Report No. 1: Aircraft Specifications Group No.

4: Sarimanok

Date: 21 Jan 2019 Page 1 of 2

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:

Haribon

A. Weight
A.1. Gross Weight (MTOW) 773.20 kg 1704.62 lb
A.2. Useful Load 318.04 kg 701.15 lb
A.2.1. Pilot 154.22 kg 340 lb
A.2.2. Passengers 0 kg 0 lb
A.2.3. Baggage 45.36 kg 100 lb
A.2.4. Fuel Load 112.56 kg 248.15 lb
A.2.5. Oil Load 5.90 kg 13 lb
A.3. Empty Weight 455.16 kg 1003.47 lb

B. Dimension, External
B.1. Wing Span 11.63 m 38.17 ft
B.2. Wing Chord at Root (CR) 1.45 m 4.77 ft
B.3. Wing Chord at Tip (CT) 1.45 m 4.77 ft
B.4. Wing Aspect Ratio 8
B.5. Length, Overall 7.3752 m 24.1967 ft
B.6. Height, Overall 3.1603 m 10.3685 ft
B.7. Tail Plane Span 2.90 m 9.51 ft
B.8. Wheel Track 1.8133 m 5.949 ft
B.9. Wheel Base 1.9885 m 6.5238 ft
B.10. Propeller Diameter 1.56 m 5.13 ft
B.11. Propeller Ground Clearance 0.5865 m 1.9241 ft
B.12. Cabin Door Height 0m 0 ft
B.13. Cabin Door Width 0m 0 ft
Report No. 1: Aircraft Specifications Group No. 4: Sarimanok

Date: 21 Jan 2019 Page 2 of 2

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:

C. Areas
C.1. Wing (Gross) 16.92 m2 182.13 ft2
C.2. Aileron (Total) 2.3727 m2 25.54 ft2
C.3. Flaps (Total) 1.1009 m2 11.85 ft2
C.4. Fin (Gross) 1.78 m2 19.15 ft2
C.5. Rudder 0.6838 m2 7.36 ft2
C.6. Horizontal Stabilizer (Total) 3.89 m2 41.90 ft2
C.7. Elevator 0.9662 m2 10.40 ft2

D. Loadings
D.1. Wing 45.70 kg/m2 9.36 lb/ft2
D.2. Power 8.51 kg/kW 12.5 lb/hp

E. Engine Lycoming O-320

E.1. Rated Maximum Horsepower 88 kW 136.37 hp
E.2. Rated Maximum RPM 2800
E.3. Specific Fuel Consumption 0.73 kg/kWh 1.20 lb/hp-H
E.4. Number of Cylinders 4
E.5. Engine Dry Weight 108.9 kg 240 lb

F. Performance
F.1. Top Speed 62.48 m/s 205 fps
F.2. Cruising Speed 52.07 m/s 170.83 fps
F.3. Stalling Speed 22.86 m/s 75 fps
F.4. Maximum Rate of Climb at S/L 229m/min 1208 ft/min
F.5. Service Ceiling 3 962.4 m 13 000 ft
F.6. Takeoff run 304.8 m 1 000 ft
F.7. Landing run 198.12 m 650 ft
F.8. Range 854.61 km 538.37 mi
F.9. Endurance 4.5 h
Report No. 2.2: Corrected Flight Envelope Group No. 4: Sarimanok

Date: 28 Jan 2019 Page 1 of 7

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:

Given:
W = 1704.62 lbs
s = 182.13 ft2
W/s = 9.36 lb/ft2
CLmax = 1.835
Vmax = 166.232 mph = 243.8069 ft/s

I. Maneuvering Load Factor

a. Positive Limit Maneuvering Load Factor

24,000 For normal category: 2.5 < n ≤ 3.8

n=2.1 +
W+10,000
n=2.1 +
24,000 For utility category: 3.8 < n ≤ 4.4
1704.62 + 10,000

n = 4.1505 (Utility Category)

b. Negative Limit Maneuvering Load Factor

-0.4n for normal/utility -n = -1.6602

-0.5n for acrobatic

c. Design Maneuvering Speed

VA = VS √+n

W 2 1 Vs = 65.5119 ft/s = 44.6672 mph

VS = √( ) ( ) ( )
S ρo CLmax

2 1
VA = 65.5119√4.1505
VS = √(9.36) ( )(
0.002377 1.835
) VA = 133.4655 ft/s = 90.9961 mph

d. Positive Maneuvering Load Factor Coefficient (+CnA maximum curve)

2nW
+CnA = 2
ρVA S
2(4.1505)(1704.62)
+CnA = 2
0.002377(133.4655) (182.13)

+CnA = 1.8349
Report No. 2.2: Corrected Flight Envelope Group No. 4: Sarimanok

Date: 28 Jan 2019 Page 2 of 7

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:

For +n:
2
ρVA CnA
+n =
W
2( )
S
2
0.002377(VA )(1.8349)
+n = +n = 2.3299 x 10-4 VA2
2(9.36)

e. Negative Maneuvering Load Factor Coefficient (-CnA maximum curve)

2(-n)W
-CnA = 2
ρVA S
2(-1.6602)(1704.62)
-CnA = 2
0.002377(133.4655) (182.13)

-CnA = -0.7339

For -n
ρV2A (-CnA )
-n =
W
2( )
S
2
0.002377(VA )(-0.7339)
-n = -n = -9.3194 x 10-5 VA2
2(9.36)

V V V2
+n -n
(mph) (fps) (fps)2
10 14.67 215.11 0.0501 -0.0200
20 29.33 860.44 0.2005 -0.0802
30 44.00 1936.00 0.4511 -0.1804
40 58.67 3441.78 0.8019 -0.3208
50 73.33 5377.78 1.2530 -0.5012
60 88.00 7744.00 1.8043 -0.7217
70 102.67 10540.44 2.4558 -0.9823
80 117.33 13767.11 3.2076 -1.2830
90 132.00 17424.00 4.0596 -1.6238
90.996 133.46 17811.82 4.1500 -1.6600
Report No. 2.2: Corrected Flight Envelope Group No. 4: Sarimanok

