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Overview of Diesel Particulate Filter Systems sizing approaches

Article  in  Applied Thermal Engineering · April 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.04.096

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 Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Overview of Diesel particulate filter systems sizing approaches

Antiopi-Malvina Stamatellou, Anastassios Stamatelos ⇑
University of Thessaly, Mechanical Engineering Department, Volos, Greece

h i g h l i g h t s

Application of particulate filters to large Diesel engines is moving at slow pace.

Rational sizing of the filters becomes essential in these applications.

An overview of Diesel particulate filter systems sizing approaches is presented.

An improved filter sizing methodology is necessary for large engines.

Filter system design improvements may significantly reduce filter size.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Although application of Diesel particulate filters in modern automotive Diesel engines is commonplace,
Received 24 January 2017 their introduction to large Diesels as locomotive or marine engines is moving at a slower pace. One
Revised 4 April 2017 important reason for this delay is the large volume of filter required which is not easy to accommodate
Accepted 9 April 2017
in this type of equipment. Thus, rational sizing of the filters becomes essential in these applications. It is
Available online 26 April 2017
observed that DPF systems for large Diesel engines are usually oversized. Possible reasons are discussed
in this paper. With the present status of technology and the concern for compact and cost-optimized
exhaust treatment systems a new design methodology is needed. This paper summarizes progress in
the specific fields of application and attempts to formulate a filter sizing methodology that would lead
to feasible solutions with regard to space requirements and backpressure penalty.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
2. Filter backpressure characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
3. PM emissions standards for various engine categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
3.1. Marine engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
4. Effect of engine size and power on DPF size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
5. Factors affecting average pressure drop in diesel filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
5.1. Engine-out particulate emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
5.2. Filtration efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
5.3. Vehicle driving mode or engine operation mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
6. Effect of filter size on regeneration behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
7. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

1. Introduction standards become increasingly stringent for heavy duty engines

and off-road machinery, Diesel particulate filters are also intro-
Today, application of Diesel particulate filters (DPF) [1] is com- duced to these engine categories. On the other hand, the evolution
monplace in automotive Diesel engines. As particulate emissions of emissions standards and aftertreatment technology resulted in
the priority of NOx aftertreatment by means of SCR (selective cat-
⇑ Corresponding author. alytic reduction) over particulate in heavy duty engines [2–6]. DPF
E-mail address: stam@uth.gr (A. Stamatelos). may be applied in the near future to big inland waterway vessels,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.04.096
1359-4311/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
538 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Nomenclature

Dp pressure drop [Pa] N number of open channels

L filter length [m] Af total filtration area [m2]
D filter diameter [m] Vd engine displacement [m3]
cpsi cells density [cells/in.2] w soot layer thickness [m]
ww filter wall thickness [m]
a channel Dp coefficient Abbreviations
R ideal gas constant [J/molK] DPF Diesel Particulate Filter
l dynamic viscosity of exhaust gas [kg/ms] SiC Silicon Carbide
Mg molecular mass of exhaust gas [kg/kmol] SOF soluble organic fraction
k0soot layer permeability [m2] VOF volatile organic fraction
kw ceramic wall permeability [m2]
d channel hydraulic diameter [m]
qs soot layer density [kg/m3]

