ARE Module 4 Notes

AGH University
FLUIDIZATION
Author: Supervisor:
mgr inz. Leszek Stepien dr hab. inz. Marek Sciazko
Department of Energy nad Fuels
January 2015
Chapter 1
Introduction to fluidization
1.1 Goal of this course
The aim of this course is to provide basic knowledge about fluidization and aerodynamics
of gas-solid systems as well as mathematical tools that enable to simulate basic fluidized
systems.
1.2 The phenomenon of fluidization
To simply decribe the idea behind fludization process one can say that it is the operation
that can change a system a solid particles into fluidlike suspension in gas or liquid. This
method of contacting of this two phase mixture have some unusual characteristics that
are widely used in many fields of chemical industry. Simplified diagram showing the idea
of fluidization is presented in Fig. 1.1. Gas is delivered from the bottom of the reactor,
goes through a gas distributor to provide inform distribution through whole profile of
bed and flows through packed bed of solids.
At low gas velocities the drag force is to small to lift the bed, which remains fixed.
Increasing gas velocity causes solids to move upward and create fluid bed. Depending
on the velocity of gas we can distinguish different modes of fluidization (Fig. 1.2) from
bubbling fluidization, through turbulent and fast fluidization modes up to pneumatic
transport of solids.
Another important issue concerning the fluidization proces is pressure drop through a
fixed bed. Fig. 1.3 presents changes in pressure drop with changing gas velocity. At first
one can observe increasing pressure drop, up to some level where it becomes constant,
despite increasing gas velocity. This change in pressure drop trend can be connected
1
Chapter 1. Introduction to fluidization 2
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of fluidization
with the creation of dense phase of fluidized bed and that is the moment when the
fluidization occurs. The velocity at which the pressure is stabilized is called minimum
fludization velocity. Pressure drop is stable in a certain range of velocities, then a slight
increase can be observed which precede a drastic decrease in pressure drop. This is due
to the entrainment of smaller particles which are suspended in the section over the dense
fluidized bed. Further increase in gas velocity will cause more fractions to be carried
over which leads to disappearance of dense phase and start of pneumatic transport.
Although, as it will be shown later in some cases gas velocities exceeding the terminal
velocity can be applied for the so called fast fluidization.
Figure 1.2: Fluidization type depending on gas velocity
Figure 1.3: Pressure drop vs. gas velocity.
1.3 Discussion points
1. Definition of fluidization phenomenon.
2. Various types of beds with gas flowing through a bed of fine particles.
3. Circulating fluid bed characteristics.
4. Liquidlike features of fluid beds
5. Advantages and disadvantages of fluidized beds.
6. Heat transport phenomenon in fluidized bed.

7. Drying process in fluid bed - basic process configuration.
8. Catalytic cracking in fluid bed.
9. Fluid bed boilers for energy generation.
10. Fluid bed pyrolysis and gasification.

Chapter 2
Fluidization velocities
2.1 Characterization of particles
Usually the bed contains particles with a wide range of size and shapes, which causes the
necessity to provide a proper and uniform description of size of material forming a bed.
If the particles are spherical the bed can be described by means of their diameter distri-
bution, but in real application most particles are nonspherical which yields a question
about the way to decribe this kind of beds. There exists a wide range of nonsphericity
measures [? ]. However, the most wildly used is the one called sphericity (φs ) defined
as the ratio of the surface of sphere to the surface of particle with the same volume.
For spherical particles φs = 1 and for other shapes 0 ≤ φs ≤ 1. Sphericity values for
some popular particles can be found in [? ]. Other important parameter describing
nonspherical particles is their specific surface, given as the ratio between surface and
volume of the particle:
6
a = (2.1)
φs dsph
where dsph is a diameter of the sphere having the same volume as the considered particle.
The same concept can be applied to the whole bed of particles:
6(1 − m )
a= (2.2)
φs dsph
where m is the fractional voidage, which usually can be found experimentally for each
specific system.
5
Chapter 2. Fludization velocities 6
2.2 Particle size distribution
Variety in shapes of particles is not an only problem in describing the bed, because in
most cases one also has a bed of particles with different sizes. For this description we
can define two functions of size distribution p and P. Assuming that we have a bed of
solids with diameters dpi , for i ∈ (1, 2, . . . , N ) then p gives the fraction (mass, volume,
number) of particles that are of the diameter d ∈ (dp1 , dpi+1 ). The function P gives the
so called cumulative distribution, which means the fraction of solids that are smaller
than the given value dp. Examples of such distributions are shown in Fig.2.1
Figure 2.1: Difference between P (left) and p (right)
Next issue is to provide an average size than can best describe properties of the system
and can be used in further calculations. This is done by harmonic diameter:
1
dp = N xi
(2.3)
i=1 dpi
dpi +dpi+1
where xi is a fraction of solids with diameter (dpi , dpi+1 and dpi = 2 . Then mean
specific surface can be obtained using equation (2.1):
6
a = (2.4)
φs dp
2.3 Fluidization velocities
First step in the process of description of fluidized bed is to calculate the velocity of gas
needed in the system. We can distinguish two basic velocities describing fluidization:
minimum and terminal. In this section we present the procedure used to calculate both
of them. All calculations can be performed for a bed with single or multi size particles
(in case of multi size bed it is necessary to calculate its mean diameter).
2.3.1 Pressure drop
Pressure drop through fixed bed of solids of uniform size (dp) of the length L is given
by Ergun [XX] correlation:
ΔP (1 − m )2 μu0 1 − m ρg u2o
= 150 + 1.75 (2.5)
L 3m (φs dp )2 3m φs dp
where μ is gas viscosity, dp is solid diameter, ρg is gas density, u0 is superficial gas

velocity.
2.3.2 Minimum fluidizing velocity
At the beginning of this section one has to revise definitions of two dimensionless num-
bers: Reynolds(2.6) and Archimedes (2.7)
dp umf ρg
Re = (2.6)
μ
d3p ρg (ρs − ρg )g
Ar = (2.7)
μ2
Now, remembering that the phenomenon of fludization occurs when drag force created
by the upward flow of gas is a least equal to the weight of particles in the bed. Mathe-
matically it can be presented with the following equation:
ΔPbed At = At Lmf (1 − mf )[(ρs − ρg )g] (2.8)
Rearranging and combining with equation (2.5) gives a quadratic in um f which can
be presented in dimensionless form of the equation (2.9) (for the details see ”Problem
solving”, ex. 3)
1.75 150(1 − mf )

Re2 + Rep,mf = Ar (2.9)
3mf φs p,mf 3mf φ2s
Solving equation (2.9) can be laborious but gives reliable estimation of umf if spheric-
ity and voidage are known. For rough estimation without knowledge of voidage and
sphericity of the system some simplifications can be used. For fine particles expression
(2.10) proposed by Wen and Yu [xx] can be used to obtain reynolds number in minimum
fludization conditions:
Rep,mf = (33.72 + 0.0494Ar)1/2 − 33.7 (2.10)
2.3.3 Terminal fluidization velocity
Terminal fluidization velocity can be calculated from the equation given in the dimen-
tionless form (2.11)
4
CD Re2t = Ar (2.11)
3
where CD is drag coefficient, which can be obtained experimentally or calculated from
one of many empirical relationships, CD is a function of Reynolds number. One of
the correlation that enables to calculate drag coefficient for a wide range of Reynolds
numbers (10−1 ÷ 106 ) was proposed by Kaskas [xx] (2.12
24 4
CD (Re) = +√ + 0.4 (2.12)
Re Re
Substituting (2.12) to (2.11) we obtain equation (2.13). Solving numerically for Ret we
can obtain terminal velocity for the system.
24 4 4
Re2 ( +√ + 0.4) = Ar (2.13)
Re Re 3
To avoid numerical calculations of equation (2.13) some simplification can be used,

depending on the type of low in the reactor. For laminar flow we obtain the only
analytical solution to the equation (2.13)
24
CD = for Re < 0.4 (2.14)
Re
For larger Reynolds numbers we can use one of the following approximations:
10
Cd = √ for 0.4 < Re < 500 (2.15)
Re
Cd = 0.43 for 500 < Re < 2 ∗ 105 (2.16)
An example of minimum fluidization velocity and terminal velocity as a function of

particle diameter is presented in Fig. 2.2
Figure 2.2: Minimum (red) and terminal (blue) velocity as a function of particle
diameter.
2.4 Gas distributor design
The design of fluid bed gas distributors may have a marked influence on the performance
of a fluid bed reactor. The primary physical reason for this influence is that the distribu-
tor design influences the hydrodynamics and thus the gas/solid contacting pattern in the
fluidized bed. Particle and gas properties play a key role in successful design together
with the critical pressure drop ratio, and hole size, geometry and spacing; these strongly
influence jet penetration, dead zones, particle sifting, attrition and mixing. [Geldart,
1985; Bauer, 1981].
This section deals with the simple algorithm that enables to design a perforated plate
distributor using just an orifice theory.
1. Calculate pressure drop across the distributor (??):
Δpd = (0.2 ÷ 0.4)Δpb (2.17)

where Δpb can be calculated form (2.5) or (2.8).

dt u0 ρg
2. Calculate the vessel Reynolds number(Ret = μ , where dt is tube(reactor)
diameter) and select the corresponding drag coefficient from the table below
Ret 100 300 500 1000 2000 > 3000

CD,or 0.68 0.70 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.60
3. Calculate gas velocity through the orifice
2Δpd 1/2
uor = CD,or ∗ ( ) (2.18)
ρg
u0
Check the ratio uor which gives the fraction of open area in the distributor and
should be less than 10%.
4. Assume orifice diameter (dor and calculate the number of orifices per unit area of
distributor using equation (2.19)
π 2
uo = d uor Nor . (2.19)
4 or
2.5 Discussion and problem solving
1. Dimensionless numbers - define Archimedes and Reynolds number.
2. Describe the procedure of calculating minimum and terminal velocity for a poly-
dispersed system.
3. Prove, that starting from combined equations (2.5) and (2.8) and using following
assumptions one can obtain equation (2.10).
1 1 − mf
3 = 14 2 3 = 11
φs mf φs mf
4. Prove that in steady state condition equation
dUs 3 ρg ρs − ρg
Us = CD (Ug − Us )2 − g ↔ (2.11). (2.20)
dz 4 ρs d p ρs
5. Calculate mean diameter for the system of particles presented below
(a)
di , mm 0.1 − 0.2 0.2 − 0.5 0.5 − 0.8 0.8 − 1.0 1.0 − 1.5 1.5 − 2.5
% 15 20 18 32 7 8
(b)
di , mm 0.2 − 0.4 0.4 − 0.6 0.6 − 1.0 1.0 − 1.5 1.5 − 2.0 2.0 − 3.0
% 32 20 18 15 7 8
6. Calculate minimum fluidization velocity for presented system. Perform the cal-
culation on mean diameter. Check if applying calculated velocity wile cause any
fraction to be carried over?
7. Design gas distributor for the given system.
8. Describe Geldart’s powder classification.