Date: 28 Jan 2019 Page 3 of 7

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:

II. Load Factor due to Gust

a. Design Cruising Speed (Vc)

VcDES = 0.9Vmax
VcDES = 0.9(243.8069) VcDES = 219.42 ft/s = 149.6088 mph

W
Vcmin = 33√ (knots) Vcmin = 100.9606 knots
S = 116.1047 mph
Vcmin = 33√9.36 (knots) = 170.2868 ft/s

VcDES > Vcmin

Limit Gust Load Factor

n = 1 ± Δn
KUVa
∆n =
W
575 ( )
S

Whereas:
K = ½(W/s)1/4 if W/s ≤ 16 psf a = lift curve slope
2.67
K = 1.33( 3 ) if W/s > 16 psf C 180°
a = α-αL ( π )
𝑊4 o
𝑠
α0 = -4.4796°
CL = 0.9175
K = ½(9.36)1/4
α = 4.3547°
K = 0.8746 0.9175 180°
a= ( )
4.3547-(-4.4796) π
u = 30 ft/s
a = 5.9505 / rad
V = VcDES = 149.6088 mph

0.8746(30)(5.9505)V
∆n =
575 (9.36) Δn = ±0.029Vc

For +n For –n
+n = 1 + 0.029Vc -n = 1 - 0.029Vc
Report No. 2.2: Corrected Flight Envelope Group No. 4: Sarimanok

Date: 28 Jan 2019 Page 4 of 7

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:

VC
(+)n (-)n
(mph)
0 1.0000 1.0000
10 1.2900 0.7100
20 1.5800 0.4200
30 1.8700 0.1300
40 2.1600 -0.1600
50 2.4500 -0.4500
60 2.7400 -0.7400
70 3.0300 -1.0300
80 3.3200 -1.3200
90 3.6100 -1.6100
100 3.9000 -1.9000
110 4.1900 -2.1900
120 4.4800 -2.4800
130 4.7700 -2.7700
140 5.0600 -3.0600
149.6088 5.3387 -3.3387

b. Design Dive Speed

VD = 1.5Vc
Where:
Vc = either Vcmin / VcDES whichever is greater
VD = 1.5(149.6088)
VD = 224.4132 mph

Limit Gust Load Factor

n = 1 ± Δn
KUVa
∆n = W
575 ( S )

Whereas:
K = 0.8746 V = VD = 224.4132 mph
u = 15 ft/s a = 5.9505 / rad

0.8746(15)(5.9505)V Δn = ±0.0145VD
∆n =
575 (9.36)

For +n For –n
+n = 1 + 0.0145VD -n = 1 – 0.0145VD
Report No. 2.2: Corrected Flight Envelope Group No. 4: Sarimanok

Date: 28 Jan 2019 Page 5 of 7

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:

VD(mph) (+)n (-)n

0 1.0000 1.0000
10 1.1450 0.8550
20 1.2900 0.7100
30 1.4350 0.5650
40 1.5800 0.4200
50 1.7250 0.2750
60 1.8700 0.1300
70 2.0150 -0.0150
80 2.1600 -0.1600
90 2.3050 -0.3050
100 2.4500 -0.4500
110 2.5950 -0.5950
120 2.7400 -0.7400
130 2.8850 -0.8850
140 3.0300 -1.0300
150 3.1750 -1.1750
160 3.3200 -1.3200
170 3.4650 -1.4650
180 3.6100 -1.6100
190 3.7550 -1.7550
200 3.9000 -1.9000
210 4.0450 -2.0450
220 4.1900 -2.1900
224.4132 4.2540 -2.2540

III. Composite V-n Diagram

Whichever is greater:
VF = 1.4VS in mph VF = 1.8VSF in mph
= 1.4(44.6672) = 1.8(1.1)(44.6672)
= 62.5341 mph = 88.4411 mph

VF = 88.4411 mph = 129.7136 ft/s

Whereas:
VSF = 1.1VS
VS INVT = Intersection of the +CnA VF = Airspeed with flaps fully
maximum curve and +VD deflected
gust line VSF = Computed stalling speed with
VS = Stalling speed with flaps flaps fully extended
retracted
Report No. 2.2: Corrected Flight Envelope Group No. 4: Sarimanok

Date: 28 Jan 2019 Page 6 of 7

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:

Summary:
VS = 44.6672 mph VC = 149.6088 mph
= 65.5119 ft/s = 219.42 ft/s
VS INVT = 62.45 mph VD = 224.4132 mph
= 91.5933 ft/s = 329.1394 ft/s
VF = 88.4411 mph +CnA = 1.8349
= 129.7136 ft/s -CnA = -0.7339
VA = 90.9992 mph
= 133.4655 ft/s
Report No. 2.2: Corrected Flight Envelope Group No. 4: Sarimanok

Date: 28 Jan 2019 Page 7 of 7

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:
Report No. 2.2: Corrected Flight Envelope Group No. 4: Sarimanok

Date: 28 Jan 2019 Page 7 of 7

Instructor: Engr. Jeq Zyrius A. Sudweste
Issue No.: 2 Rating:

Load Factor, n VD
VS INVT VF VA VC
VS
6

-1

-2

-3

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Flight Velocity (mph)
Legend:

Positive Limit Factor

Negative Limit Factor
Positive Limit Gust Load Factor based on Vc
Negative Limit Gust Load Factor based on Vc
Positive Limit Gust Load Factor based on VD
Negative Limit Gust Load Factor based on VD
REPORT 03: POWER AVAILABLE CALCULATION

GIVEN:

Brake horsepower @85% Capacity =

N (RPM) =
Approximate Vmax (VDES) =

ASSUMPTIONS

 Two-bladed propeller / Three-bladed propeller (whichever is applicable to design)

 Clark Y, 5869-9 with spinner
 𝛃.𝟕𝟓𝐑 = 35°

I. Design Parameters Calculation

A. Speed Power Coefficient (CS)

(𝟎.𝟔𝟑𝟖)(𝐕𝐦𝐩𝐡 )(𝛅𝟏⁄𝟓 )
𝐂𝐬 =
(𝐁𝐇𝐏𝟏⁄𝟓 )(𝐍𝐑𝐏𝐌 𝟐⁄𝟓 )

Whereas:

V = approximate Vmax in mph

BHP = Brake horsepower at 85% capacity in hp
N = engine RPM in rev/min
δ = density ratio = 1

B. Design Advanced Ratio (J)

𝐕
𝐉=
𝐍𝐃

Whereas:
V = approximate Vmax in ft./sec
N = engine RPM in rev/sec
D = Propeller Diameter in ft.

