NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOHY SIKKIM

Ravangla Campus
Barfung Block, Ravangla Sub Division, South Sikkim 737139

Assignment Solution: Module 1

Subject: Semiconductor Devices (EC13103)
(Academic Year: 2019-2020)

1. The work function of a material refers to the minimum energy required to remove an electron
from the material. Assume that the work function of gold is 4.90 eV and that of cesium is 1.90
eV. Calculate the maximum wavelength of light for the photoelectric emission of electrons for
gold and cesium.
19 19
Answer: Given; Work function of gold: W0  4.9eV  4.9  1.6  10 J  7.84  10 J

19 19
Work function of cesium: W0  1.9eV  1.9  1.6  10 J  3.04  10 J

Maximum wavelength for photoelectric emission in Au:

34
6.626  10  3  10
8
hc
max    2.535  10 m
7
 253.5nm
W0 19
7.84  10

Maximum wavelength for photoelectric emission in Cs:

34
6.626  10  3  10
8
hc
max   19
 6.54  10 m
7
 654nm
W0 3.04  10

2. According to classical physics, the average energy of an electron in an electron gas at thermal
equilibrium is 3kT/2. Determine for T=300K, the average electron energy (in eV), average
electron momentum, and the de Broglie wavelength.
Answer: Given; Temperature: T  300K

Average energy of electron: E  3 kT 

3  23
 1.38  10  300  6.21  10
21
J
2 2
21
6.21  10
 19
 38.81meV
1.6  10

Average moment of electron: p  2mE

31 21 26
 2  9.1  10  6.21  10  10.63 10 Kg  m / s

1
de-Broglie wavelength of electron:
34
h 6.626  10 
   26
 62.4 A
p 10.63  10

3. The uncertainty in position is 12 Å for a particle of mass 510-29 kg. Determine the minimum
uncertainty in (a) the momentum of the particle, and (b) the kinetic energy of the particle.
 10
Answer: Given; Uncertainty in position: x  12 A  12  10 m

29
Mass of the particle: m  5 10 kg

34
 1.054  10
(a) Uncertainty in momentum: p   10
2 x 2  12  10
26
 4.392 10 kg  m / s

(b) Uncertainty in kinetic energy: E  p

2


4.392 10  26 2
 1.93  10
23
J
k  29
2m 2  5  10
52
19.29  10
  29
10  10
4
 1.206  10 eV

4. The uncertainty in the position of an electron is no greater than 1Å. Determine the minimum
uncertainty in its momentum. (b) The electron’s energy is measured with an uncertainty no
greater than 1 eV. Determine the minimum uncertainty in the time average which the
measurement is made.
 10
Answer: (a) Given; Uncertainty in position: x  1A  1  10 m

34
 1.054  10 25
Uncertainty in momentum: p    5.27 10 kg  m / s
2 x 2  10
10

19
(b) Given; Uncertainty in energy: E  1eV  1.6  10 m


From Uncertainty principle: Et 
2
34
 1.054  10 16
 t   19
 3.29  10 s
2t 2  1.6  10

2
5. An electron in free space is described by a plane wave given by Ψ(x,t) = Aei(kx-ωt), where k =
1.5109 m-1 and ω = 1.5  1013 rad/s. (a) Determine the phase velocity of the plane wave. (b)
Calculate the wavelength, momentum, and kinetic energy (in eV) of the electron.
i kx t 
Answer: Given; Wave function: x, t   Ae
1
k  1.5  10 m
9
  1.5  10 rad / s
13

dx
(a) kx  t  cons tan t  k   0
dt
 kv p    0
 1.5  10
13

 vp   10 m / s  10 4 cm / s
4
 (Phase velocity)
1.5  10
9
k

(b) Wavelength:   2 
2  3.14
 4.19  10 m  4.19nm
9

1.5  10
9
k
34
h 6.626  10 15
Momentum: p    1.58 10 kg  m / s
 4.19  10
9

34
6.626  10  3  10
8
hc 17
Energy: E    4.74  10 J
 4.19  10
9

17
4.74  10
 19
1.6  10
 2.96  10 eV
2

6. Consider a particle with mass of 10mg in an infinite potential well 1.0 cm wide. (a) If the
energy of the particle is 10 mJ, calculate the value of n for that state. (b) What is the kinetic
energy of the (n+1) state? (c) Would quantum effects be observable for this state?
5
Answer: Given; Mass of the particle: m  10mg  10 kg