Chapter 3
Bubbling fluidized bed
3.1 Bubbles in fluidized bed
Knowledge of the general behavior of a fluidized bed is insufficient for some purposes, for
example reaction kinetics and heat transfer depend on details of the gas-solids interaction
in the bed. Hence, a satisfactory treatment of these phenomena requires a reasonable
model representing the gas flow through the bed and its interaction with bed material.
As a consequence, the bubble size, rise velocity, shape, distribution, frequency and flow
patterns are of key interest. As it was presented in chapter one, increasing the velocity
of gas flowing through a bed o solids causes changes fluidization mode (see Fig. 1.2)
At relatively low gas velocities we can observe a so called dense bubbling fluidized bed,
which is characterized by the presence of regions with low solid concentration which are
called bubbles. The dense phase, with higher solid concentration is called emulsion.
3.1.1 Bubble formation
The following calculations are presented in CGS unit system!

Initial diameter of a bubble formed directly above the gas distributor can be calculated
form equation (3.1). Note that this equation is true for a gas flowing with higher
velocities, causing the bubbles to overlap when formed (db0 < lor ).
2.78
db0 = (U0 − Umf )2 (3.1)
g
Bubbles moving upward change their size (grow with height over the distributor). To
describe the size of bubbles on the given height of bed we can use to different correlations
proposed by Mori and Wen (3.3) or Werther (3.4). Using Mori-Wen model also requires
12
Chapter 3. Bubbling fluidized bed 13
calculating of the bubble’s maximum diameter (3.2) which occurs at the end of dense
part of fluid bed.
Mori-Wen model:
π
dbmax = 0.65[ Dt2 (U0 − Umf )]0.4 (3.2)
4
h
db (h) = dbmax − (dbmax − db0 )exp(−0.3 ) (3.3)
Dt
Werther model
db (h) = 0.853[1 + 0.272(U0 − Umf )]0.333 (1 + 0.0684h)1.21 (3.4)
Figure 3.1: Changes of bubble’s diameter[cm] with height of bed [cm] according to
Mori-Wen (blue) and Werther (red)
Finally we can calculate the velocity of a single bubble flowing upward:
Ubr (h) = 0.711[g ∗ db (h)]0.5 (3.5)
where db (h) is bubble velocity calculated according to Werther.

3.2 Bubbling fluidization
As it was previously mentioned bubbling bed must be treated as a two phase system,
with solids in dense phase and gas bubbles in lean phase. From previous paragraph we
already know how to asses change of bubbles size in bed and the following part deals
with the problem of two phase approach to a bubbling fluid bed. One should remember
that bubbles contain very small amounts of solids and are not necessarily spherical. The
schematic figure showing elements of such system can be seen in Fig. 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Schematic bubble in bubbling bed
As can be seen the bubbles are approximately hemispherical, with pushed-in bottom.
The part directly under the bubble is called a wake, containing significant amount of
solids. Moreover every bubble is surrounded by cloud - a part of the emulsion that was
penetrated by gas from a rising bubble. Concentration of solid in the cloud is higher
than that inside the bubble, but lower than the one in emulsion.
3.2.1 Kuni-Levenspiel model
Kuni-Levenspiel model (later simply called K-L) is based on following assumptions:

[http://www.umich.edu/ elements/12chap/html/FluidizedBed.pdf, page 9]
1. All bubbles are of the same size.
2. The solids forming emulsion phase flow downward.
3. Emulsion phase exists at minimum fludizing velocity. The gas occupies the same
void fraction in this phase as it had in the entire bed at the minimum fluidization
point. Minimum fluidizing velocity refers to the gas velocity relative to moving
solids.
4. In the wake, concentration of solid is said to be the same as in the emulsion phase.
However, the wake is turbulent and the average velocities of solids and gas are
equal to the upward velocity of a rising bubble.
Fig. 3.3 shows the KL model with its assumptions.
Figure 3.3: K-L bed model
Following algorithm of calculation K-L model will use Werther model to obtain size of
of bubbles.
1. Calculate bubbles velocity based on single bubble velocity (3.5:
Ub (h) = U0 − Umf + Ubr (h) (3.6)
2. Calculate average diameter of bubbles (3.7), using mean value theorem for inte-
gration on function db (h) (3.4) and average velocity of bubbles (3.8). In this point
we have to assume some value of Lf (height of bed).
Lf
1
dbs (h) = db (h)dh (3.7)
Lf 0
Ubs (h) = U0 − Umf + 0.711[g ∗ dbs (h)]0.5 (3.8)

Figure 3.4: Wake volume to bubble volume (Kuni, Levenspiel; 1991
3. The downflow velocity of solids, can be calculated based on material balance of

solid particles present in the system.
Total solids = Solids flowing downward in emulsion + solids flowing
upward in wakes
fw δUb
us == (3.9)
1 − δ − fw δ
where fw is the ratio of wake volume to bubble volume and can be found from the
Fig. 3.4
4. Velocity of gas in the emulsion phase comes from the material balance of gas:
Total gas = Gas in bubbles + gas in wakes + gas in emulsion
Umf
Ue = − Us (3.10)
εmf
5. Volume fraction of bubbles in bed
U0 − Umf
δ= (3.11)
Ubs − U mf
6. Calculate porosities:
(a) in emulsion phase is assumed to be constant εe = εmf

(b) average bed porosity:
εf = δ + (1 − δ)εe (3.12)
7. Calculate height of bed (checkpoint if the assumption in (3.7)) was correct.
1 − εmf
Lf = Lmf (3.13)
1 − εf
3.2.2 Extended K-L model
1. Volume fraction of clouds in bed
3
fc = ε (3.14)
Ubrs Umf
mf
−1
where Ubrs is a velocity of single bubble (3.5) calculated for average bubble diam-
eter (3.7)
2. Volume fraction of wake is assumed to be constant fw = 0.33.
3. Volume fraction of emulsion
fe = 1 − δ − fw δ − fc (3.15)
4. Fraction of solids in bubbles was specified experimentally γb = 0.005
5. Fraction of solids in clouds and wakes
γc = (1 − εmf )(fc + fw ) (3.16)
6. Fraction of solids in emulsion
1 − εmf )(1 − δ)
γe = − γb − γc (3.17)
δ
7. Wake velocity is constatnt and equal to the velocity of bubbles (3.8 Uw = Ubs .
8. Emulsion downflow velocity
fw δUbs
Ue = (3.18)
1 − δ − fw δ
9. Relative gas velocity in emulsion
Umf
Uge = − Ue (3.19)
εmf
3.3 Entrainment and elutriation
Fluidized reactor can be divided into two parts, the bottom one called the dense phase
which was described in previous sections and dispersed phase, where the concentration
of solid decreases. We showed that by using equation (3.13) we can find the height of
fluidized bed or to be more specific its dense part. That’s were more or less distinct
border between the two phases occurs and the bubbles present in the dense phase disap-
pear. The ”disappearance” is a reason for the presence of the lean phase in the reactor.
This is shown in Fig. 3.5. Spraying of solids into lean phase can have threee different
mechanisms (Kuni, Levenspiel):
• bubbles have higher pressure than the surface of bed, so by reaching the top of
dense phase they spray solids form its roof into lean phase;
• reaching the surface, bubbles can explode, and then the arising forces cause the
solids present in the wake to be sprayed to lean phase;
• two bubbles can coalesce at the surface and create energetic ejection of solids from
under the bottom bubble.
The aim of this section is to provide some insight to what happens over the dense part of
the bed. Let us first define number of terms necessary to understand the problem. The
flux of solids suspended in gas over the dense phase is called an entrainment (Gs ). The
zone of fluidization vessel above the border between the previously mentioned phases
is called a freeboard. The region close to the border between the phases is called the
splash zone and that is where the spraying of solids occurs. The entrainment of solids
decreases with the increasing height of the freeboard until it reaches some constant
level. The height at which it happens is called TDH - transport disengaging height. By
saturation carrying capacity we understand the largest flux of solids that can entrained
by gas above the TDH. Finally elutriation which refers to removal of fine particles from
a mixture of solids with different sizes. Larger particles fall back to bed, because they
are to heavy to be carried up, but smaller ones are flowing upward with the gas.
Below we present the algorithm that enables to describe the amounts of material in
different zones of fluidization vessel.
1. We start with the assumption that the initial velocity of solids Ubf sprayed out
of the dense phase of the bed is equal to the velocity of bubbles at this height.
We use equation (3.6) with the previously calculated height Lf . Here one has to
remember that all the velocities were calculated in CGS unit system and from
now on we have to go back to the SI units!
Figure 3.5: Mechanism of ejection of solids from dense bed
kg
2. The flux of entrained solids m2 s
is calculated by equation:
Gs = 0.1ρs (1 − εmf )Ubf − Umf (3.20)
3. Now we calculate saturation carrying capacity for gas present in the system.
ρs 0.013 Dt −0.05
Esat = 0.096U0 ρg F rt(Ut )0.633 Ar0.121 ( ) ( ) (3.21)
ρg D0
where F rt (Ut ) is given by (3.22) (Froude number), Dt is reactor diameter and

D0 = 5.9cm and it is reference diameter of experimental fludization vessel
Ut2
F rt (Ut ) = (3.22)
g ∗ dp
4. The distribution of solid flux is given by exponential function of height (3.23) and
is presented in Fig. 3.6.
E(h) = Esat + (Gs − Esat )exp(−ah) (3.23)
where a = 4 is an experimentally obtained coefficient. As it can be observed in

Fig. 3.6 freeboard zone is about 1m high, because that is where we start to observe
constant flux of solids.
5. Porosity in lean phase.