C. Propeller Diameter Correction

Determine the following parameters from the chart (fig. 3.1a or fig. 3.1b):

 Advanced Ratio for the given propeller design (J) =

 Propeller’s maximum efficiency =

V⁄N
Corrected Propeller Diameter: 𝐃 =
J
Whereas:
V = approximate Vmax in ft./sec
N = engine RPM in rev/sec
 Fig. 3.1a

Design chart for Propeller 5869-9. Clark-Y Section, two blades

 Fig. 3.1b

Design chart for Propeller 5869-9. Clark-Y Section, three blades

 Fig. 3.2

Variation of Efficiency with V/ (ND)

Fig. 3.3

Variation of RPM with airspeed for an unsupercharged engine

 Fig. 3.4

Engine Performance Chart at Sea Level

(SAMPLE ONLY)
 Fig. 3.5

Engine Performance Chart at Altitude

(SAMPLE ONLY)
II. Power Available (Sea Level)

Column (1) = arbitrarily assigned values up to VDES

(2) = V/ VDES
(3) = N/ NDES; refer to fig 3.2
(4) =( (3) / 100) x N
(5) = from engine performance chart at sea level; fig. 3.4
(6) = calculated advanced ratio from column 1 and 4
(7) = (6) / (V/ND) DES
(8) = η/ηDES refer to fig. 3.3
(9) = (8) x Propeller’s maximum efficiency
(10) = (5) x (9)

III. Power Available (Altitude; 5 000 ft, 10 000 ft, 15 000 ft, 20 000 ft, 25 000 ft.)

(1) = arbitrarily assigned value up to VDES

(2) = given from sea level
(3) = (2) x (CF = .995)
(4) = relationship between BHP, N and Pressure Variation
(𝑩𝑯𝑷𝟎 )(𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑺 ) 𝑷𝟏
𝐁𝐇𝐏𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝑵 = (𝑷 )
𝑵′ 𝟎

(5) = (4) x (CF = .82)

(6) = calculated advanced ratio from column 1 and 4
(7) = (6) / (V/ND) DES
(8) = η/ηDES refer to fig. 3.3
(9) = (8) x Propeller’s maximum efficiency
(10) = (5) x (9)
EXAMPLE:

at Sea Level

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
% of % of
V % of N % of η HP
Design BHP V/ND Design
(mph) Design N (RPM) Design η (%) Available
Velocity V/ND
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
100.00
110.00
120.00
130.00
140.00
150.00
160.00
162.28
170.00
180.00
190.00
200.00
210.00
220.00
230.00
240.00
250.00
260.00
270.00
280.00
290.00
300.00

GRAPH: Velocity vs Power Available & Velocity vs Power Required

Determine Min., Max., and Critical Velocity

 Altitude at 5,000 ft.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BHP at % of
V N N' BHP % of HP
Reduced V/ND Design η%
(mph) (RPM) (CF = .995) (CF = .82) Design η Available
N V/ND
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
100.00
110.00
120.00
130.00
140.00
150.00
160.00
162.28
170.00
180.00
190.00
200.00
210.00
220.00
230.00
240.00
250.00
260.00
270.00
280.00
290.00
300.00

GRAPH: Velocity vs Power Available & Velocity vs Power Required

Determine Min., Max., and Critical Velocity

REPORT 04: RATE OF CLIMB

I. Rate of Climb Determination

𝐻𝑃𝐸𝑋𝐶𝐸𝑆𝑆
𝑅𝐶 = (33,000) 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛.
𝑊
𝐻𝑃𝐸𝑋𝐶𝐸𝑆𝑆 = 𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉𝐴𝐼𝐿𝐴𝐵𝐿𝐸 − 𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝑈𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐷

Rate of Climb at Sea Level

V (mph) HP Available HP Required HP Excess Rate of Climb
40
50
60
70
VDES / VMAX

GRAPH: Velocity vs RoC; Determine the Maximum Rate of Climb for SL

Perform the same procedure for 5,000ft., 10000 ft., 15000ft., 20000ft., and 25000ft.

II. Absolute Ceiling and Service Ceiling Determination

Using Similar Triangle Equation, we can acquire the value of Absolute and
Service Ceiling.

(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )(𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑡 )
𝐻=
𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝑅𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑡

Whereas:
RCo = Highest Value of Rate of Climb = RoC at SL
RCalt = Max Rate of Climb at Halt = (from given alt)
Halt = Highest Altitude Attained = (from given alt)

AC =
SC =
REPORT 05: RANGE AND ENDURANCE

GIVEN:

Gross Weight =

Fuel Load =

Specific fuel consumption (C) =

Propulsive Efficiency (𝜼) =

Density (𝝆) = 0.002377 slugs/ft3

Wing Area (S) =

Vmax (From Report 3) =

EQUATION/SOLUTION:
(375)(𝜂)(𝐶𝐿 ) 𝑊0
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛 ; hours
(𝐶)(𝐶𝐷𝑇 ) 𝑊1

3
(778)(𝜂)(𝐶𝐿 ⁄2 ) 1 1
𝐸= (𝐶)(𝐶𝐷𝑇 )
√2𝜌𝑆 [ − ] ; miles
√𝑊1 √𝑊0
 Fig. 6.1
KT0 vs V/ND graph
 Fig. 6.2

Variation of Thrust horsepower with velocity

 Fig 6.3b

Thrust coefficient curves for propeller 5868-9 Clark Y, 3 blades

 Fig 6.3b

Thrust coefficient curves for propeller 5868-9 Clark Y, 2 blades

I. Take off
A. Static Thrust

K TO BHP
𝐓𝐨 =
(RPM)(D)

Where:
 𝐊 𝐓𝐎 = Static Thrust Coefficient ≈ from fig 6.1
 N = rpm
@ SSLC
 BPH = 85% of max hp. hp
 D (Corrected Propeller Diameter) = ft.