or even to ships in specific congested areas with strict emissions

regulation. Filter material is Silicon Carbide (SiC), Fig. 1, and cor-
dierite [7] (2MgO-2Al2O3-5SiO2, Fig. 2). Filtration efficiency varies
in the range 70–95% of total particulate matter. Higher efficiency,
exceeding 95% is reported in the literature for the solid particulate
fraction, which involves elemental carbon and metal ash. However,
much lower efficiencies are reported for the soluble organic frac-
tion (SOF) of the particulate [8–10]. A large variety of filter system
design concepts and regeneration techniques (filter cleaning by
incineration of the accumulated particulate) exist to date, at vari-
ous production stages [11–19]. Table 1 presents a classification
according to the main regeneration techniques employed. Different
regeneration techniques may be combined in a single system (e.g.
engine management combined with catalytic fuel additives)
[20,21].
The need for a compact size of DPF to be fitted underhood, close
to the engine to keep exhaust temperatures high, along with the
mass produced of millions of units since 2000, resulted in compact
sizes of DPF for passenger car application [17,20].
On the other hand, DPF for large engines are not yet mass pro-
duced and in several cases tend to be rather oversized. The reasons
could be related to the low degree of commercialization, but also to Fig. 2. Cordierite filter for an off-highway machine.
some unrealistic requirements of conformance tests that are dis-
cussed here. As a matter of fact, most of the systems in production
stage are oversized, leading to higher installation costs, unneces- Fig. 1 shows a photo of SiC Particulate filter for a 2-L automotive
sary reduction in useful space and other side effects. These prob- Diesel engine, with a higher magnification photo showing the soot
lems could be partially eliminated by proper sizing of the filter. layer deposited inside the channel and an electron microscopy
The reduction of filter size, in addition to the reduction of the photo showing the texture of the different porous layers. Fig. 2
equipment cost, leads to increased filter temperature levels, due shows a cordierite filter for an off-road machine (loader). Cordier-
to reduced thermal inertia and heat losses of the filter. ite is selected in most cases for off-highway machinery. The design

Fig. 1. SiC Particulate filter for a 2-L automotive Diesel engine, with higher magnification photo showing the soot layer deposited inside the channel and an electron
microscopy photo showing the texture of the different porous layers [22].
 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546 539

Table 1
Classification of existing DPF systems according to regeneration techniques employed [17].

Active regeneration Passive regeneration

Continuous regeneration Generation of reactive agents: Generation of reactive agents:
Plasma regeneration (Ozon, OH-radicals, NO2) CRT System (NO2 production upstream DPF)
Micro wave regeneration
Discontinuous regeneration Exhaust gas Burner Catalytic fuel additive
Electric Heater Catalytically coated Filter
Electric oven (dismantling filter)
Engine management increases exhaust temperature
(e.g. post – injection, EGR, compressor bypassing)

and mass production of filters with more channels per unit inlet
Dp channel: pressure drop from flow friction within the
area has reduced filter size, since a smaller filter size may accom- channels.
modate the same soot mass with similar backpressure levels.
Dp soot: the accumulated soot acts as an additional filter and
Moreover, as explained above the filter stays warmer and imposes additional pressure drop.
regenerates more frequently. Due to the interaction of a significant
number of parameters with filter size, before formulating a As seen in this Figure, exhaust backpressure of an engine with a
sizing methodology, it is useful to discuss the effect of each specific filter installed increases almost linearly with exhaust flow-
parameter. rate assuming a constant exhaust temperature (the effect of
Current commercially available DPF systems for heavy duty exhaust temperature is seen separately in Fig. 4). The data of this
engines demonstrate significant variations in substrate size, as nor- Figure are produced by simplified modeling of filter pressure drop:
malized with respect to engine volumetric efficiency and nominal When one takes into account the effect of exhaust temperature on
power. It seems that, after three decades of DPF application, there exhaust density, the effect of exhaust gas flow rate on the three
is no universally acceptable philosophy of filter sizing for the speci- above-mentioned components of filter Dp may be approximated
fic engine category. On the other hand, substrate sizing turns out to by the following expressions [24,27]:
play an essential role in overall performance, reliability, cost and
a  l  R  T  L  m_
feasibility of a DPF system. A role which becomes increasingly crit- Dpchannel ¼ 4
ð1Þ
ical as the engine size increases. Mg  N  p  d
The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of the situ-
R  T  l  ww  m _
ation in the different Diesel engine categories and suggest rational Dpwall ¼ ð2Þ
guidelines for filter sizing, taking into account the boundary condi-
M g  p  Af  k w
tions for each engine category and application.
RT lm _
Dpsoot ¼ W ð3Þ
M g  p  Af  k p
2. Filter backpressure characteristics
where the dynamic viscosity of the exhaust gas is approximated by
A fundamental requirement for a specific DPF system is to pro- the following expression:
duce an acceptable backpressure which does not significantly
affect fuel consumption [23]. This sets a lower limit to filter size. l ¼ 3:55  107  T 0:679 ð4Þ
Pressure drop across the filter is normally produced by the follow- Different ceramic filter composition yields a different increase in
ing factors [23–26] (see Fig. 3): pressure drop over a given time, because of the variation in mean
pore size and porosity distribution. However, the requirements for

Dp wall: affected by porosity distribution, mean pore size and high filtration efficiency led to optimized ceramic filtration proper-
wall thickness. ties producing specific, acceptable levels of pressure drop

Fig. 3. Variation of the three components of filter pressure drop versus exhaust gas flowrate (Sic DPF, 5.66  6 in.).
540 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Fig. 4. DPF backpressure as function of engine exhaust gas temperature and flowrate (5.66  6 in. filter, 2-L engine).