We start from calculating the porosity at the height where the freeboard zone ends
(3.24) and then we calculate the distribution of porosity with height, assuming that
it is related to the flux of solids (3.25). Example of changes in porosity and solid
Figure 3.6: Change of solid flux in freeboard zone
concntration is presented in Fig. 3.7
Esat
εsat = 1 − (3.24)
(U0 − Ut )ρs
ε(h) = εsat + (εf − εsat )exp(−ah) (3.25)
Figure 3.7: Porosity( red) and solid concentration (blue) in freeboard zone
6. Average concentration above the dense phase is calculated with mean value theo-
rem for integrals according to equation (3.26)
L
1
εes =1− εsat + (εf − εsat )exp(−ah)dh (3.26)
L 0
7. Finally we find mass of solids in dense phase (3.27) and mass of solid above the
dense phase (3.28)
πDt2
md = Lmf (1 − εmf )ρs (3.27)
4
πDt2
md = Lmf εes ρs (3.28)
4
3.4 Fluid bed dimensions
To complete the description of bubbling fluidized bed one needs to be able to calculate
its dimensions: height and diameter (Fig. 3.8).
Figure 3.8: Dimensions ob fluidized bed

Heights of the two zones, dense and lean, featured in figure 3.8 are calculated from Kuni-
Levenspiel model (Lf )and entrainment model (T DH) presented in previous paragraph.
TDH can be connected with the height at which the outlet to cyclone is mounted. That
leaves only diameters of the reactor to be calculated according to the following procedure.
To complete this calculation the flow of gas (Vgas ) MUST be known!
1. Determine the maximum amount of fines that can be carried over from the reactor:
p %. Knowing size distribution of the particles in the system, determine the max-
imum diameter of particles that can be carried over and calculate minimum(umf p )
and terminal (utp )fluidization velocities for this diameter. Choose operation ve-
locity (uop for the bed such that: umf p < uop < uutp ).
2. Find the minimum fluidization velocity (umax ) for the biggest particles present in
the system.
3. Check if umax < uop . If the answer is yes, the reactor can have a shape of a simple
cylinder and one can calculate tube dimension from eq. (3.29)
Vgas Πd2t
= (3.29)
uop 4
If the answer is no one need to narrow the bottom part of the reactor in order to
increase the initial velocity of gas flowing through reactor. In such case the shape
of the reactor will be like the one presented in fig. 3.8. In that case one needs to
calculate two different diameters d1 and d2 .
d2 is equal to dt calculated from eq. (3.29) and d1 comes from the eq. (3.30).
Vgas Πd21
= (3.30)
umax 4
4. The height of the narrowing is determined based on the difference d2 − d1 and

the assumptions that the slope of the walls of the reactor (α < 15 deg). Than the
height h is calculated from the eq. 3.31
(d2 − d1 )/2
= tan α (3.31)
h
3.5 Problems and discussions
1. Using extended K-L model describe the bed of solids with a wide size distribution.
The conditions of the bed are presented below.
di , mm 0.2 − 0.4 0.4 − 0.6 0.6 − 1.0 1.0 − 1.5 1.5 − 2.0 2.0 − 3.0
% 32 20 18 15 7 8
ρs = 1350kg/m3 ; ρg = 1.5kg/m3 ; U0 = 50cm/s; ν = 30 ∗ 10−6 P a ∗ s; εmf = 0.45

Estimated height of bed h = 1.75m
2. Using extended K-L model describe the bed of solids with a wide size distribution.
The conditions of the bed are presented below.
di , mm 0.1 − 0.2 0.2 − 0.5 0.5 − 0.8 0.8 − 1.0 1.0 − 1.5 1.5 − 2.5
% 15 20 18 32 7 8
ρs = 1050kg/m3 ; ρg = 1.1kg/m3 ; U0 = 200cm/s; ν = 20 ∗ 10−6 P a ∗ s; εmf =