B. Initial Accelerating Force

𝐅𝐨 = To − μW

Whereas:

C. Takeoff Speed

𝐕𝐓 = 1.054 × Vmin

Whereas:
𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧 = from HPrequired / HPavailable vs. Velocity curve in mph
D. Thrust Power at Takeoff

𝐕𝐓
= _____ (calculated)
𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱

𝐓𝐇𝐏𝐓
= refer to figure 6.2 (A)
𝐓𝐇𝐏𝐃𝐄𝐒

𝐓 = CT ρ N 2 D4

Whereas:
 𝐂𝐓 = Thrust coefficient from fig. 6.3a/6.3b
 N = rps
 D (Corrected Propeller Diameter) = ft.
 ρ (Density @ SSLC) = 0.002378 slug/ft.³
 TV
𝐓𝐇𝐏𝐃𝐄𝐒 = = hp
550

Whereas;
 T = Thrust power at Takeoff, lbs.
 V = VMAX, fps
E. Thrust at Takeoff
THPT
𝐓𝐓 = (550) = lbs.
VT

Whereas;
THPT = (A) * THPDES
F. Accelerating Force at Takeoff

______
2W
𝐂𝐋 = =
ρSVT2

CL2
𝐂𝐃𝐓 = CDemin + πAR
= _____
CDT ρ S VT2
𝐃𝐓 = 2
= ________
W DT
𝐅𝐓 = TT –
L
= _______
FO − FT
𝐊= FO
= ________
Whereas:
 W (Gross Weight) = lbs.
 ρ (Density @ SSLC) = 0.002378 slug/ft.³
 S (Wing Area) = ft.2
 𝐂𝐃𝐞𝐦𝐢𝐧 = from Design I
 AR (Aspect Ratio) =

G. Takeoff Run
VT 2 W 1 1
𝐒𝟏 = [ gFO
] [k [−1 − k] ln[1 − k]] = ft.

0.011WVT 2
𝐒𝟐 = = ft.
FT

50 ft.
𝐒𝟑 = = ft.
tan θc

Where:
 𝛉𝐜 (Climbing Angle) = tan−1 RC
V
max
= _____
max

 𝐕 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ___
 𝐑𝐂𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ____
𝐠 (Gravitational Constant) = 32.174 ft./s2-

ST = S1 + S2 + S3
II. Landing

A. Flattest Gliding Angle

𝐷𝑔
tan θg =
𝑊
Whereas:
 𝐖 (Gross Weight w/ 10% Fuel Remaining) = ____lbs.
 𝛉𝐠 (Flattest Gliding Angle) = ____°

B. Gliding Velocity
𝐕𝐠 = 1.10 Vmin
Whereas:
 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧 = from HPrequired / HPavailable vs. Velocity curve in mph

C. Landing Run
2W
𝐂𝐋 = = _____
ρSVg2

CL 2
𝐂𝐃𝐓 = CDemin + = _____
πAR
CDT ρ S Vmin 2
𝐃𝐦𝐢𝐧 = = _____
2
Whereas:
 W (Gross Weight w/ 10% Fuel Remaining) = lbs.
 ρ (Density @ SSLC) = 0.002378 slug/ft.³
 S (Wing Area) = ft.2
 𝐂𝐃𝐞𝐦𝐢𝐧 = Aircraft Design I
 AR (Aspect Ratio) =
 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧 = (from HPrequired / HPavailable vs. Velocity curve in mph)

50W cos θg
𝑺′𝟑 =
Dg
Vg2 − Vmin 2
𝑺′𝟐 = .067W [ ]
Dg + Dmin

Vmin 2 1 CDT
𝑺′ 𝟏 = [ln [[ ] [ ] ]]
CDT μ C L
2g [[ C ] – μ] min
L min

S’T = S1 + S2 + S3
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REPORT NO. 08: SPAR DESIGN (for Metal)

Given:
Airfoil :
Gross Weight :
VC :
Wing Span :
Wing Chord :
Wing Area :
n1 :
ρSSLC :

Assumptions:
 Must use 7075 – T6 Aluminum Alloy
Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 7075 – T6 Aluminum Alloy:
 Alloy: 7075
 Form: Sheet and Plate
 Condition: T6
 Thickness: (0.040 in – 0.249 in)
Mechanical Properties:
 Tensile Yield Stress, Fty : 67,000 psi
 Compressive Yield Stress Fcy: 68,000 psi

SPAR LOCATION
Front spar is at 25% of the chord: ______
Rear spar is at 50% of the chord: ______

AIR LOAD (P)

𝐏 = CN qS
n′ W
𝐂𝐍 =
1 2
2 ρVL S
1
𝐪 = ρVC 2
2
n’ = Maximum Load Factor Multiplied by Ultimate factor (1.5)
= n1 x 1.5

FOR FRONT SPAR AT 25% C

𝐝𝐒𝐅𝐒 = dR FS − 2t w (in)
𝐝𝐑 𝐅𝐒 = 12.4% C + 5.49% C (inches)
𝐭 𝐰 = Thickness of the wing skin: (inches)

BENDING MOMENT OF THE WING ROOT

M=Pxd

where:
d = the perpendicular distance from the wing root to the position of P
b⁄
𝐝= 2 (ft)
2
SECTION MODULUS, Z

Z = I/y = M/FB

where:

I = Moment of Inertia
y = ds/2,
yFS = dSFS/2
M = Root Bending Moment
FB = Design Yield Bending Strength (Fty or Fcy)

Whichever is minimum, allowable strength that the material can withstand either subjected
to compression or tension.

CENTER OF PRESSURE, C.P.