2
Width of potential well: L  1.0cm  10 m

2
n2h2 8mL E n 2 L
The allowed energy values for particle: En  2  n  2
 2mEn
8mL h h
2
(a) For E=10mJ: n  2  10 5 3
34
2  10  10  10
6.626  10
4
 1.35  10
28
 3.02  10  4.47  10
31

3
(b) For n+1 state: E n 1 
n  1 h
2 2

2
8mL

Energy difference between n and n+1 states:

n  1 h n  1 
2 2 2 2 2
n h h
 n
2 2
E  En1  En  2
 2 2
8mL 8mL 8mL
2 2

n  1  n n  1  n   2n  1

h h
 2
 2
8mL 8mL


6.626 10   2 1.35 10
34 2 28


43.906  10
68
 2.7  10
28

8  10  10 
9
5 2 2
8  10
30
 1.48  10 J

Thus, En1  En  E  10mJ  1.48  10 30 J

(c) The quantum effect will not be observable.

7. Calculate the lowest energy level for a neutron in a nucleus, by treating it as if it were in an
infinite potential well of width equal to 10 -14 m. Compare this with the lowest energy level for an
electron in the same infinite potential well.
14
Answer: Given; Width of potential well: L  10 m

27
Mass of neutron: mn  1.66  10 kg

31
Mass of electron: me  9.1  10 kg

Energy of lowest level of neutron: E1 

1 h
2 2


6.626 10  34 2


43.906  10
68

8  1.66  10  10 
 27 14 2  27  28
13.28  10  10
2
8mL
13
 3.306  10 J

Energy of lowest level of electron: E1 

2
1 h
2


6.626 10  34 2

43.906  10
68

8  9.1  10  10 
31  28
8mL
2 31 14 2
72.8  10  10

10
 6.08  10 J

4
8. Two semiconductor materials have exactly the same properties except that material A has a
bandgap energy of 1.0 eV and material B has a bandgap energy of 1.2 eV. Determine the ratio of
ni of material A to that of material B for T = 300 K.
Answer: Given; Bandgap of material A: E gA  1eV

Bandgap of material B: E gB  1.2eV Temperature: 300K

 Eg 
Intrinsic Concentration: ni  N C NV exp  
 2kT 
 E 
Thus; ni A  N C NV exp  gA  …………(1)
 2kT 
 E gB 
ni B  N C NV exp   ………….(2)
 2kT 

Dividing equation (1) by (2):

 E gA   E gA 
N C N V exp   exp  
ni A
  2kT    2kT   1
 exp  E gB  E gA 

ni B  E gB   E gB   2kT 
N C N V exp   exp  
 2kT   2kT 


 exp 
1
5
1.2  1
 2  8.617  10  300 
 1 
 exp  2
 0.2
 5.17  10 
 exp3.87
 47.94
9. An unknown semiconductor has E g = 1.1 eV and NC = NV. It is doped with 10 15 cm-3 donors,
where the donor level is 0.2 eV below EC. Given that EF is 0.25 eV below E C, calculate ni and the
concentration of electrons and holes in the semiconductor at 300K.
Answer: Given; Bandgap of semiconductor: E g  1.1eV
NC = N V
3
Donor density: N d  n  10 cm
15

Position of donor level: EC  E D  0.2eV

5
Position of Fermi level: EC  E F  0.25eV

Temperature: T  300K

 E  EF 
Electron concentration: n0  N C exp   C 
 kT 

 E  EF   0.25 
  10  exp    10  exp 9.615
15
 N C  n0 exp  C
15

 kT   0.026 
3
 10  1.5  10  1.5  10 cm
15 4 19

 Eg 
Intrinsic Concentration: ni  N C exp    N C  NV 
 2kT 
 1.1 
 1.5  10  exp 
19

 2  0.026 
 1.5 10  exp 21.154
19

10
 1.5  10  6.5  10
19

3
 9.75  10 cm
9

Concentration of electrons: n  1015 cm 3

Concentration of holes:
n
p i
2


9.75 10  9 2

9.5  10
15
19

 9.5  10 cm
4 3
15
n 10 10

10. A GaAs device is doped with a donor concentration of 31015 cm-3 . For the device to operate
properly, the intrinsic carrier concentration must remain less than 5 percent of the total electron
concentration. What is the maximum temperature that device may operate?
3
Answer: Given; Donor concentration:N d  3  10 cm
15

5
Intrinsic concentration: ni  N d  5  3  1015  1.5  1014 cm 3
100 100

Bandgap of GaAs: E g  1.42eV

3 3
N C  4.7  10 cm
17
NV  7.0  10 cm
18
For GaAs:

6
 3
Thus, C  N C N V  4.7  10  7.0  10
17 18
 1.814  10 cm
18

Maximum working temperature (T max):

Eg 1.42
Tmax  
 C   1.814  1018 
2k ln   2  8.617  10 ln 
5

 ND   1.5  1014 
 
1.42
 5

2  8.617  10 ln 1.21 10
4

1.42
 5
2  8.617  10  9.4

 876K

11. A special semiconductor material is to be designed. The semiconductor is to be n-type and

doped with 11015 cm-3 donor atoms. Assume complete ionization and assume N a = 0. The
effective density of states functions are given by NC = N V = 1.51019 cm-3 and are independent of
temperature. A particular semiconductor device fabricated with this material requires an electron
concentration to be no greater than 1.011015 cm-3 at T = 400K. What is the minimum value of
bandgap energy?
Answer: Donor concentration: N d  n  1 1015 cm 3
Acceptor concentration: N a  0
NC = NV = 1.51019 cm-3
3
Intrinsic concentration: ni  1.01  10 cm
15

Maximum working temperature (T max): Tmax  400 K

Bandgap of the semiconductor is:

C  1.5  1019 
E g  2kTmax ln    2  8.617  10  400  ln  
5

 ni   1.01  1015 
 
5

 6893.6 10 ln 1.485 10
4

5
 6893.6 10  9.6
 0.66eV

7
12. Silicon atoms, at a concentration of 10 10 cm-3 , are added to gallium arsenide. Assume that the
silicon atoms act as fully ionized dopant atoms and that 5 percent of the concentration added
replace gallium atoms and 95 percent replace arsenic atoms. Let T = 300K. (a) Determine the
donor and acceptor concentration. (b) Calculate the electron and hole concentrations and the
position of Fermi level with respect to EFi.
3
Answer: Given; Dopant (Si) concentration: DSi  10 cm
10

5 5 3
(a) Donor concentration: N d   Dsi   10  0.5  10 cm
10 9

100 100

Acceptor concentration: N a  95  Dsi  95  1010  9.5  10 9 cm 3

100 100

(b) Net hole concentration: p  N a  N d 

 9.5 10  0.5 10 cm
9 9
 3

3
 9.0  10 cm
9

3
ni  2.25  10 cm
6
Intrinsic concentration:

Net electron concentration:

n
n i
2


2.25 10  6 2


5.0625  10
12

 5.625  10 cm
2 3

9  10
9
9  10
9
p
N 
 p0 
 7.0  1018 
Position of Fermi level: E F  EV  kT ln  V   0.026  ln  9 
 9  10 
 0.026  ln 7.78 10
8
 
 0.026  20.47  0.53eV
Thus,
Eg 1.42
E F  E Fi   E F  EV    0.53  0.71  0.53  0.18eV
2 2

13. (a) A silicon semiconductor is in the shape of a rectangular bar with cross-sectional area
100m2, a length of 0.1 cm, and is doped with 51016 cm-3 arsenic atoms. The temperature is T =
300K. Determine the current if 5V is applied across the length. Repeat part (a) if the length is
reduced to 0.01 cm. (c) Calculate the average drift velocity of electrons in part (a) and (b).
Answer: For Length L=0.1 cm of silicon:
8
Cross-sectional area of silicon: A  100m
2
 100  10 cm
2

3
Donor concentration: N d  5  10 cm
16

Temperature: 300K Voltage: V  5V

 n  1100cm V  S
2
For Nd=51016 cm-3, mobility is:

8
Resistance of the semiconductor:
L L L 0.1
R   
A A ne n A 5  10  1.6  10
16 19
 1100  100  10
8

 1.13  10 
4

V 5 4
Current: I   4.425  10 A
1.13  10
4
R

(b) For Length L=0.01 cm of silicon:

Resistance of the semiconductor:
L L L 0.01
R   
A A ne n A 5  10  1.6  10
16 19
 1100  100  10
8

 1.13  10 
3

Current: I  V 5
  4.425mA
1.13  10
3
R

(c) (i) For Length L=0.1 cm:

V 5
Electric field: E    50V / cm
L 0.1

Drift velocity electrons: vd  E  1100 50  5.5  10 cm / s

4

(ii) For Length L=0.01 cm:

V 5
Electric field: E    500V / cm
L 0.01

Drift velocity electrons: vd  E  1100 500  5.5  10 5 cm / s

9
14. Consider silicon doped at impurity concentration of N d = 21016cm-3 and Na = 0, an empirical
expression relating electron drift velocity to electric field is given by:
 n0 E
vd 
2
  n0 E 
1   
 v sat 
Where,  n0 = 1350 cm2/V-s, vsat = 1.8107cm/s, and E is given in V/cm. Plot electron drift current
density (magnitude) versus electric field (log-log scale) over the range 0  E  106 V/cm.
3
Answer: Given; Donor concentration: N d  n  2  10 cm
16

Acceptor concentration: N a  0 Mobility:  n  1350cm / V  s

2

v sat  1.8  10 cm / s
7

 n0 E
Relation between drift velocity and Electric field: vd 
2
 E
1   n 0 
 v sat 
I Nq nVq L
Current density: J     nq  nqvd
A At At t

Electric field Drift velocity Current density

“E” (V/cm) “vd” (cm/s) “J” (A/cm2)
0 0 0
10 1.35104 43.2
102 1.35105 432
103 1.35106 4320
104 1.35107 43200
105 1.35108 432000
106 1.35109 4320000

10
 7
10

6
10

5
10
J(A/cm )
2

4
10

3
10

2
10

1
10
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Electric Field (V/cm)

15. A semiconductor material has electron and hole mobilities  n and  p respectively. When the
conductivity is considered as a function of the hole concentration p 0 , (a) show that the minimum
value of conductivity,  min, can be written as:

2 i  n  p 
1/ 2

 min 
 n  p 

Where, i is the intrinsic conductivity, and show that the corresponding hole concentration is p 0
= ni( n/ p)1/2.
Answer: Given; Mobilities of electrons and holes:  n ,  p

Conductivity of semiconductor is :
  e n n0  e p p0 ………..(1)
2
n
   e n i  e p p 0 …………(2)
p0

For minimum conductivity:

d  
2
d ni
0
0  e  e p
dp0  
n p 0
dp 0 p0 
2  1 
 e n ni  2   e p  0
 p0 

11
 e n ni
2

 2
 e p
p0

2 

 p 0  ni  n 
2
 
 p
1/ 2
 n 
 p 0  ni  
  ………..(3)
 p 

Using equ (3) in (2):

 p1/ 2  n1 / 2
 e p ni  n /  p 
2
ni
 min  e n 1/ 2
  min  e n ni  e p ni 1 / 2
ni  n /  p   n1 / 2 p
1/ 2

  min  eni  p  n1 / 2  eni  p 1 / 2  n1 / 2

1/ 2

  min  2eni  p  n …………..(4)

Intrinsic conductivity:
i
 i  eni  n   p   eni  …………(5)
n   p

Using equ (5) in (4):

2 i  p  n
 min  ………….(6)
 p  n

16. (a) Assume that the electron mobility in an n-type semiconductor is given by:
1350
n  cm / V  s
2

 Nd 
1  
16 
 5  10 
Where Nd is the donor concentration in cm -3. Assuming complete ionization, plot the
conductivity as a function of Nd over the range 10 15  Nd  1018 cm-3. (b) Compare the results of
part (a) to that if the mobility were assumed to be a constant equal to 1350 cm2/V-s. (c) If an
electric field of E = 10V/cm is applied to the semiconductor, plot the electron drift current
density of parts (a) and (b).
Answer: Given; Donor concentration:
3
10  N d  n  10 cm
15 18

1350
Mobility in n-type semiconductor is given by:  n  cm / V  s
2

 Nd 
1  
16 
 5  10 
12
(a,c) Conductivity of n-type semiconductor is :   ne n Field: E  10V / cm

Current density : J  E

Donor Conc. Mobility Conductivity Current density

“Nd” (cm-3)  n(cm2/V-s) “σ” ( -1cm-1) “J” (A/cm2)
11015 1.323103 2.11710-1 2.117
51015 1.227103 9.81610-1 9.816
11016 1.125103 1.8 18
51016 0.675103 5.4 54
11017 0.45103 7.2 72
51017 0.3375103 27 270
11018 0.27103 43.2 432

2
5x10

2
4x10

2
3x10
J(A/cm )
2

2
2x10

2
1x10

15 16 17 18
10 10 10 10
-3
Donor Concentration (cm )

13
(b,c) Mobility:  n  1350cm / V  s
2
Field: E  10V / cm

Donor Conc. Mobility Conductivity Current density

“Nd” (cm-3)  n(cm2/V-s) “σ” ( -1cm-1) “J” (A/cm2)
11015 1350 2.1610-1 2.16
51015 1350 1.08 10.8
11016 1350 2.16 21.6
51016 1350 10.8 108
11017 1350 21.6 216
51017 1350 108 1080
11018 1350 216 2160

3
2.5x10

3
2.0x10

3
1.5x10
J(A/cm )
2

3
1.0x10

2
5.0x10

0.0

15 16 17 18
10 10 10 10
-3
Donor Concentration (cm )

14
17. Consider a sample of silicon at T = 300K. Assume that the electron
concentration varies linearly with distance as shown in the Fig. The n cm
3
 
diffusion current density is found to be J n = 0.19A/cm2 . If the electron
diffusion coefficient is D n = 25 cm2/s, determine the electron 5  10
14

concentration at x = 0.