0.5; εf = 0.796 Estimated height of bed h = 1.95m Drag coefficient for average
diameter of particles: Cd = 1.53.
3. Knowing that to obtain the best conversion rate the ration of gas to solid is equal
1.23m3 /kg and the flow of solid material is ms = 1200kg/h find the dimensions of
the reactor for this process:
(a) assuming solid distribution from ex. 2 adn maximum of 15% carryover from
dense zone.
(b) assuming that the particle size fits in a range between 0.1mm - 5mm and only
particles smaller than 0.25mm can be carried over from the bubbling zone.
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cross-draft gasifiers.
Producer gas is the mixture of gases produced by
the gasification of organic material such as biomass In an updraft fixed bed gasifier (Figure 1), the
at relatively low temperatures (1292º to 1832º F). flows of the fuel and gases are countercurrent to each
Producer gas is composed of carbon monoxide (CO), other. The reactive agent is injected at the bottom of
hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and typically a the reactor and ascends to the top while the fuel is
range of hydrocarbons such as methane (CH4) with introduced at the top and descends to the bottom
nitrogen from the air. Producer gas can be burned as through zones of progressively increasing temperatures
a fuel gas such as in a boiler for heat or in an inter (drying, pyrolysis, gasification and oxidation). Heat
nal combustion gas engine for electricity generation from the gasification and oxidation zones rises
or combined heat and power (CHP). The composition upward to provide energy for the pyrolysis and drying
of the gas can be modified by manipulation of zones. Gases, tar and other volatile compounds are
gasification parameters. dispersed at the top of the reactor while ash is
removed at the bottom. The syngas typically contains
Syngas (synthesis gas) is a mixture of carbon high levels of tar, which must be removed or further
monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2), which is the prod converted to syngas for use in applications other than
uct of high temperature steam or oxygen gasification direct heating. Updraft gasifiers are widely used to
of organic material such as biomass. Following clean-up gasify biomass resources and generally use steam as
to remove any impurities such as tars, syngas can be the reactive agent, but slagging can be severe if high
used to produce organic molecules such as synthetic ash fuels are used. They are unsuitable for use with
natural gas (SNG-methane (CH4)) or liquid biofuels fluffy, low-density fuels.
such as synthetic diesel (via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis).
Downdraft fixed bed gasifiers (Figure 2) are
How Much Air Is Required for the similar to updraft gasifiers, except that the locations
of the zones are reversed and, as such, the pyrolysis
Gasification Process?
products are allowed to pass through the high tem
For complete combustion, 1.0 pound of bone-dry perature oxidation zone where they undergo further
(0 percent moisture content) biomass needs about decomposition. The fuel is introduced at the top, and
4.58 pounds of air. This is referred to as the stoichio the reactive agent is introduced through a set of
metric air. For gasification reactions, the usual prac nozzles on the side of the reactor. Moisture evaporated
tice is to provide a fraction of the stoichiometric air, from the biomass fuel serves as a reactive agent. The
which is referred to as an equivalence ratio (ER). syngas leaves the gasifier from the bottom and con
With dry biomass, best results are normally achieved tains substantially less tar than from updraft gasifiers,
at ERs of about 0.25, with a “typical” range of perhaps which reduces the need for cleaning and is, therefore,
0.20 to 0.33. Therefore, for normal gasification, more suitable for a wider variety of applications.
1.0 pound of biomass needs about 1.15 pounds of air.
Cross-draft fixed bed gasifiers exhibit many of the
What Are the Gasification Reactors? operating characteristics of downdraft gasifiers. Air
or air/steam mixtures are introduced into the side of
Several biomass gasification reactor designs have the gasifier near the bottom, while the syngas is
been developed and evaluated and can be generally drawn off on the opposite side. The oxidation and
classified into two broad categories; namely, fixed bed drying zones are concentrated around the sides of the
and fluidized bed. Fixed bed reactors are those in unit. Cross-draft gasifiers respond rapidly to load
which the fuels move either countercurrent or concur changes, are relatively simple to construct and
rent to the flow of gasification medium (steam, air or produce syngas suitable for a number of applications.
oxygen) as the fuel is converted to fuel gas. They are However, they are sensitive to changes in the fuel
relatively simple to operate and generally experience composition and moisture content.
Figure 1. Updraft fixed bed gasifier (Source: G. Foley and G. Barnard. 1985. Biomass Gasification in Developing
Countries. Earthscan, London, UK)
Figure 2. Downdraft fixed bed gasifier (Source: G. Foley and G. Barnard. 1985. Biomass Gasification in Developing
Countries. Earthscan, London, UK)
A fluidized bed gasifier has a bed made of an during mixing. Compared to other gasifiers, fluidized
inert material (such as sand, ash or char) that acts as bed gasifiers have strong gas-to-solids contact, excel
a heat transfer medium. In this design, the bed is lent heat transfer characteristics, better temperature
initially heated and the fuel introduced when the control, large heat storage capacity, a good degree of
temperature has reached the appropriate level. The turbulence and high volumetric capacity. But they
bed material transfers heat to the fuel and blows operate at pressures slightly above atmospheric levels
the reactive agent through a distributor plate at a (which requires that leaks be prevented), and they
controlled rate. Unlike fixed bed reactors, fluidized respond slowly to load changes. Due to their compli
bed gasifiers have no distinct reaction zones and cated and expensive control systems, fluidized bed
drying, pyrolysis and gasification occur simultaneously gasifiers appear to be commercially viable at larger
Figure 3. Bubbling fluidized bed gasifier (Source: D. Gelbart. 1986. Gas Fluidization Technology, John Wiley and Sons,
New York)
sizes (> 30 MW thermal output). Fluidized bed reactors gasifier leading to nonuniform temperature distribution.
are classified by their configuration and the velocity Dual- or multi-bed bubbling gasifiers have more than
of the reactive agent and consist of bubbling, one bed. The first bed is usually used to burn some of
circulating and spouted fluidized beds. the char to produce the energy for the second bed,
where pyrolysis occurs. Dual-bed systems produce
In bubbling fluidized bed gasifiers (Figure 3), syngas with higher energy content due to the combus
fuel is fed into the reactor and gases are introduced tion of the char in a separate chamber, which prevents
at a flow rate that maintains pressure at a level suffi the combustion gas from diluting the pyrolysis gas.
cient to keep the fuel particles in suspension. The Additionally, inorganic materials in the fuel can be
introduced gases pass through the reactor bed in the separated and the heat of pyrolysis reactions is even
form of bubbles that rise and grow in size until they ly distributed, allowing pyrolysis to occur at a rela
reach the surface of the bed, where they burst. The tively uniform temperature. Higher construction costs
pressure must be maintained across the bed. Bubbling and greater maintenance are the disadvantages of a
fluidized bed reactors are categorized as either single dual system.
or dual fluidized beds. Single fluidized bubbling bed
gasifiers have only one bed where the fuel and the A circulating fluidized bed gasifier (also called a
reactive agent enter and from which the syngas and fast fluidized bed gasifier) is a modified bubbling bed
char exit. This design results in lower cost and less gasifier in which the solids leaving the reactor vessel
maintenance relative to multi-bed designs, and the are returned through an external collection system.
syngas is ready for utilization. However, the energy Compared to other gasifiers, circulating fluidized bed
content of the syngas is lower than achieved in dual- gasifiers have a higher processing capacity, better
bed designs, inorganic materials in the fuel cannot be gas-solid contact and the ability to handle cohesive
separated and pyrolysis occurs at the bottom of the solids that might otherwise be difficult to fluidize in
bubbling fluidized beds. Despite these advantages, stringent operating conditions, as well as an external
circulating fluidized beds are still less commonly used source of hydrogen. Air, steam, oxygen and hydrogen
because their height significantly increases their cost. can be used as gasifying agents as shown in Figure 4.
A spouted fluidized bed gasifier has a bed of coarse
particles partly filling the vessel and a relatively What Are the Factors
large control opening at the base where gas is injected. Affecting Gasification?
With a sufficient flow of gas, particles in the gas can
be made to rise as a fountain in the center of the bed A number of factors affect gasification reactions
and to develop a circling motion on the bed. Additional including the temperature, pressure and height of the
air added to the base can produce a spouted bed. This reactor bed; the fluidization velocity; the equivalence
type of gasifier has often been used to gasify coal. ratio; the air-to-steam ratio; and the characteristics of
the fuel.
What Is the Gasification Medium?
Increasing the temperature increases the formation
The simplest gasification process uses air as the of combustible gases, decreases the yield of char and
reactive agent, which converts the excess char into a liquids and leads to more complete conversion of the
low energy syngas (142-209 Btu/ft3) consisting mainly fuel. Hydrocarbon gases (especially methane and
of hydrogen and carbon monoxide diluted with nitro ethylene) increase with temperature while the yields
gen from the air. The producer gas is suitable for of higher hydrocarbons (C3-C8: organic chemicals
boiler and engine applications but cannot be trans having 3 to 8 carbons) decrease at temperatures
ported through pipelines due to its low Btu content. above 1202º F. The energy content of the syngas
Gasification of char in the presence of steam produces increases steadily up to 1292º F then decreases at
a gas consisting mainly of carbon monoxide, carbon higher temperatures.
dioxide, hydrogen and methane. Steam can be added
from an external source, or it can be obtained from The rate of char gasification and yields of
the evaporation of the water in the fuel. Under condi methane increase with increasing pressure, and the
tions of low temperatures, low heat rates and high impacts are most significant at high temperatures
pressure, secondary reactions involving tars occur, (1652º-1742º F).
but these reactions are not as prevalent under condi
tions of low pressure, high temperature and high For a given reactor temperature, higher fuel bed
heat rates. Gasification in the presence of heights increase the time fuels are available for reac
steam produces a higher energy syngas relative to tions to occur (residence time), which increases total
using air as the reactive agent. syngas yields and increases the concentrations of
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane
The use of oxygen rather than air as the reactive and ethylene in the syngas.
agent reduces the amount of nitrogen supplied to the
gasification reactions, which creates a medium Fluidization velocity (fluidization is the processing
energy syngas (approximately 321-563 Btu/ft3) that is technique employing a suspension of a small solid par
much lower in nitrogen and higher in methane, hydro ticle in a vertically rising stream of fluid – usually
gen and carbon monoxide relative to systems using gas – so that fluid and solid come into intimate contact)
air. Medium energy syngas can be used for a wide affects the mixing of particles within the reactor.
variety of applications and can be transported Higher velocities increase the temperature of the fuel
through a pipeline (due to its relatively low tar bed and lead to the production of lower energy syngas.
content). A drawback to the use of oxygen as a reac
tive agent is the need for a nearby source of oxygen, The equivalence ratio (actual fuel-to-air ratio
which may increase capital and operating costs. divided by the stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio) affects
the temperature of the fuel bed. High ratios increase
Hydrogen can be used as a reactive agent in the rate of syngas production, and low ratios result
gasification, but its use requires high pressure and in the production of lower syngas yields and energy
Figure 4. Gasification processes and their products.
content and more tar. Increases in the steam-to-air The type of fuel-feeding mechanism required is
ratio increases the energy content of the syngas. determined by the size, shape, density, moisture
content and composition of the fuel. Mechanisms
What Are the Limitations of the developed to accommodate the wide variety of bio
mass fuels include direct feeding in which the feeding
Gasification Process?
mechanism is isolated from the reactor to prevent the
Although gasification processes are highly back-flow of tar and combustible gases, and over-the
developed, there are still several limitations, bed feeders, which are usually less troublesome
particularly with respect to biomass gasification, because there is no direct contact between the hot
including the moisture content and size of the fuel fuel bed material and the feeder. However, the use of
particles, the fuel feeding system, the ash deforma over-the-bed feeders is restricted to fuels of higher
tion temperature, particle mixing and segregation density and/or larger sized particles and, because of
and entrainment (elutriation). particle emissions, results in the production of a dirty
syngas, which must be cleaned before use.
Fuel moisture content differs by fuel type. Fuels
with high moisture content lower the reactor temper At lower operating temperatures, some minerals
atures due to the amount of energy needed to dry the in the fuel can cause agglomeration. The temperature
fuel, which results in the production of lower energy at which agglomeration occurs (the ash deformation
syngas and lower yields of syngas. The speed at which temperature) depends on the fuel type and its mineral
fuel particles heat up (i.e., the heat rate) decreases as composition. Effective mixing of fuel particles of vari
particle size increases, resulting in the production of ous sizes is needed to maintain uniform temperature
more char and less tar. within the reactor.
How Much Energy Can Be Produced required for a biomass gasification-derived
by Gasification? syngas; however, tars and particulates are not as
much of a concern.
➢ 1 acre of wheat land produces about 3,000 pounds
of wheat straw.  Production of methanol
Commercial methanol synthesis involves reacting
➢ 1 pound of wheat straw contains about 7,750 Btu.
CO, H2 and steam over a copper-zinc oxide cata
➢ 1 pound of straw could produce 23.9 ft3 of gas lyst in the presence of a small amount of CO2 at a
with average calorific value of 125 Btu/ft3.
temperature of about 500º F and a pressure of
➢ 1 acre of wheat land could produce 71,700 ft3 of about 70 bar (1015 psi). To best use the raw
producer gas. product syngas in methanol synthesis, it is
➢ 1 acre of wheat land could produce 8.9 MMBtu. essential to maintain H2/CO of at least 2 and
CO2/CO ratio of about 0.6 to prevent catalyst
➢ 1 acre of wheat straw could replace 410 pounds
of propane. deactivation and to keep the catalyst in an active
reduced state.
What Types of Biomass
Can Be Gasified?  Production of gasoline or diesel
Gasoline and diesel (synthetic fuels) can be
Almost any carbonaceous or biomass fuel can be produced from syngas via a process named
gasified under experimental or laboratory conditions. Fischer-Tropsch (FT). The FT synthesis involves
However, the real test for a good gasifier is not the catalytic reaction of H2 and CO to form
whether a combustible gas can be generated by burn hydrocarbon chains of various lengths (CH4,
ing a biomass fuel with 20 to 40 percent stoichiomet C2H6, C3H8, etc.). Gasifier-produced gases with
ric air, but that a reliable gas producer can be made H2/CO ratio around 0.5 to 0.7 are recommended
which can also be economically attractive to the cus as a feed to the FT process when using iron as
tomer. Towards this goal the fuel characteristics have a catalyst.
to be evaluated and fuel processing done. A gasifier is
very fuel specific, and it is tailored around a fuel
 Production of ethanol
rather than the other way around.
Anaerobic bacteria are able to grow on syngas
components, thus forming acetate and ethanol.
What Are the Applications of The bacterial conversion has the advantages of
Gasification Technology? high selectivity, no thermal equilibrium and fewer
problems with catalyst poisoning. The bacterial
 Production of heat and power
Power generation can be accomplished via culture has to be able to convert CO2, CO and H2
gasification of biomass, followed by a combustion into ethanol. The technology has been proven in a
engine, combustion turbine, steam turbine or fuel pilot plant in Arkansas, where ethanol has been
cell. These systems can produce both heat and produced from diverse feedstocks for several
power (CHP – Combined Heat and Power) and years. The reaction time from biomass to distilled
can achieve system efficiencies in the range of ethanol has been proven to be short (7-8 minutes)
30 to 40 percent. compared to fermentation of sugars, which often
lasts one to two days.
 Production of hydrogen
Hydrogen is currently produced in large quantities References
via steam reforming of hydrocarbons over a Ni
1. http://bioweb.sungrant.org/At-a-Glance/Biopower
catalyst at 1472º F. This process produces a syngas
/Technologies/Gasification/Default.htm
that must be further processed to produce high-
purity hydrogen. The syngas conditioning 2. http://bioweb.sungrant.org/General/Biopower
required for steam reforming is similar to that /Technologies/Gasification/Default.htm
3. http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biopower 6. Sadaka, S. S., A. E. Ghaly and M. A. Sabbah. 2002.
/Technologies/Gasification/Default.htm Two phase biomass air-steam gasification model for
fluidized bed reactor: Part I, II, III. Biomass and
4. http://www.zero.no/transport/bio/gasification Bioenergy 22: 439-487
5. Geldart, D. 1986. Gas Fluidization Technology, John