(<200 mbar). The calculations of Fig. 3 are assuming a 144 mm An increase in exhaust backpressure leads to an equivalent
diameter  152 mm length SiC DPF with 200 cpsi, 0.4 mm wall decrease in engine mean effective pressure, as approximated by
thickness, 9 lm mean pore size and an exhaust gas temperature the following expression [29]:
of 200 °C. The variations of soot permeability (kp in Eq. (3)) with I
the type of soot deposition are even more pronounced. Moreover, W cycle ¼ pdV þ ðpin  pex Þ  V d ð5Þ
soot particles demonstrate a significant ability for water adsorption
[28] and hydrocarbon adsorption, which may significantly decrease The effect of DPF backpressure on the engine fuel consumption
permeability as water and hydrocarbons impregnate the porous may be assessed based on the additional fuel consumption
structure of the soot. required to restore engine output. For example, an increase of
As regards exhaust temperature, as shown in Fig. 4, filter back- 200 mbar in average filter backpressure leads to a 2% deteriora-
pressure increases with exhaust gas temperature, due to the tion in brake specific fuel consumption [29]. Naturally, fuel
increase in exhaust gas velocity. However, the calculations of this consumption increase is also affected by the vehicle driving
diagram are considering only dry soot, without the effects of mode.
adsorbed water and hydrocarbons that complicate matters [8]. Exhaust backpressure of a loaded filter increases rather sharply
Backpressure levels should be kept low, because backpressure with the particulate mass accumulated in the filter channels (see
reduces engine torque and increases brake specific fuel consump- Fig. 5, based on calculations with Eqs. (1)–(3)). Keeping a low level
tion (bsfc) of the engine. of DPF loading requires frequent regeneration.

Fig. 5. Effect of soot loading on filter backpressure (5.66  6 in. filter, 2-L engine).
 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546 541

Fig. 6. Effect of varying filter size (varying filter length with constant diameter of 5.66 in.) on the pressure drop characteristics of a 2-L car engine with constant exhaust gas
temperature of 200 °C.

Fig. 6 shows exhaust backpressure levels produced by different

filter sizes on a passenger car engine, as function of exhaust flow
(200 °C exhaust gas temperature).