Answer: Given; Diffusion current density:J n  0.19 A / cm 2 0.01

0
Diffusion coefficient: Dn  25cm / s x cm 
2

Electron concentration at x=0.01: n0.1cm  5 10 cm

14 3

Let electron concentration at x=0 is: n0cm

3

dn
Diffusion current density is given by: J n  eDn
dx

 0.19  1.6  10
19
 25 
5 10  n0
14

0.01  0
 0.19  4 10
16

 5 10  n0
14


 5  10  n0 
14
 0.19
4  10
16
 4.75  10
14

 n0  5 10  4.75 10

3
 0.25  10 cm
14 14 14

18. The electron concentration in a sample of n-type silicon varies linearly from 10 17 cm-3 at x =
0 to 61016 cm-3 at x = 4 m. There is no applied electric field. The electron current density is
experimentally measured to be - 400 A/cm2 . What is the electron diffusion coefficient?
Answer: Given; x  0  4m 
n  10  6 10 cm
17 16
 3

 10 10 
4 3
 6 10 cm
16 16
 4  10 cm
3
 4  10 cm
16

Electron diffusion current density: J n  400 A / cm

2

n
 eDn  400
x 4
x 1  4  10 1
 25cm / s
2
 Dn  400    400   19
n e 4  10
16
1.6  10

15
19. The hole concentration in germanium at T = 300K varies as:
  x  3
px   10 exp 
15
cm
 22.5 
Where, x is measured in m. If the hole diffusion coefficient is D p = 48 cm2 /s, determine the hole
diffusion current density as a function of x.
Answer: Given; hole diffusion coefficient: D p  48cm / s
2

 x  3
Hole concentration: p  10 exp  
15
cm
 22.5 

Hole current diffusion density:

dp
J p  eD p
dx
10 exp  x / 22.5
15
19
 1.6  10  48 
x
4  1  x   x is in μm 
 76.8  10  4
exp    22.5  22.5  10 -4 cm
22.5  10  22.5   
 x 
 3.413  exp 
2
 A / cm
 22.5 

20. The electron concentration in silicon at T = 300K varies as:

  x  3
n x   10 exp 
16
cm
 18 
Where x is measured in m and is limited to 0  x  25 m. The electron diffusion coefficient is
Dn = 25 cm2/s, and the electron mobility is  n = 960 cm2/V-s. The total electron current density
through the semiconductor is constant and equal to J n = - 40A/cm2. The electron current has both
diffusion and drift components. Determine the electric field as a function of x which must exist
in the semiconductor.
Answer: Given; Diffusion current density: J n  40 A / cm 2

Diffusion coefficient: Dn  25cm / s

2

 n  960cm / V  s
2
Mobility:

16
   x  3
Electron concentration: n x   10 exp 
16
cm
 18 

Electron current density is given by:

dn
J n  ne n E  eDn
dx 16  x
d10 exp  
J n  eDn
dn 19
 40  1.6  10  25   18 
 E x   dx
 dx
ne n 19  x
1.6  10  960  10 exp 
16

 18 
3 1  x  x
 40  40  10  4
 exp    40  22.22  exp  
18  10  18 
  18 

 x  x
1.536  exp   1.536  exp  
 18   18 

 x
22.22  exp  
  18 

40
 x  x
1.536  exp   1.536  exp  
 18   18 
 x
 E  x   14.46  26.042 exp  
 18 

21. In n-type silicon, the Fermi energy level varies linearly with distance over a short range. At x
= 0, EF-EFi = 0.4 eV, and at x = 10-3 cm, EF-EFi = 0.15eV. (a) Write the expression for the electron
concentration over the distance. (b) If the electron diffusion coefficient is D n = 25cm2/s, calculate
the electron diffusion current density at (i) x = 0, and (ii) x = 510-4 cm.
Answer: Given; EF  EFi  0.4eV EF  E Fi  0.15eV
x 0 x 0.001cm