Wiley and Sons, New York
Printed by University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service Printing Services.
DR. SAMY SADAKA, P.E., P.Eng., is assistant professor - Extension Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and
engineer, University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture, Little Rock. June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Arkansas. The
Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service offers its programs to all eligi
ble persons regardless of race, color, national origin, religion, gender,
age, disability, marital or veteran status, or any other legally protected
FSA1051-PD-5-09N status, and is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer.
3rd Edition, CD ROM Chapter 12
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R12.3 Fluidized-Bed Reactors1

“When a man blames others for his failures, it’s a good idea to credit
others with his successes.”
–– Howard W. Newton
The fluidized-bed reactor has the ability to process large volumes of fluid. For the
catalytic cracking of petroleum naphthas to form gasoline blends, for example, the
virtues of the fluidized-bed reactor drove its competitors from the market.
Fluidization occurs when small solid particles are suspended in an upward-
flowing stream of fluid, as shown in Figure R12.3.1.
Figure R12.3-1 From Kunii and Levenspiel Fluidization Engineering, Melbourne, FL 32901:
Robert E. Krieger Pub. Co. 1969. Reprinted with permission of the publishers
The fluid velocity is sufficient to suspend the particles, but it is not large
enough to carry them out of the vessel. The solid particles swirl around the bed
rapidly, creating excellent mixing among them. The material “fluidized” is almost
always a solid and the “fluidizing medium” is either a liquid or gas. The
characteristics and behavior of a fluidized bed are strongly dependent on both the
solid and liquid or gas properties. Nearly all the significant commercial applications
of fluidized-bed technology concern gas-solid systems, so these will be treated in
this section. The material that follows is based upon what is seemingly the best
model of the fluidized-bed reactor developed thus far–the bubbling bed model of
Kunii and Levenspiel.
1 This material is based on the article by H. S. Fogler and L. F. Brown [Reactors, ACS Symposium Series,
vol.168, p. 31 1981, H. S. Fogler ed.], which in turn was based on a set of notes by Fogler and Brown.
R12-1
CD-Ch12FluidizedBed.doc
R12.3.1 An Overview
We are going to use the Kunii-Levenspiel bubbling bed model to describe

reactions in fluidized beds. In this model, the reactant gas enters the bottom of the
bed and flows up the reactor in the form of bubbles. As the bubbles rise, mass
transfer of the reactant gases takes place as they flow (diffuse) in and out of the
bubble to contact the solid particles where the reaction product is formed. The
product then flows back into a bubble and finally exits the bed when the bubble
reaches the top of the bed. The rate at which the reactants and products transfer in
and out of the bubble affects the conversion, as does the time it takes for the bubble
to pass through the bed. Consequently, we need to describe the velocity at which the
bubbles move through the column and the rate of transport of gases in and out of
the bubbles. To calculate these parameters, we need to determine a number of fluid-
mechanics parameters associated with the fluidization process. Specifically, to
determine the velocity of the bubble through the bed we need to first calculate:
1. Porosity at minimum fluidization, εmf
The Algorithm 2. Minimum fluidization velocity, umf
3. Bubble size, db
To calculate the mass transport coefficient, we must first calculate
1. Porosity at minimum fluidization, εmf
2. Minimum fluidization velocity, umf
3. Velocity of bubble rise, ub
4. Bubble size, db
To determine the reaction rate parameters in the bed, we need to first calculate
1. Fraction of the total bed occupied by bubbles, δ
2. Fraction of the bed consisting of wakes, αδ
3. Volume of catalyst in the bubbles, clouds, and emulsion, γb, γc, and γe
It is evident that before we begin to study fluidized-bed reactors, we must

obtain an understanding of the fluid mechanics of fluidization. In Section R12.3B,
equations are developed to calculate all the fluid mechanic parameters (e.g., db, umf)
necessary to obtain the mass transfer and reaction parameters. In Section R12.3.3,
equations for the mass transfer parameters are developed. In Section R12.3.4, the
reaction rate parameters are presented, and the mole balance equations are applied
to the bed to predict conversion in Section R12.3.5.
R12.3.2 The Mechanics of Fluidized Beds
In this section we shall first describe the regions of fluidization and calculate
the minimum and maximum fluidization velocities. Next, the Kunii-Levenspiel
R12-2
bubbling bed model is described in detail.2 Finally, equations to calculate the

fraction of the bed comprising bubbles, the bubble size, the velocity of bubble rise,
and the fractional volume of bubbles, clouds, and wakes are derived.
R12.3.2A Description of the Phenomena
We consider a vertical bed of solid particles supported by a porous or

perforated distributor plate, as in Figure R12.3-2(a). The direction of gas flow is
upward through this bed.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure R12.3-2 Various kinds of contacting of a batch of solids by fluid. Adapted from Kunii &
Levenspiel, Fluidized Engineering (Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger Publishing
Co., 1977).
There is a drag exerted on the solid particles by the flowing gas, and at low
gas velocities the pressure drop resulting from this drag will follow the Ergun
equation, Equation (4-22), just as for any other type of packed bed. When the gas
velocity is increased to a certain value however, the total drag on the particles will
equal the weight of the bed, and the particles will begin to lift and barely fluidize. If
ρc is density of the solid catalyst particles, Ac is the cross sectional area, hs, is the
height of the bed settled before the particles start to lift, h, is the height of the bed at
any time, and εs and ε are the corresponding porosities,3 of the settled and expanded
bed, respectively; then the mass of solids in the bed, Ws, is
W s = ρ c A chs (1− ε s ) = ρ c A c h (1− ε ) (R12.3-1)
2 D. Kunii and O. Levenspiel, Fluidization Engineering (New York: Wiley, 1968).

3 Note: Nomenclature change in the text and lecture φ = porosity, while in this chapter ε = porosity.
R12-3
This relationship is a consequence of the fact that the mass of the bed occupied
solely by the solid particles is the same no matter what the porosity of the bed.
When the drag force exceeds the gravitational force, the particles begin to lift, and
the bed expands (i.e., the height increases) thus increasing the bed porosity, as
described by Equation (R12.3-1). This increase in bed porosity decreases the overall
drag until it is again balanced by the total gravitational force exerted on the solid
particles (Figure R12.3-3(b)).
If the gas velocity is increased still further, expansion of the bed will continue
to occur; the solid particles will become somewhat separated from each other and
begin to jostle each other and move around in a restless manner. Increasing the
velocity just a slight amount further causes instabilities, and some of the gas starts
bypassing the rest of the bed in the form of bubbles (Figure R12.3-3(c)). These
bubbles grow in size as they rise up the column. Coincidentally with this, the solids
in the bed begin moving upward, downward, and around in a highly agitated
fashion appearing as a boiling frothing mixture. With part of the gas bubbling
through the bed and the solids being moved around as though they were part of the
fluid, the bed of particles is said to be “fluidized.” It is in a state of aggregative,
nonparticulate, or bubbling fluidization.
A further increase in gas velocity will result in slug flow (Figure R12.3-3(d))
and unstable chaotic operation of the bed. Finally at extremely high velocities, the
particles are blown or transported out of the bed (Figure R12.3-3(e)).
The range of velocities over which the Ergun equation applies can be fairly
large. On the other hand, the difference between the velocity at which the bed starts
to expand and the velocity at which the bubbles start to appear can be extremely
small and sometimes nonexistent. This observation means that if one steadily
increases the gas flow rate, the first evidence of bed expansion may be the
appearance of gas bubbles in the bed and the movement of solids. At low gas
velocities in the range of fluidization, the rising bubbles contain very few solid
particles. The remainder of the bed has a much higher concentration of solids in it
and is known as the emulsion phase of the fluidized bed. The bubbles are shown as
the bubble phase. The cloud phase is an intermediate phase between the bubble and
emulsion phases.
After the drag exerted on the particles equals the net gravitational force
exerted on the particles, that is,
(
∆P = g ρc − ρ g )(1 − ε)h (R12.3-2)
the pressure drop will not increase with an increase in velocity beyond this point.
(See Figure R12.3-2.) From the point at which the bubbles begin to appear in the bed,
the gas velocity can be increased steadily over a quite appreciable range without
changing the pressure drop across the bed or flowing the particles out of the bed.
The bubbles become more frequent, and the bed, more highly agitated as the gas
velocity is increased (Figure R12.3-2(c)); but the particles remain in the bed. This
region is bubbling fluidization. Depending on the physical characteristics of the gas,
the solid particles, and the distributor plate; and the internals (e.g., heat exchanger
R12-4
tubes) within the bed, the region of bubbling fluidization can extend over more than
an order of magnitude of gas velocities (e.g., 4 to 50 cm/s in Figure R12.3-3). In other
situations, gas velocities in the region of bubbling fluidization may be limited; the
point at which the solids begin to be carried out of the bed by the rising gas may be a
factor of only three or four times the velocity at incipient fluidization.
Eventually, if the gas velocity is continuously increased, it will become
sufficiently rapid to carry the solid particles upward, out of the bed. When this
begins to happen, the bubbling and agitation of the solids are still present, and this is
known as the region of fast fluidization, and the bed is know as fast-fluidized bed. At
velocities beyond this region, the particles are well apart, and the particles are
merely carried along with the gas stream. Under these conditions, the reactor is
usually referred to as a straight through transport reactor or STTR (Figure R12.3-2(e)).
The various regions described earlier display the behavior illustrated in
Figure R12.3-2. This figure presents the pressure drop across a bed of solid particles
as a function of gas velocity. The region covered by the Ergun equation is the rising
portion of the plot (Section I: 1 < U0 < 4 cm/s). The section of the figure where the
pressure drop remains essentially constant over a wide range of velocities is the
region of bubbling fluidization (Section II: 4 < U0 < 50 cm/s). Beyond this are the
regions of fast fluidization and of purely entrained flow.
Figure R12.3-3 From Kunii and Levenspiel, Fluidization Engineering (Melbourne, FL:
Robert E. Krieger, Publishing Co. 1977). Reprinted with permission of the
publishers.
R12.3.2B The Minimum Fluidization Velocity
Fluidization will be considered to begin at the gas velocity at which the