CP Corresponding to CN (From Characteristic Curve) in ft.

SPAR DIMENSIONS

dS = The Maximum Depth of the Spar

dR = The Total Depth of the wing profile at the

Spar Position

tw = thickness of the wing skin

dS = dR – 2tW

AREA OF THE FLANGE, Af

I = 2Af y2
Z = I/y = 2Af y
Af = Z/2y
AfFS = Z/2yFS = ________

WIDTH OF THE FLANGE, W

Af = t x w
WFS = AfFS/t

where:

t = thickness of the Flange = 0.24 in

FOR REAR SPAR AT 50% C

dSRS = dRRS – 2tW

where:
dRRS = Z/CUpper + Z/CLower
dRRS = 11.85% C + 4.02% C

AREA OF THE FLANGE, Af

AfRS = Z/2yRS =
where:
Z = same as front spar =
YRS = dSRS/2 =

Width of the Flange, W

WRS = AfRS/t = _____

where:
t = thickness of flange = 0.24 in

*SHOW WING SECTION (SCALE: 1:1)

SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT
(Distribution of Air Load, P between Front Spar and Rear Spar)

*Compute for PFS and PRS (Show FBD)

LOAD DIAGRAM

Shear and Bending Moment

FORMULAS

P = A = ½ b/2 h

P = bh/4

H = 4P/b

Where:

P = Load for the Front Spar and Rear Spar

b = Wing Span =

For front Spar

hFS = 4PFS/b = ___________

For Rear Spar

hRS = 4PRS/b = ___________

For the Shear and Moment Equation

V = x/2y

By Ratio and Proportions

y/x = h/(b/2)

y = x·2h/b

V = x2 [h/b], Shear Equation

M = x2 (h/b) (x/3)

M = x3/3 (h/b), Moment Equation

Explanation of Table No. 1 (Root Chord, Front Spar)

Column No.

1. STRIP = Assigned

2. x = Distance of STRIP from A

3. V = 22 x [hFS/b]

4. M = 23 x [hFS/3b]

Table No. 1

1 2 3 4

Strip x (ft) V (lb) M (ft-lb)

a-a

b-b

c-c

d-d

e-e

f-f

g-g

h-h

i-i

B
(EXAMPLE: SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAM AT FRONT SPAR)
Explanation of Table No. 2 (Root Chord, Rear Spar)

Column No.

1. STRIP = Assigned

2. x = Distance of STRIP from A

3. V = 22 x[hRS/b]

4. M = 23 x[hRS/3b]

Table No. 2

1 2 3 4

Strip x (ft) V (lb) M (ft-lb)

a-a

b-b

c-c

d-d

e-e

f-f

g-g

h-h

i-i

B
(EXAMPLE: SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAM AT REAR SPAR)
 FAR PART 23 APPENDIX A
Simplified Design Load Criteria for Conventional, Single-Engine
Airplanes of 6,000 Pounds or Less Maximum Weight

A23.1 General.

(a) The design load criteria in this Appendix are an approved equivalent of
those in Sec. 23.321 through 23.459 of this subchapter for the certification of
conventional, single-engine airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less maximum weight.

(b) Unless otherwise stated, the nomenclature and symbols in this Appendix
are the same as the corresponding nomenclature and symbols in Part 23.

A23.3 Special symbols.

n1 = Airplane Positive Maneuvering Limit Load Factor.

n2 = Airplane Negative Maneuvering Limit Load Factor.
n3 = Airplane Positive Gust Limit Load Factor at VC.
n4 = Airplane Negative Gust Limit Load Factor at VC.
nflap = Airplane Positive Limit Load Factor With Flaps Fully Extended at VF.

*VF min = Minimum Design Flap Speed = [11.0] √n1 W/S (kts)

*VA min = Minimum Design Maneuvering Speed = [15.0] √n1 W/S (kts)

*VC min = Minimum Design Cruising Speed = [17.0] √n1 W/S (kts)

*VD min = Minimum Design Dive Speed = [24.0] √n1 W/S (kts)

* Also see paragraph A27.3(e) (2) of this Appendix.

A23.5 Certification in more than one category.

The criteria in this Appendix may be used for certification in the normal, utility,
and acrobatic categories, or in any combination of these categories. If certification
in more than one category is desired, the design category weights must be
selected to make the term “n1 W” constant for all categories or greater for one
desired category than for others. The wings and control surfaces (including wing
flaps and tabs) need only be investigated for the maximum value of “n1 W”, or for
the category corresponding to the maximum design weight, where “n1 W” is
constant. If the acrobatic category is selected, a special unsymmetrical flight load
investigation in accordance with paragraphs A23.9(c) (2) and A23.11(c) (2) of this
Appendix must be completed. The wing, wing carry-through, and the horizontal
tail structures must be checked for this condition. The basic fuselage structure
need only be investigated for the highest load factor design category selected.
The local supporting structure for dead weight items need only be designed for
the highest load factor imposed when the particular items are installed in the
airplane. The engine mount, however, must be designed for a higher side load
factor, if certification in the acrobatic category is desired, than that required for
certification in the normal and utility categories. When designing for landing loads,
the landing gear and the airplane as a whole need only be investigated for the
category corresponding to the maximum design weight. These simplifications
apply to single-engine aircraft of conventional types for which experience is
available, and the Administrator may require additional investigations for aircraft
with unusual design features.

A23.7 Flight loads.

(a) Each flight load may be considered independent of altitude and, except for
the local supporting structure for dead weight items, only the maximum design
weight conditions must be investigated.

(b) Table 1 and figures 3 and 4 of this Appendix must be used to determine
values of n1, n2, n3, and n4, corresponding to the maximum design weights in the
desired categories.

(c) Figures 1 and 2 of this Appendix must be used to determine values of n3 and
n4 corresponding to the minimum flying weights in the desired categories, and, if
these load factors are greater than the load factors at the design weight, the
supporting structure for dead weight items must be substantiated for the resulting
higher load factors.