(a) Electron concentration at x=0:

 E F  E Fi   0.4 
n x 0  ni exp    9.65  10  exp 
9
 
 kT   0.026 

3
 9.65  10  4.8  10
9 6
 4.63  10 cm
16

Electron concentration at x=0.001:

 E F  E Fi   0.15 
n x 0.001cm  ni exp  
  9.65  10  exp 
9

 kT   0.026 

17
 3
 9.65  10  320.3  3.1 10 cm
9 12

Change in electron concentration:


n  4.63 10  3.110 cm
16 12
 3

 46300 10  3
 3.110 cm
12 12

3
 46296.9  10 cm
12

Change in length: x  0  0.001  0.001cm

n 46296.9  10
12
4
Slop of line: m   4.62969  10 cm
19

x  0.001

Expression for electron concentration with distance:

nx  4.62969 10 x  4.63 10

19 16

(b) Given; Dn  25cm / s

2

dn 19
Diffusion current density: J n  qDn  1.6  10  25  4.62969  10
19

dx
 185.2 A / cm
2 (x = 0, x = 510-4 cm)

22. The electron concentration in a semiconductor is given by n = 1016(1-x/L) cm-3 for 0  x  L

where L = 10 m. The electron mobility and diffusion coefficient are  n = 1000 cm2/V-s and D n
= 25.9 cm2/s. An electric field is applied such that the total electron current density is a constant
over the given range of x and is J n = -80A/cm2. Determine the require electric field versus
distance function. (b) Repeat part (a) if J n = -20 A/cm2.Calculate the hole diffusion current
density at (a) x = 0, (b) x = 5, and (c) x = 10 m.
Answer: Given; Electron concentration:
 x  3  0xL 
n  10 exp 1  cm
16
 and L  10m 
 L  
Electron mobility:  n  1000cm / V  s
2

Dn  25.9cm / s
2
Electron diffusion coefficient:

Electron current density: J n  80 A / cm 2

dn
J n  ne n E  eDn
dx 18
(a) We know;
16  x
d10 1  
J n  eDn
dn 19
 80  1.6  10  25.9   L
 E x   dx
 dx
ne n 19 16  x
1.6  10  1000  10 1  
 L
3 1
 80  41.44  10 
 L
 x
1.6  1  
 L
3 1
 80  41.44  10  4
 10  10
 x
1 .6   1  
 10 
 80  41.44  38.56
 
 x  x
1.6  1   1.6  1  
 10   10 

 E x  
38.56
 x 
1.6    1
 10 

(b) For J=-20A/cm2;

 20  41.44
 E x    E x  
21.44
 x  x
1.6  1   1.6  1  
 10   10 

23. Consider a semiconductor in which n0 = 1015 cm-3 and ni = 1010cm-3 . Assume that the excess
carrier lifetime is 10 -6 s. Determine the electron-hole recombination rate if the excess-hole
concentration is p = 51013cm-3.
3
Answer: Given; Equilibrium electron concentration: n0  10 cm
15

Intrinsic concentration: ni  1010 cm 3

2 20
n 10 3
p0  i  15  10 cm
5
Equilibrium hole concentration:
n0 10

6
Excess carrier life time:  p  10 s

19
 3
Excess hole concentration: p  5 10 cm
13

Electron-hole Recombination rate:

R   n0  n  p0  p 


1
n0  n p0  p 
 p n0
 6
1
10  10
15
15

10  5  10 10  5  10
13 5 13
 

1
10
9
105 10 5 10 
13 13

 5.15  10 cm / s
19 3

24. A semiconductor in thermal equilibrium has a hole concentration of p 0 = 1016 cm-3 and an
intrinsic concentration of ni = 1010 cm-3. The minority carrier life time is 210-7s. (a) Determine
the thermal equilibrium recombination rate of electrons. (b) Determine the change in the
recombination rate of electrons if an excess electron concentration of n = 1012 cm-3 exists.
3
Answer: Given; Equilibrium hole concentration: p0  10 cm
16

3
Intrinsic concentration: ni  10 cm
10

2 20
ni 10 3
Equilibrium electron concentration: n0   16  10 cm
4

p0 10
7
Minority carrier life time:  p  2  10 s

Thermal equilibrium Recombination rate of electrons:

1 1 1
R0  n0 p0  n0 p 0  n0   10  5  10 cm / s
4 10 3

 p p0 p 2  10
7

3
Excess electron concentration: n  10 cm
12

Electron-hole Recombination rate:

R   n0  n  p0  p  
1
n0  n p0  p 
 p p0

20
 
1
7
2  10  10
16
10 4
 10
12
10 16
 10
12


1
2  10
9
10 1000110 
12 12

 5  10 cm / s
18 3

25. An n-type silicon sample contains a donor concentration N d = 1016 cm-3. The minority carrier
hole lifetime is found to be p0 = 20 s. (a) What is the lifetime of the majority carrier electrons?
(b) Determine the thermal equilibrium generation rate for electrons and holes in this material. (c)
Determine the thermal equilibrium recombination rate for electrons and holes in this material.
Answer: Given; Equilibrium electron concentration: n0  N d  1016 cm 3

3
Intrinsic concentration: ni  1.5  10 cm
10

2.25  10
2 20
ni 3
p0    2.25  10 cm
4
Equilibrium hole concentration: 16
n0 10
6
Minority carrier life time:  p 0  20s  20  10 s

Recombination rates are equal:

16
n0 p0 n 10 6
 n  0  p n   20  10  8.89  10 s
6

n  p p0 2.25  10
4

(b) Equilibrium generation rate of electron and hole:

2.25  10
4
p0 3
 1.125  10 cm / s
9
Gn  G p  G  
p 20  10
6

(c) Equilibrium recombination rate of electron and hole:

3
R  G  1.125  10 cm / s
9

26. A sample of semiconductor has a cross- sectional area 1 cm2 and a thickness of 0.1 cm.
Determine the number of electron-hole pairs that are generated per unit volume per unit time by
the uniform absorption of 1 watt of light at a wavelength of 6300 Å. Assume each photon creates
one electron-hole pair. (b) If the excess minority carrier life time is 10 s, what is the steady state
excess carrier concentration?
Answer: Given; Cross-sectional area: A  1cm 2

Thickness of semiconductor: t  0.1cm

21
 
(a) Wavelength of light:   6300 A

Power of light: P  1W

34
6.626  10  3  10
8
hc 19
Energy of photon: E    3.15  10 J
 6300  10
10

Number of photons incident per second:

P 1
N  19  3.17  10
18

E 3.15  10
Number of e-h pairs generated per unit volume per second:

3.17  10
18
N 3
G   3.17  10 cm / s
19

At 1  0.1

(b) Excess minority carriers:

p   p G L  10  10 6  3.17  1019 cm 3 / s  3.17  10 cm
14 3

27. A hypothetical semiconductor has an intrinsic carrier concentration of 1.01010 cm-3 at 300K,
it has the conduction band and valence band effective densities of states N C and N V both equal to
1019cm-3.
(a) What is the bandgap Eg?
(b) If the semiconductor is doped with N d = 11016 donors/cm3, what are the equilibrium electron
and hole concentrations at 300K?
(c) If the same piece of semiconductor, already having N d = 11016 donors/cm3, is also doped
with Na = 21016 acceptors/cm3 , what are the new equilibrium electron and hole concentration
at 300K.
(d) Consistent with your answer to part (c), what is the Fermi level position with respect to the
intrinsic Fermi level EF-Ei?
3
Answer: Intrinsic concentration: ni  1.0  10 cm
10

3
Effective density of states for electrons and holes: N C  NV  N  10 cm
19

Temperature: T  300K
 E 
(a) We know; ni  N C NV exp   g   N exp   g 
E
 2kT   2kT 
   
 Eg  N
 exp   
 2 kT  ni
22
 N   1019 
 E g  2kT ln  C   2  0.026 ln  10 
 ni  1.0  10 
 0.052  ln 10    0.052  20.723
19

 1.078eV
(b) Donor concentration: N d  1.0  1016 cm 3

Equilibrium electrons concentration: N d  n0  1  1016 cm 3

Equilibrium holes concentration:

n
p0  i
2


1.0 10  10 2


1.0  10
20

 1.0  10 cm
4 3
n0 1  10
16
1  10
16

(c) Donor concentration: N d  1.0  1016 cm 3

3
Acceptor concentration: N a  2.0  10 cm
16

Equilibrium hole concentration:


p0  N a  N d  2  10  1 10
16 16
  110 16
cm
3

Equilibrium electrons concentration:

n
n0  i
2


1.0 10  10 2


1.0  10
20

1  10
16
p0 1  10
16

3
 1.0  10 cm
4

(d) Hole concentration:

 E F  E Fi  E  E Fi
p0  ni exp     exp  F  ni

  kT  p
 kT    0

n  1.0  1010 
 E F  E Fi  kT ln  i   0.026  ln 
 p0 
16   0.026  ln 10
1.0  10 
4
 