weight of the solids gravitational force exerted on the particles equals the drag on
the particles from the rising gas. The gravitational force is given by Equation (R12.3-
1) and the drag force by the Ergun equation. All parameters at the point where these
two forces are equal will be characterized by the subscript “mf,” to denote that this
is the value of a particular term when the bed is just beginning to become fluidized.
R12-5
The combination [g (ρc – ρg)] occurs very frequently, as in Equation (R12.3-1), and
this grouping is termed [η].
(∆P/h) = g η (1 – εmf) (R12.3-2)
The Ergun Equation, Equation (4-22) can be written in the form
∆P ⎡150(1− ε) 7 ⎤ 1− ε
= ρ gU 2 ⎢ + ⎥ (R12.3-3)
h ⎣ Re d ψ 4 ⎦ ψd p ε 3
where ψ = shape factor of catalyst particle, sometimes called the sphericity.

At the point of minimum fluidization, the weight of the bed just equals the
pressure drop across the bed
Ws = ∆PAc
⎡ 150(1− ε ) 7 ⎤ 1 − ε
( )
g(1− ε) ρc − ρ g hA c = ρ gU 2 ⎢
⎣ Rep ψ
+ ⎥ Ah
4 ⎦ ψdp ε 3 c
(R12.3-4)
⎛ ρ g dp U ⎞
For Rep < 10, ⎜ Rep = ⎟ , we can solve Equation (R12-5) for the minimum
⎝ µ ⎠
fluidization velocity to give
(ψd p )
2
ε mf
3
[ ]
Calculate
umf umf = g(ρ c − ρ g ) (R12.3-5)
150µ 14243 1− ε mf
η
Reynolds numbers less than 10 represents the usual situation, in which fine particles
are fluidized by a gas. Sometimes, higher values of the Reynolds number do exist at
the point of incipient fluidization, and then the quadratic Equation (R12.3-5) must be
used.
Two dimensionless parameters in these two equations for umf deserve
comment. This first is ψ, the “sphericity,” which is a measure of a particle’s
nonideality in both shape and roughness. It is calculated by visualizing a sphere
whose volume is equal to the particle’s, and dividing the surface area of this sphere
by the actually measured surface area of the particle. Since the volume of a spherical
particle is
Vp = πdp3 6
and its surface area is
( )
1 3 ⎤2
A s = πd2p = π ⎡ 6V p π
⎣ ⎦
⎛
( )
2 3⎞
Calculate π 6V p π
As ⎝ ⎠ (R12.3-6)
ψ ψ= =
Ap Ap
R12-6
Measured values of this parameter range from 0.5 to 1, with 0.6 being a normal
value for a typical granular solid.
The second parameter of special interest is the void fraction at the point of
minimum fluidization, εmf. It appears in many of the equations describing fluidized-
bed characteristics. There is a correlation that apparently gives quite accurate
predictions of measured values of εmf (within 10%) when the particles in the
fluidized bed are fairly small:4
0.029
Calculate
⎛ µ2 ⎞ ⎛ ρg ⎞
0.021
(R12.3-7)
ε mf = 0.586ψ −0.72
⎜ ⎜ ⎟
3⎟
εmf ⎝ ρ g ηdp ⎠ ⎝ ρc ⎠
Another correlation commonly used is that of Wen and Yu
ε mf = (0.071 ψ )
13
(R12.3-8)
and/or
ε mf =
(
0.091 1 − ε mf ) (R12.3-9)
2
ψ
When the particles are large, the predicted εmf can be much too small. If a value of
εmf below 0.40 is predicted, it should be considered suspect. Kunii and Levenspiel5
state that εmf is an easily measurable value. However, if it is not convenient to do so,
Equation (R12.3-7) should suffice. Values of εmf around 0.5 are typical. If the
distribution of sizes of the particles covers too large a range, the equation will not
apply because smaller particles can fill the interstices between larger particles. When
a distribution of particle sizes exists, an equation for calculating the mean diameter
is
1
dp = (R12.3-10)
fi
∑
d pi
where fi is the fraction of particles with diameter dp .

i
R12.3.2C Maximum Fluidization
If the gas velocity is increased to a sufficiently high value, however, the drag
on an individual particle will surpass the gravitational force on the particle, and the
particle will be entrained in a gas and carried out of the bed. The point at which the
drag on an individual particle is about to exceed the gravitational force exerted on it
is called the maximum fluidization velocity.
4 T.E. Broadhurst and H.A. Becker, AIChE J., 21, 238 (1975).
R12-7
Maximum When the upward velocity of the gas exceeds the free-fall terminal velocity of
velocity through the particle, ut, the particle will be carried upward with the gas stream. For fine
the bed ut particles, the Reynolds numbers will be small, and two relationships presented by
Kunii and Levenspiel6 are
ut = ηdp2 18µ Re < 0.4⎫

⎬ (R12.3-11)
( ) (dp ) (0.4 < Re < 500)⎭
−2 2 13
ut = 1.78 × 10 η ρ g µ
We now have the maximum and minimum superficial velocities at which we

may operate the bed. The entering superficial velocity, u0, must be above the
minimum fluidization velocity but below the slugging ums and terminal, ut,
velocities.
umf < u0 < u t
and
umf < u0 < u ms
Both of these conditions must be satisfied for proper bed operation.
R12.3.2D Descriptive Behavior of a Fluidized Bed – The

Model Of Kunii And Levenspiel
At gas flow rates above the point of minimum fluidization, a fluidized bed
appears much like a vigorously boiling liquid; bubbles of gas rise rapidly and burst
on the surface, and the emulsion phase is thoroughly agitated. The bubbles form
very near the bottom of the bed, very close to the distributor plate and as a result the
design of the distributor plate has a significant effect on fluidized-bed
characteristics.
Literally hundreds of investigators have contributed to what is now regarded
as a fairly practical description of the behavior of a fluidized bed; chief among these
is the work of Davidson and Harrison.7 Early investigators saw that the fluidized
bed had to be treated as a two-phase system – an emulsion phase and a bubble
phase (often called the dense and lean phases). The bubbles contain very small
amounts of solids. They are not spherical; rather they have an approximately
hemispherical top and a pushed-in bottom. Each bubble of gas has a wake that
contains a significant amount of solids. These characteristics are illustrated in Figure
R12.3-4, which were obtained from x-rays of the wake and emulsion, the darkened
portion being the bubble phase.
As the bubble rises, it pulls up the wake with its solids behind it. The net flow
of the solids in the emulsion phase must therefore be downward.

7 J. F. Davidson and D. Harrison, Fluidized Particles (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1963).
R12-8
Figure R12.3-4 Schematic of bubble, cloud, and wake.
The gas within a particular bubble remains largely within that bubble, only
penetrating a short distance into the surrounding emulsion phase. The region
penetrated by gas from a rising bubble is called the cloud.
Davidson found that he could relate the velocity of bubble rise and the cloud
thickness to the size of bubble. Kunii and Levenspiel8 combined these observations
with some simplifying assumptions to provide a practical, useable model of
fluidized-bed behavior. Their assumptions are presented in Table R12.3-1.
TABLE R12.3-1. ASSUMPTIONS IN THE KUNII-LEVENSPIEL MODEL

(a) The bubbles are all of one size.
(b) The solids in the emulsion phase flow smoothly downward, essentially in
plug flow.
(c) The emulsion phase exists at minimum fluidizing conditions. The gas
occupies the same void fraction in this phase as it had in the entire bed at the
minimum fluidization point. In addition, because the solids are flowing
downward, the minimum fluidizing velocity refers to the gas velocity relative
to the moving solids, that is,
umf (R12.3-12)
ue = − us
ε mf
(The εmf is present in this equation because umf is the superficial velocity, i.e.,
based on an empty tube cross section.) The velocity of the moving solids, us,
is positive in the downward direction here, as in most of the fluidization
literature. The velocity of the gas in the emulsion, ue, is taken as a positive in
the upward direction, but note that it can be negative under some conditions.