(d) Each specified wing and tail loading is independent of the center of gravity
range. The applicant, however, must select a c.g. range, and the basic fuselage
structure must be investigated for the most adverse dead weight loading
conditions for the c.g. range selected.

(e) The following loads and loading conditions are the minimums for which
strength must be provided in the structure:

(1) Airplane equilibrium. The aerodynamic wing loads may be

considered to act normal to the relative wind, and to have a magnitude of 1.05
times the airplane normal loads (as determined from paragraphs A23.9 (b) and (c)
of this Appendix) for the positive flight conditions and a magnitude equal to the
airplane normal loads for the negative conditions. Each chordwise and normal
component of this wing load must be considered.

(2) Minimum design airspeeds. The minimum design airspeeds may be

chosen by the applicant except that they may not be less than the minimum
speeds found by using figure 3 of this Appendix. In addition, VC min need not
exceed values of 0.9 VH actually obtained at sea level for the lowest design weight
category for which certification is desired. In computing these minimum design
airspeeds, n1 may not be less than 3.8.

(3) Flight load factor. The limit flight load factors specified in Table 1 of
this Appendix represent the ratio of the aerodynamic force component (acting
normal to the assumed longitudinal axis of the airplane) to the weight of the
airplane. A positive flight load factor is an aerodynamic force acting upward, with
respect to the airplane.

A23.9 Flight conditions.

(a) General. Each design condition in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section
must be used to assure sufficient strength for each condition of speed and load
factor on or within the boundary of a V-n diagram for the airplane similar to the
diagram in figure 4 of this Appendix. This diagram must also be used to determine
the airplane structural operating limitations as specified in §§23.1501(c) through
23.1513 and 23.1519.

(b) Symmetrical flight conditions. The airplane must be designed for

symmetrical flight conditions as follows:

(1) The airplane must be designed for at least the four basic flight
conditions, “A”, “D”, “E”, and “G” as noted on the flight envelope of figure 4 of
this Appendix. In addition, the following requirements apply:

(i) The design limit flight load factors corresponding to conditions “D” and “E”
of figure 4 must be at least as great as those specified in Table 1 and figure 4 of
this Appendix, and the design speed for these conditions must be at least equal to
the value of VD found from figure 3 of this Appendix.

(ii) For conditions “A” and “G” of figure 4, the load factors must correspond to
those specified in Table 1 of this Appendix, and the design speeds must be
computed using these load factors with the maximum static lift coefficient CNA
determined by the applicant. However, in the absence of more precise
computations, these latter conditions may be based on a value of CNA =±1.35 and
the design speed for condition “A” may be less than VA min.

(iii) Conditions “C” and “F” of figure 4 need only be investigated when n3 W/S
or n4 W/S are greater than n1 W/S or n2 W/S of this Appendix, respectively.

(2) If flaps or other high lift devices intended for use at the relatively low
airspeed of approach, landing, and takeoff, are installed, the airplane must be
designed for the two flight conditions corresponding to the values of limit flap-
down factors specified in Table 1 of this.

Appendix with the flaps fully extended at not less than the design flap speed VF min
from figure 3 of this Appendix.

(c) Unsymmetrical flight conditions. Each affected structure must be designed

for unsymmetrical loadings as follows:

(1) The aft fuselage-to-wing attachment must be designed for the critical
vertical surface determined in accordance with subparagraph A23.11(c) (1) and
(2) of this Appendix.

(c) Unsymmetrical flight conditions. Each affected structure must be designed

for unsymmetrical loadings as follows:

(1) The aft fuselage-to-wing attachment must be designed for the critical
vertical surface load determined in accordance with subparagraph A23.11(c) (1)
and (2) of this Appendix.

(2) The wing and wing carry-through structures must be designed for 100
percent of condition “A” loading on one side of the plane of symmetry and 70
percent on the opposite side for certification in the normal and utility categories,
or 60 percent on the opposite side for certification in the acrobatic category.

(3) The wing and wing carry-through structures must be designed for the
loads resulting from a combination of 75 percent of the positive maneuvering wing
loading on both sides of the plane of symmetry and the maximum wing torsion
resulting from aileron displacement. The effect of aileron displacement on wing
torsion at VC or VA using the basic airfoil moment coefficient modified over the
aileron portion of the span, must be computed as follows:

(i) Cm = Cm + 0.01δu (up aileron side) wing basic airfoil.

(ii) Cm = Cm − 0.01δd (down aileron side) wing basic airfoil, where δu is the up
aileron deflection and δd is the down aileron deflection.

(4) Δ critical, which is the sum of δu + δd must be computed as follows:

(i) Compute Δα and Δb from the formulas:

VA
Δα = VC x Δp and
VA
Δb = 0.5 VD x Δp

Where Δp = the maximum total deflection (sum of both aileron deflections) at VA

with VA, VC, and VD described in subparagraph (2) of §23.7(e) of this Appendix.
 (ii) Compute K from the formula:
(Cm − 0.01δb) VD2
K=
(Cm − 0.01δα) VC2
Where δα is the down aileron deflection corresponding to Δα and Δb is the down
aileron deflection corresponding to Δb as computed in step (i).

(iii) If K is less than 1.0, Δα is Δ critical and must be used to determine δu and
δd. In this case, VC is the critical speed which must be used in computing the wing
torsion loads over the aileron span.

(iv) If K is equal to or greater than 1.0, Δb is Δ critical and must be used to

determine δu and δd. In this case, VD is the critical speed which must be used in
computing the wing torsion loads over the aileron span.

(d) Supplementary conditions; rear lift truss; engine torque; side load on
engine mount. Each of the following supplementary conditions must be
investigated:

(1) In designing the rear lift truss, the special condition specified in §23.369
may be investigated instead of condition “G” of figure 4 of this Appendix. If this is
done, and if certification in more than one category is desired, the value of W/S
used in the formula appearing in §23.369 must be that for the category
corresponding to the maximum gross weight.

(2) Each engine mount and its supporting structures must be designed for the
maximum limit torque corresponding to METO power and propeller speed acting
simultaneously with the limit loads resulting from the maximum positive
maneuvering flight load factor n1. The limit torque must be obtained by
multiplying the mean torque by a factor of 1.33 for engines with five or more
cylinders. For 4, 3, and 2 cylinder engines, the factor must be 2, 3, and 4,
respectively.