 0.026  9.21
 0.2395eV

23
28. Consider a p-type semiconductor that has a bandgap of 1.0 eV and minority electron lifetime
of 0.1s, and is uniformly illuminated by light having photon energy of 2.0 eV.
(a) What rate of uniform excess carrier generation is required to generate a uniform electron
concentration of 10 10/cm3?
(b) How much optical power per cm3 must be absorbed in order to create the excess carrier
population of part (a)?
(c) If the carriers recombine via photon emission, approximately how much optical power per
cm3 will be generated?
Answer: Given; Bandgap of semiconductor: E g  1.0eV

Minority carrier lifetime:  n  0.1s  0.1  10 6 s  10 7 s

19 19
Energy of photon: E  2.0eV  2  1.6  10  3.2  10 J

(a) Excess carrier concentration:n  1010 cm 3

We know;  n GL  n (G L = generation rate)

3
  n GL  10 cm
10

10 10
10 10 3
 GL    10 cm / s
17

n 10
7

3
(b) Excess carrier population: n  10 cm
10

Optical power generated by emission of photons:

19
En 3.2  10  10
10

P 
n 10
7

2
 3.2  10 J / s  320mW

24
29. A sample with 1016/cm3 donors is optically excited such that 10 19/cm3 electron-hole pairs are
generated per second uniformly in the sample. The laser causes the sample to heat up to 450K.
Find the quasi-Fermi levels and the change in conductivity of the sample upon shining the light.
Electron and hole lifetimes are both 10 s. Dp = 12 cm2/s; D n = 36cm2/s; ni = 1014 cm-3 at 450K.
What is the change in conductivity upon shining light?

3
Answer: Given; Donor concentration: N d  n0  10 cm
16

3
g L  10 EHP / cm s
19
Temperature = 450K

5 3
D p  12cm / s
2
ni  10 cm
14
 n   p  10s  10 s Dn  36cm / s
2

5 3
n  p   p g 0 p  10  10  10 cm
19 14
Thus,

n
Hole concentration: p 0  i
2


10 
14 2


10
28

16
 10 cm
12 3
16
n0 10 10
 n0  n   1016  1014 
(i) We know: E Fn  E Fi  kT ln    0.026  ln  
 1014 
 ni   
 100  1014  1  1014   
  0.026  ln  101  10 
14

 0.026  ln 
 14   10 14 
 10   
 0.026  ln 101  0.026  4.615
 0.12eV
Similarly;
 p0  p   1012  1014 
E Fi  E Fp  kT ln    0.026  ln  
 1014 
 ni   
 1012  100  1012   101  1012 
 0.026  ln    0.026  ln  
 14   1014 
 10   
 0.026  ln 1.01
 0.026  0.01
 0.26meV

25
(ii) Diffusion coefficient:
kT Dq
D  
q kT
For electron:
19 19
n 
Dn q 36  1 .6  10 57.6  10
  23   21
kT 1.38  10  450 6.21  10
 927cm V  s
2

19 19
Dpq 12  1.6  10 19.2  10
For hole: p    23   21
kT 1.38  10  450 6.21  10

 309cm V  s
2

Change in conductivity:

  ne n  pe p  ne n   p 

 10 1.6 10
14 19
927  309
2 1 1
 1.98  10  cm

30. An n-type Si sample with Nd=1015/cm3 is steadily illuminated such that gop= 1021 EHP/cm3 -s.
If n = p = 1 s for this excitation, calculate the separation in quasi-Fermi levels, (EFn-EFp).

3
Answer: Given; Donor concentration: N d  n0  10 cm
15

3 6
g op  10 EHP / cm s
21
 n   p  1s  10 s
6 3
n  p   p g 0 p  10  10  10 cm
21 15
Thus,

hole concentration: p 0  ni
2

10  10 2


10
20

 10 cm
5 3
15 15
n0 10 10

We know:

 n0  n   1015  1015   2  1015 

E Fn  E Fi  kT ln    0.026  ln    0.026  ln  
 10   10 
 ni   10   10 
 0.026  ln 2 10  5
  0.026 12.2
 0.317eV
26
Similarly;
 p0  p   10 5  1015   1015 
E Fi  E Fp  kT ln    0.026  ln    0.026  ln  10 
 10   10 
 n i   10   
 0.026 11.51

 0.299eV

Now,   
EFn  EFp  EFn  EFi  EFi  EFp 
 0.317  0.299eV
 0.616eV

27