3. PM emissions standards for various engine categories

The PM emissions’ standards for passenger Diesel Cars were

0.14 g/km in the European Regulation Euro 1 in 1992 (European
Driving Cycle, Maximum Speed 120 km/h, Total Distance
11.3 km). They were reduced to 0.1 g/km (1996) and further to
0.05 g/km (Euro 3/2000). From this point on the DPF became nec-
essary. In 2014 the limit became stricter to 0.005 g/km. The same
standards are valid for light trucks.
The evolution of European Legislation was different for Heavy
Duty Vehicles. Until 1999 only steady-state test was performed
on the vehicle engine (ECE R-49, 13 points). Emission standards,
expressed in g/kW h weighted over the 13 points, were 0.36 g/
kW h in 1992. They dropped to 0.02 g/kW h in 2000 (Euro III)
and further to 0.01 g/kW h in 2013 (Euro VI). Since 1999 the engine
Fig. 7. Combined DPF and SCR after-treatment device for off-highway Diesel engine
is subjected to a transient test as well. The limit was set to 0.01 g/ (EPA Tier 4, <560 kW, EU Stage IIIB) [30].
kW h in 2013. After 2000 the DPF is gradually introduced in Heavy
Duty Vehicles in order to conform to the standards [16].
Similarly, EU Stage IV emission standards for non-road diesel formance improved. According to EU Stage III/B (2012) emissions
engines were introduced in 2014, setting the limit in PM emissions standards for rail traction engines PM emissions for locomotive
to 0.025 g/kW h. Fig. 7 shows a DPF combined with an SCR device engines are limited to 0.025 g/kW h which would need a DPF.
to meet these requirements. To represent emissions during real Fig. 8 shows a more compact, optimized DPF installed by the
conditions, a new transient test procedure—the Non-Road Tran- engine manufacturer for a 2000 kW (76.3 L displacement) locomo-
sient Cycle (NRTC)—was developed in cooperation with EPA. The tive engine. A total of 10 £12  8 in. monoliths are included in the
NRTC is run twice—with a cold and a hot start. The results are package (about twice the engine displacement – see Fig. 9). To acti-
weighted 10% for cold start and 90% for hot start. The test is used vate filter regeneration, internal engine temperature management
in parallel with the steady-state test, ISO 8178 C1, referred to as strategies as A/F reduction, compressor bypassing and post-
the Non-Road Steady Cycle (NRSC) [31]. injection are employed by the engine ECU to substantially raise
Application to larger Diesels as locomotive or marine engines is the exhaust temperatures to the required levels.
moving at a slower pace [32]. Nevertheless, there exist hundreds of EU Stage III A legislation also includes Inland Waterway Vessels
retrofits to locomotive engines, in countries with strict emissions which were allowed to emit up to 0.5 g/kW h PM in 2009. The limit
standards like Switzerland [11]. Although most retrofits were will be gradually adjusted to 0.015 g/kW h in 2020 for engines with
rather oversized, clean engines may also be produced by incorpo- Net power greater than 300 kW. The legislation is less demanding
rating a compact DPF close to the engine (Fig. 8). In this way, a for Vessels with Net power less than 300 kW and may be accom-
more rational filter volume is attained and the overall system per- modated without DPF.
542 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Fig. 9. Internal design of the MTU DPF of Fig. 8. External dimensions

L  W  H = 2.72  2.1  0.9 m [33].

Fig. 8. SiC particulate filter for a locomotive engine (MTU rail engine 16 V 4000
RX4, 1: DPF, 2: engine) [33].

3.1. Marine engines

For the purpose of emission regulations, marine engines are

divided into three categories based on displacement per cylinder.

Category 1 concerns small engines with less than 5 L displace-

ment per cylinder.

Category 2 concerns medium sized engines with 5–30 L per
cylinder, with technology similar to locomotive engines (up to
8000 kW), used to provide propulsion for tugboats, supply ves-
sels, fishing vessels, etc. also used for auxiliary power genera-
tors in ships.

Category 3 marine diesel engines typically range from 2500 to
70,000 kW, powering container ships, oil tankers, bulk carriers,
cruise ships. Fig. 10. Soot filter for a yacht Diesel engine. Filter regeneration effected by the two
burners at the left of the picture [36].
Emission control technologies for the last category engines are
difficult to implement, mainly due to the residual fuel they are
burning (a by-product of distilling crude oil to produce lighter 2/Tier 3 standards in harmonization with 2008 Amendments
products). This fuel has high viscosity and density, which affects to IMO MARPOL Annex VI.
ignition quality, as well as high ash, sulfur and nitrogen content Fig. 10 shows a DPF for a large yacht Diesel engine. The DPF sys-
in comparison to marine distillate fuels. Residual fuel parameters tem volume may be demanding in these applications and size opti-
are variable because its content is not regulated. As an example, mization is critical in certain applications. Special measures could
PM emissions of a large container vessel 2-stroke engine burning be taken to significantly reduce filter volume. As an example, com-
residual fuel with 2.05% sulfur lie in the range of 1.1–1.75 g/kW h pact high speed ferries could be equipped with low volume filters
(as PM2.5), for engine load ranging between 10–70% [34]. A crude that will be engaged only at engine startup in the harbor [37].
oil tanker’s two-stroke engine, fuelled with residual fuel, was mea- Regeneration of this type of DPF could be effected by dismantling
sured to a weighted PM mass emissions factor of 1.60 g/kW h for the monoliths and placing in an electric oven regeneration facility
the main engine and 0.141 g/kW h for the auxiliary engine [35]. every one or two days.
Emissions from marine diesel engines have been regulated since
1999 through a number of rules, applicable to different engine cat-
egories, overlapping with the regulations for mobile, land- 4. Effect of engine size and power on DPF size
based off-road machinery. The most recent are the 2008 Category
1/2 Engine Rule, introducing Tier 3 and Tier 4 emission standards The large oversizing of DPF for off-highway and larger Diesel
for marine diesel engines. The Tier 4 emission standards are mod- engines can be seen in the example of Fig. 11. In this Figure, filter
eled after the 2007/2010 highway engine program and the Tier 4 volume for Diesel particulate filters OEM installed in Diesel pas-
non-road rule, with an emphasis on the use of emission aftertreat- senger cars is plotted versus nominal engine power [17,20,39]. In
ment technology. To enable catalytic aftertreatment methods, the the same diagram, a series of Diesel filters offered by a specific
EPA established a sulfur limit of 500 ppm in marine fuels (not DPF manufacturer is plotted as function of the engine nominal
residual fuels). The 2009 Category 3 Engine Rule, introduced Tier power suggested for retrofitting. Correlation of filter volume to
 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546 543

