheathed cables are suitable to run on teak
wood battens. Varnishing of teak wood batten Method of securing the battens
Suitability of tough rubber-sheathed cable Suitability of PVC sheathed cable.
3. Wood Casing Wiring System
Wood casing wiring system shall not be used in damp places or in ill-ventilated places,
unless suitable precautions are taken. This system of wiring is suitable for low voltage
installation, I this wiring, cables like vulcanized rubber, insulated cables or plastic
insulated cables are use and carried within the wood casing enclosures. The wood
casing wiring system shall not be use in damp places and in ill-ventilated places,
unless suitable precautions are taken.
Material and Pattern of Casing
All casing shall be of first class, seasoned teak wood or any other approved hardwood
free from knots, shakes, saps or other defects, with all the sides planed to a smooth
finish, and all sides well varnished, both inside and out-side with pure shellac varnish.
The casing shall have a grooved body with a beaded or plain-molded cover as desired.
Tough rubber-Sheathed or PVC Sheathed Wiring System Wiring with tough rubber
sheathed cables is suitable for low voltage installations and shall not be used in places
exposed to sun and rain nor in damp places, unless wires are sheathed in protective
covering against atmosphere and well protected to withstand dampness.
4. Metal-Sheathed Wiring System
Metal-sheathed wiring system is suitable for 1GW voltage installations, and shall not
be used in situations where acids and alkalis are likely to be present. Metal-sheathed
wiring may be used in places exposed to sun and rain provided no joint of any
description is exposed.
5. Conduit Wiring System
This uses a conduit pipe for the mechanical protection of wire. In this system of
wiring, wires are carried through P.V.C conduit pipe for giving converging to pipes
conduit pipe has certain advantages like it is moisture proof and durable.
OBJECTIVE 2: To control a single lamp from two different places.
Apparatus Required:
S.No Components Quantity/Rang

. e
1 Incandescent lamp 1 (230V,
40W)
2 Lamp holder 1
3 Two way switches 2 (230V, 5A)
4 Connecting wires As required
Tools Required: Wire mans tool kit - 1 No.
Direct Connection Circuit Diagram
Tabulation
Position of switches Condition of lamp

S S
1 2
Tabulation
Position of switches Condition of lamp

S S
1 2
Theory
1. A two way switch is installed near the first step of the stairs. The other two
way switch is installed at the upper part where the stair ends.
2. The light point is provided between first and last stair at an adequate location
and height if the light is switched on by the lower switch. It can be switched
off by the switch at the top or vice versa.
3. The circuit can be used at the places like bed room where the person may not
have to travel for switching off the light to the place from where the light is
switched on.
4. Two numbers of two-way switches are used for the purpose. The supply is
given to the switch at the short circuited terminals.

PROCEDURE:
1. Verify the connection

2. Switch on the supply
3. Verify Condition of lamp
EXERCISE:
Draw the electrical layout diagram using the required components.

OBJECTIVE: 3
To make connections of a fluorescent lamp wiring and to study the accessories of the same.
Apparatus Required:
S.No Components Range/Type Quantity

.
1 Fluorescent lamp fixture 4 ft 1
2 Fluorescent lamp 40 1
W
3 Choke 40W, 230V 1
4 Starter - 1
5 Connecting wires - As per
required
Tools Required: Wire mans tool kit - 1 No. Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
1. The electrode of the starter which is enclosed in a gas bulb filled with argon
gas, cause discharge in the argon gas with consequent heating.

2. Due to heating, the bimetallic strip bends and causes in the starter to close.
After this, the choke, the filaments (tube ends) to tube and starter becomes
connected in series.
3. When the current flows through the tube end filaments the heat is produced. During
the process the discharge in the starter tube disappears and the contacts in the
starter move apart.
4. When sudden break in the circuit occur due to moving apart of starter terminals,
this causes a high value of e.m.f to be induced in the choke.

5. According to Lenz’s, the direction of induced e.m.f in the choke will try to
opposes the fall of current in the circuit.

6. The voltage thus acting across the tube ends will be high enough to cause a
discharge to occur in the gas inside the tube. Thus the starts giving light.
7. The fluorescent lamp is a low pressure mercury lamp and is a long evacuated
tube. It contains a small amount of mercury and argon gas at 2.5 mm pressure.
At the time of switching in the tube mercury is in the form of small drops.
Therefore, to start the tube, filling up of argon gas is necessary. So, in the
beginning, argon gas starts burning at the ends of the tube; the mercury is
heated and controls the current and the tube starts giving light. At each end of
the tube, there is a tungsten electrode which is coated with fast electron
emitting material. Inside of the tube is coated with phosphor according to the
type of light.
8. A starter helps to start the start the tube and break the circuit. The choke coil is
also called blast. It has a laminated core over which enameled wire is wound.
The function of the choke is to increase the voltage to almost 1000V at the time
of switching on the tube and when the tube starts working, it reduces the
voltage across the tube and keeps the currents constant.
Procedure:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram
2. Fix the tube holder and the choke in the tube.
3. The phase wire is connected to the choke and neutral directly to the tube.
4. Connect the starter in series with the tube.
5. Switch on the supply and check the fluorescent lamp lighting.