(3) Each engine mount and its supporting structure must be designed for the
loads resulting from a lateral limit load factor of not less than 1.47 for the normal
and utility categories, or 2.0 for the acrobatic category.

A23.11 Control surface loads.

(a) General. Each control surface load must be determined using the criteria of
paragraph (b) of this section and must lie within the simplified loadings of
paragraph (c) of this section.

(b) Limit pilot forces. In each control surface loading condition described in
paragraphs (c) through (e) of this section, the airloads on the movable surfaces
and the corresponding deflections need not exceed those which could be obtained
in flight by employing the maximum limit pilot forces specified in the table in
§23.397(b). If the surface loads are limited by these maximum limit pilot forces,
the tabs must either be considered to be deflected to their maximum travel in the
direction which would assist the pilot or the deflection must correspond to the
maximum degree of “out of trim” expected at the speed for the condition under
consideration. The tab load, however, need not exceed the value specified in
Table 2 of this Appendix.
(c) Surface loading conditions. Each surface loading condition must be
investigated as follows:

(1) Simplified limit surface loadings and distribution for the horizontal tail,
vertical tail, aileron, wing flaps, and trim tabs are specified in Table 2 and figures
5 and 6 of this Appendix. If more than one distribution is given, each distribution
must be investigated.

(2) If certification in the acrobatic category is desired, the horizontal tail must
be investigated for an unsymmetrical load of 100 percent ẇ on one side of the
airplane centerline and 50 percent on the other side of the airplane centerline.

(d) Outboard fins. Outboard fins must meet the requirements of §23.445.

(e) Special devices. Special devices must meet the requirements of §23.459.

A23.13 Control system loads.

(a) Primary flight controls and systems. Each primary flight control and system
must be designed as follows:

(1) The flight control system and its supporting structure must be designed for
loads corresponding to 125 percent of the computed hinge moments of the
movable control surface in the conditions prescribed in A23.11 of this Appendix. In
addition—

(i) The system limit loads need not exceed those that could be produced by
the pilot and automatic devices operating the controls; and

(ii) The design must provide a rugged system for service use, including
jamming, ground gusts, taxiing downwind, control inertia, and friction.

(2) Acceptable maximum and minimum limit pilot forces for elevator, aileron,
and rudder controls are shown in the table in §23.397(b). These pilots loads must
be assumed to act at the appropriate control grips or pads as they would under
flight conditions, and to be reacted at the attachments of the control system to
the control surface horn.
 (b) Dual controls. If there are dual controls, the systems must be designed for
pilots operating in opposition, using individual pilot loads equal to 75 percent of
those obtained in accordance with paragraph (a) of this section, except that
individual pilot loads may not be less than the minimum limit pilot forces shown in
the table in §23.397(b).

(c) Ground gust conditions. Ground gust conditions must meet the
requirements of §23.415.

(d) Secondary controls and systems. Secondary controls and systems must
meet the requirements of §23.405.

Table 1 – Limit Flight Load Factors

LIMIT FLIGHT LOAD FACTORS

Normal Utility Acrobatic

Category Category Category

n1 3.8 4.4 6.0

Flaps Up

n2 -0.5n1
Load Factors
FLIGHT

n3 Find n3 from Fig. 1

n4 Find n4 from Fig. 2
nflap 0.5n1
Down
Flaps

nflap Zero*

* Vertical wing load may be assumed equal to zero and only the flap part
of the wing need be checked for this condition.

LIMIT FLIGHT LOAD FACTORS

Normal Utility Acrobatic

Category Category Category

n1 - -
Flaps Up

n2
Load Factors
FLIGHT

n3
n4
nflap
Down
Flaps

nflap
Summary of Values

Wing Loading (W/S) =

n1 =
n2 =
n3 =
n4 =
nflap =
VF min = [11.0] √n1 W/S =

VA min = [15.0] √n1 W/S=

VC min = [17.0] √n1 W/S=

VD min = [24.0] √n1 W/S=

For Vertical Tail

w = 0.534 (n1 W/S) = __________
For Horizontal Tail
w = 4.8 + 0.534 (n1 W/S) = ________
For Trim Tab
w = 0.78 (n1 W/S) (CN/0.8) = ______ ; CN = 0.8

For Wing Flap

w = 0.64 (n1 W/S) (CN/1.6) = ______ ; CN = 1.6
For Aileron
w = 0.466 (n1 W/S) = ________
Aircraft Structures Guidelines
WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

RIBS have a primary function in the wing such as:

a. To maintain the chordwise shape of the airfoil

b. To act as support for the panels of the wing skin
c. To transmit pressures on the wing to the spanwise bending members
d. In some cases, they also serve to act as the supporting members to which landing
gear members or engine mount members are attached or as support for fuel tanks,
control system and localized loads.

For preliminary considerations, ribs spacing from 6 inches to 18 inches may be assumed. The
spacing of the ribs may be determined by the need to prevent oil-canning of the skin.

SPAR wing member that runs the length of the wing from the root to tip. This is also consider
as the main spanwise member of the wing structure and carries aerodynamic loads to the
fuselage structure.

FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

FRAMES just for the ribs in the wing structure, the primary function of fuselage frames are:

a. To maintain the shape of the fuselage

b. To sustain concentrated loads imposed
c. So serve attachment for equipment, flooring and the like
d. Transmit the load to adjacent structural member.

CATEGORIES OF FRAMES:

a. Simple Frames. These frames which serve merely to maintain the shape of the
fuselage. These will not be subjected to stress unless distortion of the entire
adjacent structure has taken place.
b. Intermediate Frames. These frames which serve to act as anchorage for
medium-weight equipment, control system and the like. These are similar to the
simple single-member, transverse frame, but must be reinforced locally to carry the
load and reduce deflections to a minimum. Additional brackets may have to be
introduced and tied in with the longitudinal stringers as well as the frames.
c. Main Frames These are the primary frames to which large external loads are
supplied through the landing gear, powerplant or wing structure. These are usually
two in numbers, spaced a small distance apart, and designed so as to take fittings
 to serve as carry-through members and in short, asct as the main transerve load
carrying member.