engine power should be straightforward, since engine power is diesel PM or less based on certification or in-use emission testing).
directly related to exhaust gas flowrate that is the major engine A minimum Exhaust Temperature level is set for Filter Regenera-
operating parameter affecting filter backpressure (Figs. 3–6). A lin- tion (e.g. 400 °C by use of catalyst in fuel), which must be kept
ear regression to the data for the specific manufacturer shows that for a minimum of 30 min, to allow the completion of regeneration.
suggested DPF volume in liters is correlated to the nominal engine During the test, the engine is allowed to operate for a maximum of
power by the following relation: 300–720 consecutive minutes below the above-mentioned passive
regeneration temperature. The manufacturer may set a minimum
V filter ¼ 0:2Pengine  1:2 ð6Þ
number of cold start and 30 min idle sessions before filter regener-
where Vfilter is expressed in liters and Pengine is in kW. ation is required (from 10 to 24 cold starts, see the example of
If one compares the respective data for the passenger car appli- Fig. 13). Also, a number of hours of operation is set (say 2000 h
cations on the same Figure, it is apparent that filter size in passen- or more) before disassembly and cleaning of the filter is required.
ger cars is significantly smaller for the same engine nominal Finally, a specific fuel is employed for the test (California diesel fuel
power. The situation is better depicted in Fig. 12, where the ratio with less than or equal to 15 ppm sulfur or up to 20% biodiesel
of filter volume to engine displacement is plotted. Volume of the blend).
DPF offered for retrofitting off-highway machinery is several times The diluted and cooled diesel particulate that is collected during
(up to 9 times) higher than engine displacement, while the volume emissions testing consists of two types of particles: (a) fractal-like
of DPF applied by the car manufacturers as OEM equipment is only agglomerates of primary particles 15–30 nm in diameter, com-
a little larger than engine displacement volume. This oversizing of posed of carbon and traces of metallic ash, and coated with con-
DPF for off-highway engines can only in part be attributed to the densed heavier end organic compounds and sulfate; (b)
higher engine-out emissions of this engine category. A typical PM nucleation particles composed of condensed hydrocarbons and sul-
emissions limit of 0.02 g/kW h is prescribed for off-road machinery fate [42]. However, the soot layer collected on the DPF wall has a
compared to a limit 0.01 g/kW h placed for heavy duty vehicles. Of modified texture and composition [34].
course, a retrofit filter size for the same displacement older Tier As an example, Fig. 14 presents the results of Thermogravimet-
engine would require a larger filter size relative to a new engine ric Analysis (TGA) and Heat Release Analysis by Differential Scan-
of the same size/power output but with much lower engine-out ning Calorimetry (DSC) of two soot samples received from a
particulate emissions. As already discussed in the example of central channel of a SiC filter installed on a 2-L displacement,
Fig. 8 (locomotive engine), careful DPF system design and its place- common-rail, high pressure injection (up to 1500 bar) Diesel
ment close to the engine may lead to low filter volume also for engine. The first sample was taken after prolonged engine opera-
these large Diesel engines. tion (filter loading mode) at 1800 rpm–30 N m engine operation
A hint to the reason for filter oversizing in retrofitting applica- point (250 °C filter wall temperature) and the second sample after
tion may be found if one studies the California Air Resources Board filter loading at 1800 rpm–70 N m operation point (350 °C filter
(CARB) certification procedure for Diesel exhaust after-treatment wall temperature) [43].
systems [40]. Certification according to the level 3 requires the A careful inspection of the results of Fig. 14, reveals desorption
attainment of 85% or greater efficiency of the filter in the reduction of water vapor in the interval 50–100 °C, followed by desorption of
of particulate matter. adsorbed hydrocarbons (Volatile Organic Fraction of the particu-
This certification takes into account the type of engine applica- late) in the interval between 350 and 500 °C. At soot sample tem-
tion (stationary, power generation, off-highway machinery, etc.) peratures higher 500 °C one observes significant mass reduction
and the type of engine (Diesel, with or without turbocharger, with- associated with heat release due to the ignition of the dry soot.
out Exhaust-Gas Recirculation (EGR), mechanically or electroni- Obviously, the composition of particulate emitted by the Diesel
cally controlled, certified off-road engines meeting 0.2 g/bhp-h engine varies with load. Operation at lower load produces higher

