Pressure is defined as the force exerted over a unit area.

Force may be exerted by liquids,

gases, and solids. Pressure is governed by the following equation:

P = F/A

where:

P = Pressure , F= force and A = area

Measurement of Pressure

The pressure of a fluid is measured by following devices:

1. Manometers
2. Mechanical gauges

Manometers

A manometer is a device for measuring fluid pressure consisting of a bent tube containing
one or more liquids of different densities.A known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is
applied to one end of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure (to be determined) is
applied to the other end.

Manometer operates on hydrostatic balance principle. A basic manometer includes a

reservoir,filled with a liquid. The reservoir is usually enclosed with a connection point that
can be attached to a source in order to measure its pressure. A transparent tube, or column, is
attached to the reservoir. The top of the column may be open, exposing it to atmospheric
pressure. Or, the column may be sealed and evacuated. Manometers that have open columns
are usually used to measure gage pressure, or pressure in reference to atmospheric pressure.
Manometers with sealed columns are used to measure absolute pressure, or pressure in
reference to absolute zero. Manometers with sealed columns are also used to measure
vacuum.

When a manometer is connected to a process, the liquid in the column will rise or fall
according to the pressure of the source it is measuring. In order to determine the amount of
pressure, it is necessary to know the type of liquid in the column, and the height of the liquid.
The type of liquid in the column of a manometer will affect how much it rises or falls in
response to pressure, its specific gravity must be known in order to accurately measure
pressure.

Manometers are accurate, they are often used as calibration standards. The shape of the liquid
at the interface between the liquid and air in the column affects the accuracy of the
manometer. This level is called the meniscus. The shape of the meniscus is determined by the
type of liquid used. In order to minimize the errors that result from the shape of the meniscus,
the reading must be taken at the surface of the liquid in the center of the column.

The quality of the fill liquid will also affect the accuracy of pressure measurements. The fill
liquid must be clean and have a known specific gravity.

Classification of Manometer

Broadly manometers are classified into two classes

1. Simple manometers ; simple manometers are those which measure pressure at a point
in a fluid containing in the pipe or a vessel.

Simple manometer is of many types

 Piezometer
 U- tube manometer
 Single column manometer

2. Differential manometers ; Differential manometers measure the difference of pressure

between any two points in a fluid contained in a pipe or vessel. Differential
manometer is of following types

 U-tube differential manometer

 Inverted U- tube differential manometer ; This type of manometer is used for
measuring the difference of two pressures (where accuracy is the major consideration)

Piezometer
Piezometer is one of the simplest forms of manometers. It can be used for measuring
moderate pressures of liquids. The setup of piezometer consists of a glass tube, inserted in the
wall of a vessel or of a pipe. The tube extends vertically upward to such a height that liquid
can freely rise in it without overflowing. The pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated
by the height of the liquid in the tube above that point.
Pressure at point A can be computed by measuring the height to which the liquid rises in the
glass tube. The pressure at point A is given by p = wh, where w is the specific weight of the
liquid

Limitations of Piezometer

 Piezometers can measure gauge pressures only. It is not suitable for measuring
negative pressures.
 Piezometers cannot be employed when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be
measured since this would require very long tubes, which cannot be handled
conveniently.
 Gas pressures cannot be measured with piezometers, because a gas forms

U – tube manometer

The piezometer cannot be employed when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be
measured, since this would require very long tubes , which cannot be handled
conveniently.Further more, gas pressures cannot be measured by the piezometers because a
gas forms no free atmospheric surface. These limitations can be overcome by the use of U-
tube manometers. A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of
which is connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open
to the atmosphere .Using a “U’ Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be
measured with the same instrument. The “U” is filled with a fluid called the manometric
fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that
of the manometric fluid

Characteristics of liquid used in U-tube Manometer:

 Viscosity should be low.

 Low surface tension is required.
 The liquid should stick on the walls.
 Should not get vaporized.
 The two fluids should not be able to mix readily that is, they must be immiscible.
Advantages of U-tube Manometer:

 Simple in construction
 Low cost hence easy to buy.
 Very accurate and sensitive
 It can be used to measure other process variables.

Disadvantage

 Fragile in construction.
 Very sensitive to temperature changes

Applications of U-tube manometer:

 It is used for low range pressure measurements.

 Extensively used in laboratories.
 Is used in Orifice meter and Venturi meter for flow measurements.
 It is used for calibration of gauges and other instruments.
 It is used for measuring pressure drop in different joints and valves.

Single column manometer (micromanometer)

The U-tube manometer described above usually requires the reading of fluid levels at two
ormore points since a change in pressure causes a rise of the liquid in one limb of the
manometer and adrop in the other. This difficulty is however overcome by using single
column manometers. A singlecolumn manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer
in which a shallow reservoir having alarge cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as
compared to the area of the tube is connected to one limb of the manometer,

Factors affecting manometer

Basic manometer principle of hydrostatic balance is inherently 100% accurate but there are
some factors that can affect the pressure measurement

 Characteristics of indicating fluid ; Fluid must have good ‘Wetting’ characteristics

and should be capable of forming a consistent well shaped meniscus in the indicating
tube to facilitate accurate and repeatable reading.
 Readability; Scales must be clear, sharp, accurate and easy to read.

Advantages of Manometers

 Easy to fabricate and relatively inexpensive;

 Good accuracy;
 High sensitivity;
 Require little maintenance;
 Not affected by vibrations;
 Specially suitable for low pressure and low differential pressures; and
 It is easy to change the sensitivity by affecting a change in the quantity of manometric
liquid in the manometer
Limitations of manometer

 Usually bulky and large in size.

 Being fragile, get broken easily.
 Readings of the manometers are affected by changes in temperature, altitude
and gravity.
 A capillary effect is created due to surface tension of manometric fluid, and
 For better accuracy meniscus has to be measured by accurate means.

Applications

 specific pressure monitoring applications

 Visual monitoring of air and gas pressure for compressors.
 Vacuum equipment and specialty tank applications such as medical gas cylinders, fire
extinguishers.
 In power plants,mercury absolute manometer have been used to check condenser
efficiency by monitoring vacuum at several points of the condenser
 Used for the research of atmosphere of other planets.
 And many more applications such as in whether studies, research labs, gas analysis
and in medical equipments.
 Some types of liquids used in manometers are toxic and can be damaging to the
environment. Therefore, when using manometers to measure or indicate pressure, do
not connect any manometer to a pressure that has the potential to exceed the range of
the manometer. This could cause the liquid to be forced out of the tube.
 In addition, since the tubes in many manometers are made of glass and can be easily
broken, it is important to use care in handling these manometers.
 Never operate damage equipment.
 Meter and its tubing should be free from any breaking and blockage.
 Electronic manometers do not measure water pressures; under these conditions they
will fail. Do not exceed 10 PSI input pressure.

Safety

 Some types of liquids used in manometers are toxic and can be damaging to the
environment. Therefore, when using manometers to measure or indicate pressure, do
not connect any manometer to a pressure that has the potential to exceed the range of
the manometer. This could cause the liquid to be forced out of the tube.
 In addition, since the tubes in many manometers are made of glass and can be easily
broken, it is important to use care in handling these manometers.
 Never operate damage equipment.
 Meter and its tubing should be free from any breaking and blockage.
 Electronic manometers do not measure water pressures; under these conditions they
will fail. Do not exceed 10 PSI input pressure.