NOTE:

The frames, whether circular rings or reinforced frames, are located from 10 to 24 inches apart with the closer
spacing near the cabin and cockpit and gradually increasing towards the tail post.

LONGTUDINAL STRINGERS / LONGERONS serve an important function in that they,

along side with the effective width of the sheet covering, are the main bending elements of
the structure. Longitudinal members are spaced from 6 to 12 inches apart around the
periphery of the largest cross section. Since the cross section gradually diminish in size. The
cross sections of the longitudinal stringers / longerons are the same as for the wing. Since the
cross sections gradually diminish in size, the spacing is closer towards the tail post so that
alternate members may be stopped at a forward frame. It is not desirable to end longitudinal
members at the same frame.

NOTE:

In general, since the stringers are the main bending members / elements, they should be continuous and
therefore pass through the transverse frames.
Cockpit Design

The cockpit may be considered the most vital part of the airplane, for in its all function of the airplane and its
power plant are coordinated and directed by the pilot and his sides.

The cockpit for an airplane should be constructed to give the maximum possible comfort, adequate vision, and
accessibility to all controls. In a cabin plane, consideration must be given to headroom, ventilation and vision.

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE IN COCKPIT DESIGN:

The pilot must be comfortably seated – and it is desirable that his legs make an angle of not greater than 45
degrees with the floor to assure comfort in flight.

The windshield should not be curved in more than two directions because distortion of scene may result.

All switches and controls which pilot must operate should be located as close to him as possible. Those
instruments which do not have to be operated manually may be farther away, BUT MUST BE GROUP
ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONS. The more important functional group is located in front of him.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS:

a. Windshield Outline
b. Angles and field of vision
c. Instruments and their location
d. Power plant controls and their location
e. Pilot’s and co-pilot’s seats
f. Primary control systems
g. Brake System
h. Hydraulic controls for brakes, flaps, tabs, etc.
i. Automatic-pilot equipment
j. Radio instrument
k. Lighting
l. Heating and ventilating
m. De-icing equipment and controls
n. Oxygen equipment
o. Accessibility; emergency exits.

NOTES:

The cockpit and primary control units should be located with respect to the propellers that the pilot or controls are not in the region
between the plane of rotation of any propeller and the surface generated by a line passing through the ce nter of propeller hub and
making an angle of 5 degrees forward and aft of the plane of the rotation of the propeller

If the airplane carries less than five passengers, the pilot/s are located in a compartment separated from the cabin. Entrance to the
cockpit from the cabin is permitted, nut passage through the cockpit should not be considered as an emergency exit.

When the pilot is entirely separated from the passengers, suitable means for communication between the pilot and passenger is
necessary.

Oxygen suppky or a supercharged cabin is required for the crew and passenger above 18,000 ft. altitude or when operation for more
than 15 minutes above an altitude of 14,000 ft.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (Windows and Windshield)

1. Satisfactory forward vision under all conditions.

2. Suitable protection under all conditions.
3. Windshields should be easily opened in flight.
4. Windshields should be so arranged that the air stream and snow or rains are deflected across the
opening when the windshields are opened.
5. The windshield arrangement should be such as to give minimum interior reflection and glare which
might interfere pilot’s vision.
6. Leakage into the compartment during rain or snow should be avoided.
7. Windshields fronting on the sides of the cabin may be kept of ice by means of a rotary windshield
wiper that operates at relatively high speed.
8. The glass (windshield) should not lie too flat. An angle between 0 and 45 degrees between the vertical
and plane of the glass when the airplane is horizontal is recommended.
 9. The thickness of the glass depends upon the type and size of the plane. In general, nonshatterable
glass, at least 3/16 inch thick should be used.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (Seating)

1. The pilot’s seat should be adjustable vertically, as well as fore and aft and angularly. The back of the
seat should not be too high.
2. The seat should be provided with arms, so designed that the inside arm can be swung out of the way
when getting in or out of the seat.
3. When a wheel control is used, the height of the wheel should be such that it will clear the pilot’s legs
with the seat in its highest position so that the range of seat adjustment will not be limited.
4. The range of distance from the centerline of the seat and the rudder pedal bar is 35.5 to 41.5 inches
or a total variation of 6 inches.
5. The seat to eye height, with pilot inclined 13.5 degrees back, has a range varying from 26.9 inches to
34 inches.
6. Desirable clearances in the cockpit for the pilot who is clothed with full operational equipment:
a. Above head, atleast 2.5 inches
b. Across shoulders, 24 to 26 inches
c. Across elbow, 26 to 28 inches
d. Across each knee, 6 to 8 inches

EMERGENCY EXITS

a. If the cockpit is not accessible from the cabin, a separate door should be provided for the cockpit.
b. If the windshield is large enough when opened, it may serve as an emergency exit.
c. An opening for an emergency exit should be atleast 17 x 24 inches when rectangular in shape or 24
inches in diameter if circular.

PROTECTION FOR PILOT

In order to lessen or prevent injury, surfaces against which the pilot might hit his head in a crash should have
the following characteristics:

a. Should be flat or have large radii for curvature

b. Should be rigid enough to help support the head but should deflect under contact
c. Should be smooth, with no sharp edges to cause local high pressure intensity
d. Should be made for absorbing a relatively large amount of impact or kinetic energy.

CONTROLS

a. The distance from a control wheel in its rearmost position to the back of the pilot should at least 12
inches.
b. The height of the wheel should clear the pilot’s leg with the seat in its highest position.
c. The maximum movement of the controls should correspond to the maximum movement of the control
surfaces.
d. In a small airplane, seating 2 to 5 passengers, for example, it is customary to place a passenger
alongside the pilot. In such case, the control column or stick should be not located between the pilot
and passenger unless the “throw-over” type of wheel control is incorporated.