80

70

y = 0.0002x - 0.0012
60
filter volume [dm3]

50

40

30
off-highway
20 engines

10 automove
engines

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
engine power [kW]

Fig. 11. Filter volumes in liters offered by a specific DPF manufacturer as function of engine power [38], compared to DPF volume for mass production passenger cars.
544 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Fig. 12. Ratio of DPF filter volume to engine displacement for selected off-highway engine retrofits and passenger car OEM applications.

Fig. 13. Recorded filter backpressure levels during a CARB certification test that lasted about 30 days [41].

VOF content in the particulate, whereas operation near full load The experiment was carried out with a 2-L displacement, com-
produces dry soot, due to the higher exhaust has and filter temper- mon rail automotive Diesel engine that was subjected to load steps
atures [22]. It is known from the literature that VOF may be oxi- on the engine bench. In the recorded HC emissions signal (green
dized at temperatures as low as 200 °C (in the presence of line), hydrocarbon desorption is apparent at various load steps in
catalysts) and also may desorb from the particulate at higher tem- this experiment. At time = 4000 s, engine operation point is chan-
peratures, or even re-adsorb at low temperatures [44]. If one takes ged from 3000 rpm/40 N m to 2450 rpm/100 N m. The effects on
into account that adsorption capacity of the soot layer depends on the filter wall temperatures are measured by thermocouples T/
the accumulated soot mass and adsorbed hydrocarbons and water C9, (centerline) and T/C8 (periphery) [8].
(at low temperatures, below 100 °C) may significantly decrease The regeneration process is extremely complex and monitoring
soot layer permeability lp (see Eq. (3)), it becomes clear that a filter filter backpressure only vaguely hints to the evolution of soot mass
of large size and heat capacity, placed at a distance from the in the filter. This is confirmed by recent research works applying
engine, may produce very high pressure drop, thus requiring over- dynamic neutron radiography to the measurement of 3-D distribu-
sizing of the filter. For example, if the certification test requires tion of soot in the filter channels [45–48].
numerous cold starts (Fig. 13) and the filter is far downstream from
the engine, significant filter oversizing may be required.
Adsorption and desorption of soot volatile organic fraction is 5. Factors affecting average pressure drop in diesel filters
frequently observed in real world operation of Diesel engines
equipped with DPF. Numerous experiments and tests have been As discussed in the previous sections, the selection of filter size
conducted that show this behaviour. Fig. 15 is an example of this for a specific engine application should be based on the average
type of tests, that demonstrates the desorption phenomena of vola- pressure drop of the filter in typical engine operation. Filter size
tile hydrocarbons from soot. must be adequate to keep backpressure levels lower than the
 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546 545

tests or 0.1 g/kW h for heavy duty vehicles and 0.2 g/kW h for off-
road machinery.

5.2. Filtration efficiency

The effect of engine soot emissions on the filter loading rate is

significantly affected by filtration efficiency, since the filter loading
capacity will be determined by the integral of particulate emis-
sions multiplied by filtration efficiency for a required period of
time between regenerations. Total particulate matter emissions
of an engine at a given operating point consist of a number of dif-
ferent substances. Filtration efficiency varies for each category of
substances. For example, filtration efficiency of SiC or cordierite fil-
ters is higher than 95% for dry soot, (mainly produced at high
engine load); however it drops significantly at part load operation,
due to the low efficiency of the filter in collecting the volatile frac-
tion of particulates which is higher at part load.