R12-9
(d) In the wakes, the concentration of solids is equal to the concentration of solids
in the emulsion phase, and therefore the gaseous void fraction in the wake is
also the same as in the emulsion phase. Because the emulsion phase is at the
minimum fluidizing condition, the void fraction in the wake is equal to εmf.
The wake, however, is quite turbulent, and the average velocities of both
solid and gas in the wake are assumed to be the same and equal to the
upward velocity of the bubbles
Several of these assumptions had been used by earlier investigators,

particularly Davidson and Harrison.9 With the possible exception of (c), all these
assumptions are of questionable validity, and rather obvious deviations from them
are observed routinely. Nevertheless, the deviations apparently do not affect the
mechanical or reaction behavior of fluidized beds sufficiently to diminish their
usefulness.
R12.3.2E Bubble Velocity and Cloud SSize
From experiments with single bubbles, Davidson and Harrison found that the
velocity of rise of a single bubble could be related to the bubble size by
ubr = (0.71)(gdb )
12
(R12.3-13)
Single bubble
When many bubbles are present, this velocity would be affected by other
factors. The more bubbles that are present, the less drag there would be on an
individual bubble; the bubbles would carry each other up through the bed. The
greater number of bubbles would result from larger amounts of gas passing through
the bed (i.e., a larger value of u0). Therefore, the larger the value of u0, the faster
should be the velocity of a gas bubble as it rises through the bed.
Other factors that should affect this term are the viscosity of the gas and the
size and density of the solid particles that make up the bed. Both of these terms also
affect the minimum fluidization velocity, and so this term might well appear in any
relationship for the velocity of bubble rise; the higher the minimum fluidization
velocity, the lower the velocity of the rising bubble.
Adopting an expression used in gas-liquid systems, Davidson and Harrison
proposed that the rate of bubble rise in a fluidized bed could be represented by
simply adding and subtracting these terms:
Velocity of ub = u br + (u0 − u mf )
bubble rise ub
ub = u 0 − umf + (0.71)(gd b )
12
(R12.3-14)
Bubble Size. The equations for the velocity of bubble rise, Equations (R12.3-
13) and (R12.3-14) are functions of the bubble diameter, an elusive value to obtain.
9 J. F. Davidson and D. Harrison, Fluidized Particles (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1963).
R12-10
As might be expected, it has been found to depend on such factors as bed diameter,
height above the distributor plate, gas velocity, and the components that affect the
fluidization characteristics of the particles. Unfortunately, for predictability, the
bubble diameter also depends significantly upon the type and number of baffles,
heat exchangers tubes, and so forth, within the fluidized bed (sometimes called
“internals”). The design of the distributor plate, which disperses the inlet gas over
the bottom of the bed, can also has a pronounced effect upon the bubble diameter.
Studies of bubble diameter carried out thus far have concentrated on
fluidized beds with no internals and have involved rather small beds. Under these
conditions the bubbles grow as they rise through the bed. The best relationship
between bubble diameter and height in the column at this writing seems to be that
of Mori and Wen,10 who correlated the data of studies covering bed diameters of 7 to
130 cm, minimum fluidization velocities of 0.5 to 20 cm/s, and solid particle sizes of
0.006 to 0.045 cm. Their principal equation was
dbm − db −0.3h D t (R12.3-15)
db =e
dbm − dbo
In this equation, db is the bubble diameter in a bed of diameter Dt, observed at a
height h above the distributor plate; dbo is the diameter of the bubble formed initially
just above the distributor plate, and dbm is the maximum bubble diameter attained if
all the bubbles in any horizontal plane coalesce to form a single bubble (as they will
do if the bed is high enough).
The maximum bubble diameter, dbm has been observed to follow the
relationship
[
d bm = 0.652 Ac (u 0 − umf ) ]
0.4
(R12.3-16)
dmaximum
cm cm2 cm/s
for all beds, while the initial bubble diameter depends upon the type of distributor
plate. For porous plates, the relationship
d b 0 = 0.00376(u 0 − umf ) , cm
2
(R12.3-17)
dminimum is observed, and for perforated plates, the relationship
[
d b 0 = 0.347 Ac (u 0 − umf ) nd ]
0.4
(R12.3-18)
appears to be valid, in which nd is the number of perforations. For beds with

diameters between 30 and 130 cm, these relations appear to predict bubble
diameters with an accuracy of about ± 50%; for beds with diameters between 7 and
30 cm, the accuracy of prediction appears to be approximately + 100%, – 60% of the
observed values.
10 S. Mori and C. Y. Wen, AIChE J., 21, 109 (1975).

R12-11
Werther developed the following correlation based on a statistical coalescence

model:11
u0 − u ms ⎡ h ⎤
1.21
db (R12.3-19)
= 0.853 3 1+ 0.272 ⎢1− 0.0684 ⎥
cm cm/s ⎣ cm ⎦
The bubble size predicted by this model is close to that predicted by Mori and Wen12
for large diameter beds (2 m) and smaller than that suggested by Mori and Wen for
small diameter beds (0.1 m).
R12.3.2F Fraction of Bed in the Bubble Phase
Using the Kunii-Levenspiel model, the fraction of the bed occupied by the
bubbles and wakes can be estimated by material balances on the solid particles and
the gas flows. The parameter δ is the fraction of the total bed occupied by the part of
the bubbles that does not include the wake, and α is the volume of wake per volume
of bubble. The bed fraction in the wakes is therefore (αδ). (c.f. Figure R12.13-5)
Figure R12.3-5 Wake angle θw and wake fraction of three-dimensional bubbles at ambient
conditions; evaluated from x-ray photographs by Rowe and Partridge. Adapted from
Kunii & Levenspiel, Fluidized Engineering, 2nd ed. (Stoneham, MA: Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1991).
The bed fraction in the emulsion phase (which includes the clouds) is (1 – δ –
αδ). Letting Ac and ρc represent the cross-sectional area of the bed and the density of
the solid particles, respectively, a material balance on the solids (Figure R12.3-4)
gives
11 J. Werther, ACS Symposium Series., 72, D. Luss & V. W. Weekman, eds. (1978).
12 S. Mori and C. Y. Wen, AIChE J., 21, 109 (1975).
R12-12
Solids flowing = Solids flowing

downward in emulsion upward in wakes
Ac ρ c (1− δ − αδ )u s = αδub ρ c Ac
or
Velocity αδu b
of solids us = (R12.3-20)
us
1 − δ − αδ
A material balance on the gas flows gives
Ac u 0 = Acδub + Acε mf αδub + Acε mf (1− δ − αδ )ue
⎛ Total gast ⎞ ⎛ Gas flow ⎞ ⎛ Gas flow ⎞ ⎛ Gas flow in ⎞ (R12.3-21)
⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ flow rate ⎠ ⎝ in bubbles⎠ ⎝ in wakes ⎠ ⎝ emulsion ⎠
The velocity of rise of gas in the emulsion phase is
Velocity of gas umf
in emulsion ue = − us (R12.3-22)
ue
ε mf
(In the fluidization literature, us is almost always taken as positive in the downward
direction.) Factoring the cross-sectional area from Equation (R12.3-21) and then
combining Equations (R12.3-21) and (R12.3-22), we obtain an expression for the
fraction δ of the bed occupied by bubbles
Volume u 0 − umf
fraction δ= (R12.3-23)
bubbles δ ub − umf (1+ α )
The wake parameter, α, is a function of the particle size in Figure R12.3-5. The
value of α has been observed experimentally to vary between 0.25 and 1.0, with
typical values close to 0.4. Kunii and Levenspiel assume that the last equation can be
simplified to
u0 − u mf
δ= (R12.3-24)
ub
5 u mf
which is valid for ub >> umf, (e.g. ub ≈ )
ε mf
Example R12-1 Maximum Solids Hold-Up

A pilot fluidized bed is to be used to test a chemical reaction. The bed diameter is
91.4 cm. You wish to process 28.3 × 103 cm3 of gaseous material. The average
particle diameter is 100 µ. The reactor height is 10 feet. Allowing for a disengaging
height of 7 feet, this means we have a maximum bed height of 91.4 cm. The
distributor plate is a porous disc.
What is the maximum weight of solids (i.e., holdup) in the bed? Other data:
R12-13
Color of Pellet: Brown

ψ: 0.7 ρg: 1.07 × 10–3 g/cm3
ρc: 1.3 g/cc µ: 1.5 × 10–4 poise
Solution
The amount of solids in the reactor is given by Equation (R12.3-1)
Ws = ρ c Ac hs (1− εs ) = ρ c Ac h (1− ε) (R12.3-1)
The two parameters which need to be found are εmf and δ.
A. Calculation of εmf
0.029
⎛ µ2 ⎞ ⎛ ρg ⎞
0.021
ε mf = 0.586ψ −0.72
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ (R12.3-7)
3⎟
⎝ ρ g ηdp ⎠ ⎝ ρc ⎠
1. Calculate gravity term
( )( )
η = g ρc − ρ g = 980 cm 2 s (1.3 − 0.00107 ) g cm 3
= 1270 g (cm )2 s2 ()
2. Cross-sectional area
πD 2
= (π )(91.4 cm ) 4 = 6.56 ×10 3 cm 2
2
Ac =
4
Superficial velocity
u0 = (v 0 Ac ) = 2.83 ×10 4 6.56 ×10 3 = 4.32 cm s

Porosity at minimum fluidization (Equation (R12.3-4))
⎡ ⎤ 0.029
( )
−4 2
−0.72 ⎢
1.5 ×10 g cm •s ⎥
ε mf = (0.586)(0.7) ⎢ 3⎥
( )(
⎢⎣ 0.00107 g cm 1270 g cm •s 10 cm
3 2 2 −2
)( ) ⎥⎦
( )
0.021
× 0.00107 g cm 3 1.3 g cm 3
ε mf = 0.58
B. Calculation of Volume Fraction of Bubbles

u 0 − umf
δ= (R12.3-23)
ub − umf (1+ α )
Here we see we must calculate umf and ub.