Electrical Layout of Fluorescent Lamp Circuits
OBJECTIVE: 4 Corridor wiring
Theory
Corridor wiring is meant for switching on the lamp one by one while going forward
into the go down or the corridor and switch off the lamp one by one while returning
back.
Circuit Diagram
S1 S2 S3 L1 L2 L3
OFF X X OFF OFF OF
F
ON 1-3 1’- ON OFF OF
3’ F
ON 1-2 1’- OFF ON OF
3- F
OFF 1-2 1’- OFF OFF ON
2’
Procedure:
1. Give the corrections as per the circuit diagram
2. Verify the corrections.
3. Switch on the supply

4. Verify the conditions
EXPERIMENT 8
MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE / THREE PHASE

ENERGY METER
OBJECTIVE: To measure the energy consumed in a single phase circuit and 3 phase
circuit
Apparatus Required:
S.No. Components Range/Type Quantity

1 Voltmeter (0-300)V, MI type 1
2 Ammeter (0-10)A, MI type 1
300V, 10A,
3 Wattmeter UPF/600V, ½
10A, UPF
4 Resistive load 1 / 3 1
5 Energy meter 1 / 3 1
6 Connecting wire - As per required
Theory:
Energy meters are interesting instruments and are used for measurements of energy in
a circuit over a given period of time. Since the working principle of such instrument is
based on electromagnetic induction, these are known as induction type energy meters.
As shown in fig.1, there are two coils in an induction type energy meter namely
current coil (CC) and voltage coil (VC), the current coil is connected in series with the
load while the voltage coil is connected across the load. The aluminum disc
experiences deflecting torque due to eddy current induced in it and its rotation are
counted by a gear train mechanism (not shown in figure).
The rating associated with the energy meter are: 1. Voltage rating 2. Current rating 3.
Frequency rating 4. Meter constant
Formulae Used (1 Energy Meter)
Formulae Used (3 Energy Meter)

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the supply.
3. Load is increased in steps and each time the meter readings are noted and also the
time for one revolution is also noted down.
4. Repeat the step 3 till the rated current is reached.
5. Switch off the power supply.
6. Calculate the necessary value from the given formula

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L.D.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE: 3110012 B.E. 1ST YEAR

Sr. Date Sign of

4 Solder and de-solder electronic components on different types of

7 Wire fan, tube light, two-way control (staircase wiring)

8 Measure voltage, current, frequency, phase difference, power,

FACULTY SIGN AND DATE OF SUBMISSION

OBJECTIVE: 1 To study of Digital multimeter.

D) Measurement of parameters of diodes and transistors.

Sr. Particulars Specification/Range Quantity Make/Model No.

THEORY: A multi-meter or a multi-tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter),

There are two types of multimeters

A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures current, a voltmeter

Switched range multimeter

 to measure current, the circuit must be broken to allow the

 ammeters must have a LOW resistance

Diagram C shows the same circuit after connecting a voltmeter:

 to measure potential difference (voltage), the circuit is not changed:

 voltmeters must have a HIGH resistance

CONCLUSION: The digital multimeter gives more acculturate than analog

Sr. Particulars Specification/Range Quantity Make/Model No.

THEORY: An oscilloscope is an electronic measuring device which provides a two

• General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic

Modern oscilloscopes have direct-coupled deflection amplifiers, which means the

To accommodate a wide range of input amplitudes, a switch selects calibrated

VARIOUS FUNCTIONS OF CRO

A. Using horizontal time base (time div)

USING LISSAJOUS FIGURES

Using Dual trace (channels Y1 and Y2):

Use the vertical-position knob to place a peak (positive or negative) on a

Calculate frequency (f) using f = 1/T.

Assuming the Volts/Div knob reads 2 V/div, the above peak-

Vpp = 2 volts/div * 5.2 div = 10.4 volts

would be: T = 50 milliseconds/div * 5.25 div = 262.50

Measured signal parameter value and calculation of frequency.

a) Study of controls of Function generator

b) To configure the function generator to output a 10Vpp, 1 KHz sinusoidal wave

THEORY: A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or

A diagram Function Generator is shown below in Figure.

A typical function generator c n provide frequencies up to 20 MHz. RF generators for

The front panel is divided into six major control groups:

To set the function generator to an operating frequency of 2000 Hz (2 kHz):

• Select the 1 kHz frequency multiplier button.

With the result that: 2.0 1 1 kHz = 2.0 kHz.

• Select the 10 kHz frequency multiplier button.

Function/Waveform Selection Group:

that we are Concerned with: amplitude, period and frequency.

wave. The maximum voltage of a signal during its cycle is commonly

To study different symbols used in Electrical and Electronics circuits. And

Used to connect one component to

One device may be connected to

Wires Joined Circuit Symbol point where they are shorted.

When circuits are drawn some wires

Wires Symbo arise any confusion.

Cell Cell Circuit Symbol Used to provide a supply for a circuit.

A battery has more than a cell and is

Used as a DC power supply, that is, the