Fig. 14. Results of Thermogravimetric (TGA) and Heat Release (DSC) Analysis of two 5.3. Vehicle driving mode or engine operation mode
soot samples received from a filter channel, the first loaded with the 2-L
displacement, common-rail Diesel engine operating at 1800 rpm–30 N m (250 °C Prevailing vehicle driving modes or engine operation modes
filter wall temperature) and the other at 1800 rpm–70 N m (350 °C filter wall affect DPF loading rate in several ways: there exist engine opera-
temperature) [43].
tion points associated with high particulate emissions and a high
solid fraction in the particulate emitted. Fortunately, these opera-
tion points are associated with high exhaust gas temperatures,
400 TF in (oC) TF wall centre (oC) 160 which favour partial or complete regeneration of a well-designed
TF wall periphery (oC) ΔP filter (mbar)
DPF system.
Speed (rpm/100), Torque (Nm),

Speed (rpm/100) HC (ppm C1)

Torque (N.m) A criterion affecting the sizing of mainly passively regenerated
Filter backpressure (mbar),

300 120 filters is the engine-out PM/NOx ratio. The CRT requires a mini-
Temperature (oC)

mum NOx/PM ratio for proper operation, and thus its operation
HC (ppm C1)

depends on the vehicle’s duty cycle. A successful passive operation

200 80 of the filter requires that the exhaust gas reaches a sufficient tem-
perature and meets certain conditions. The regeneration of the sys-
tem can be enhanced, within certain limits, by increasing the size
of the catalyst and the filter and/or by increasing the noble metal
100 40
loading in the catalyst. Nevertheless, if the application is unsuit-
able or the duty cycle is too cold, the filter may be plugged with
soot or experience uncontrolled regenerations [49,50].
0 0
0 1200 2400 3600
Time (sec) 6. Effect of filter size on regeneration behaviour
temperatures are measured by thermocouples T/C9, (centerline) and T/C8 (periphery) [8].
As mentioned above, regeneration frequency of a specific DPF
Fig. 15. Desorption of soot volatile organic fraction can be observed in the recorded
system depends on the vehicle driving conditions or prevailing
HC emissions signal (green line) at various load steps in this experiment. At
time = 4000 s, engine operation point is changed from 3000 rpm/40 N m to engine operation modes.
2450 rpm/100 N m. The effects on the filter wall temperatures are measured by Active regeneration systems are normally installed in passenger
thermocouples T/C9, (centerline) and T/C8 (periphery) [8]. (For interpretation of the cars and heavy duty vehicles, as well as locomotives and yachts
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
(where burner systems are a common choice). Regeneration is acti-
this article.)
vated when DPF backpressure exceed certain levels. Passive regen-
eration by use of catalysts is also present in car and vehicle
200 mbar threshold set by engine manufacturers. Average pressure systems. Frequent activation of regeneration refrains the engine
drop of the filter will be determined by the following factors: of excessive exhaust backpressure, but at the same time could dis-
sipate energy for regeneration. For this reason, fuel consumption

engine out particulate emissions (steady state and transient increase is limited by optimized DPF design and placing the filter
mode) closer to the engine, profiting from the use of fuel additives or cat-

filtration efficiency of the DPF alytically coated filters. Reduction of DPF size, inside the backpres-

prevailing vehicle driving modes or engine operation modes sure range permitted by engine manufacturers, generally improves

regeneration frequency regeneration behaviour due to the faster heating of the filter. For
this reason, DPF size should not normally exceed twice the engine
displacement volume.
5.1. Engine-out particulate emissions
7. Conclusions
As already discussed in Section 3, engine-out particulate emis-
sions of modern vehicle Diesel engines have been significantly Although the need of ceramic particulate filter size optimization
reduced by engine design and engine management measures. Typ- is well established in practical applications of Diesel Particulate Fil-
ical average emissions are of the order of 0.2 g/km in the legislated ter, the manufacturers’ approaches do not yet converge in this area.
546 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

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