R12-14
Step 1. First the minimum fluidization velocity is obtained from Equation

(R12.3-3)
[(0.7)(10−2 cm)]
2
⎛ 1270 g cm 2 •s 2 ⎞⎛ 0.58 3 ⎞
umf = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
150 ⎜1.5 ×10 −4 g cm •s ⎟⎜1− 0.58 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
u mf = 1.28 cm s
Step 2. To calculate ub we must know the size of the bubble db., that is,
ub = u 0 − umf + (0.71)(gd b )
12
(R12.3-14)
Step 3. The average size of the bubble, db, is determined by evaluating

Equation (R12.3-15) at (h/2).
d bm − d b
= e −0.3h D t (R12.3-15)
d bm − d b 0
Where dbm and dbo are given in Equations (R12.3-16) and (R12.3-17)
respectively.
Maximum bubble diameter
[
d bm = 0.652 Ac (u 0 − umf ) ]
0.4
, cm (R12.3-16)
[( ) ]
0.4
dbm = (0.652) 6.56 × 10 3 cm 2 (4.32 − 1.28) cm s
dbm = 34.2 cm
Minimum bubble diameter
d b 0 = 0.00376(u 0 − umf ) , cm
2
(R12.3-14)
d b 0 = (0.00376)(4.32 cm s −1.28 cm s)
2
d b 0 = 0.0347 cm
Solving for db
34.2 − db − 0. 3 h 91. 4
e
34.2 − 0.0347
(
d b = 34.2 1 − e − 0.3h 91.4 )
At h = 45.7 cm (h 2) db = 4.76 cm
At the top of the bed (h = 91.4 cm), db = 8.86 cm

For purposes of the Kunii-Levenspiel model, we shall take the bubble
diameter to be 5 cm.
R12-15
Step 4. We now can return to calculate the velocity of bubble rise and the
fraction of bed occupied by bubbles from Equation (R12.3-14) we
have
[( ) ]
0.5
ub = 4.32 cm s − 1.28 cm s + (0.71) 980 cm s 2 (5 cm )
ub = 52.8 cm s
From Figure (R12.3-5) we see that a 100 µ size particle corresponds to a value
of α of 0.5. Substituting this value into Equation (R12.3-23), the fraction of the
bed occupied by the bubble is
4.32 − 1.28
δ=
52.8 − (1.28)(1.5)
δ = 0.060
Thus 94% of the bed is in the emulsion phase plus the wakes.
C. The Amount of Solids Hold-Up, Ws
( ) ( )
W s = A ch(1 − δ) 1 − ε mf ρ s = 6.56 × 10 3 (91.4 )(0.94 )(0.42 )ρ s
= (2.37 × 10 cc of solid )ρ s
5
= (2.37 × 10 5 )(1.3) = 3.08 × 10 5 g of solid

or
W s = 678 lb of solid particles
R12.3.3 Mass Transfer In Fluidized Beds
There are two types of mass transport important in fluidized-bed operations.

The first is the transport between gas and solid. In some situations this can affect the
analysis of fluidized-bed behavior significantly, and in others it might not enter the
calculations at all. In the treatment of this type of transfer, it will be seen that this
type of transport is quite similar to gas-solid mass transfer in other types of
operations.
The second type of mass transfer is unique to fluidized-bed operations. It
concerns the transfer of material between the bubbles and the clouds, and between
the clouds and the emulsion (Figures R12.3-3, R12.3-5, and R12.3-6). In almost every
type of fluidized-bed operation, there are significant gas-phase concentration
differences between the various elements of the fluidized bed. Consequently,
calculations involving this type of mass transfer occur in almost every fluidized-bed
analysis.
R12-16
Figure R12.3-6 Transfer between bubble, cloud, and emulsion.
R12.3.3A Gas-Solid Mass Transfer

In the bubble phase of a fluidized bed, the solid particles are sufficiently
separated so that in effect there is mass transfer between a gas and single particles.
The most widely used correlation for this purpose is the 1938 equation of Fröessling
(1938) for mass transfer to single spheres given in Chapter 11.
Sh = 2.0 + (0.6)(Re ) (Sc)1 3
12
(R12.3-25)
The relative velocity between the solid particle and the gas used in calculating the
Reynolds number will be taken as u0.
In the emulsion phase, the equation would be one that applied to fixed-bed
operation with a porosity in the bed equal to εmf and a velocity of umf. The equation
recommended by Kunii and Levenspiel:13
Transport
from gas to
Sh = 2.0 + (1.5)(Sc)
13
[(1 − ε)(Re) ] 12
(R12.3-26)
single
for 5 < Re < 120, and ε < 0.84
Mass transfer coefficients obtained from these relationships may then be
combined with mass transfer among the various phases in the fluidized bed to yield
the overall behavior with regard to the transport of mass. Owing to the small
particle sizes and high surface area per volume of solids used in fluidized beds, the
mass transfer from the gas to the solid surface is usually quite rapid and
consequently it seldom limits the reaction.

R12-17
Figure R12.3-7 Sketch of flow pattern in a fluidized bed for downflow of emulsion gas, ue/u0 < 0
or u0/umf > 6 to 11. Adapted from Kunii & Levenspiel, Fluidized Engineering, Robert
E. Krieger Publishing Co., Huntington, New York, 1977.
R12.3.3B Mass Transfer Between The Fluidized-Bed

Phases
For the gas interchange between the bubble and the cloud, Kunii and
Levenspiel14 defined the mass transfer coefficient Kbc (s–1) in the following manner:
W Abc = Kbc (CAb − CAc ) (R12.3-27)
Where CAb and CAc are the concentration of A in the bubble and cloud
respectively, (mole/dm3) and WAbc represents the number of moles of A transferred
from the bubble to the cloud per unit time per unit volume of bubble (mole/dm3/s).
The concept of basing all mass transfer (and later, all reaction) on the bubble volume
proves to simplify the calculations markedly. For the products, (e.g., B in A → B) the
rate of transfer into the bubble from the cloud is given by a similar equation
W Bcb = Kcb (CBc − CBb ) (R12.3-28)
The mass transfer coefficient Kbc can also be thought of as an exchange

volume q between the bubble and the cloud.
W Bcb = qb CAb − qcCAc = qo (CAb − C Ac ) (R12.3-29)
R12-18
where qb = Volume of gas flowing from the bubble to the cloud per unit time per
unit volume of bubble
qc = Volume of gas flowing from the cloud to the bubble per unit time per
unit volume of bubble
qo = Exchange volume between the bubble and cloud per unit time per unit
volume of bubble (i.e., Kbc)
(qo = qc = qb)
Using Davidson’s expression for gas transfer between the bubble and the
cloud, and then basing it on the volume of the bubble, Kunii and Levenspiel15
obtained this equation for evaluating Kbc:
Mass transfer ⎛ u mf ⎞ ⎛ D1 2 g1 4 ⎞
= 4.5⎜ ⎟ + 5.85⎜⎜ ⎟,
AB
between bubble K bc (R12.3-30)
⎝ b ⎠
d 54 ⎟
and cloud ⎝ d b ⎠
where umf is in cm/s, db is in cm, DAB is the diffusivity (cm2/s) and g is the
gravitational constant (980 cm/s2).
We note
Kbc = Kcb
Kbc ≅ 2 s–1 and a typical value of Kbc is 2 s–1.

Similarly, these authors defined a mass transfer coefficient for gas
interchange between the cloud and the emulsion:
W Ace = Kce(C Ac − CAe )
(R12.3-31)
W Bce = Kce(CBe − CBc )
where WAce is the moles of A transferred from the cloud to the emulsion per unit
time per unit volume of bubble. Note that even though this mass transfer does not
involve the bubble directly, it is still based on the bubble volume.
Using Higbie’s penetration theory and his analogy for mass transfer from a
bubble to a liquid, Kunii and Levenspiel16 developed an equation for evaluating Kce:
Mass transfer ⎛ ε mf DAB u b ⎞1 2
between cloud K ce = 6.77⎜ ⎟ (R12.3-32)
and emulsion ⎝ d b3 ⎠
where ub is velocity of bubble rise in cm/s and the other symbols are as defined at
Equation (R12.3-30). A typical value of Kce is 1 s–1. Kce can also be thought of as the
exchange volume between the cloud and the emulsion.

R12-19
With knowledge of the mass transfer coefficients, the amount of gas

interchange between the phases of a fluidized bed can be calculated and combined
to predict the overall mass transfer behavior or reaction behavior of a fluidized-bed
process.
R12.3.4 Reaction Behavior in a Fluidized Bed
To use the Kunii-Levenspiel model to predict reaction rates in a fluidized-bed

reactor, the reaction rate law for the heterogeneous reaction per gram (or other fixed
unit) of solid must be known. Then the reaction rate in the bubble phase, the cloud,
and the emulsion phase, all per unit of bubble volume, can be calculated. Assuming
that these reaction rates are known, the overall reaction rate can be evaluated using
the mass transfer relationships presented in the preceding section. All this is
accomplished in the following fashion.
We consider an nth order, constant-volume catalytic reaction. In the bubble
phase
rAb = −k b CAb
n
in which the reaction rate is defined per unit volume of bubble. In the cloud,
n
RATE LAWS rAc = −k cCAc
and similarly in the emulsion,
n
rAe = −k eC Ae
where ke, kc and kb are the specific reaction rates in the emulsion cloud, and bubble
respectively. In the latter two equations, the reaction rate is also defined per unit
volume of bubble.
R12.3.5 Mole Balance on the Bubble, the Cloud, and the

Emulsion
Material balances will be written over an incremental height ∆z for substance

A in each of the three phases (bubble, cloud, and emulsion) (Figure
R12.3-7).
Figure R12.3-8 Section of a bubbling fluidized bed
R12-20
R12.3.5A Balance on Bubble Phase
The amount of A entering at z is the bubble phase by flow,

⎛ Molar flow rate ⎞ ⎛ Fraction of the ⎞
⎜ ⎟
(ub AcCAb )(δ ) = ⎜ of A assuming the ⎟
entire bed is filled
⎜ bed occupied
⎜ by bubbles
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠
⎝ with bubbles ⎠
A similar expression can be written for the amount of A leaving in the bubble phase
in flow at z + ∆z.
In by flow Out by flow + Out by mass + Generation

Transport
(ub AcCAb )(δ ) x − (ub Ac CAb δ )z +∆x − K bc (CAb − CAc )Ac ∆zδ − k b CAb
n
Ac ∆zδ = 0
Dividing by A c∆zδ and taking the limit as ∆z → 0

A balance on A in the bubble phase for steady state operation in section ∆z.
Balance on dCAb
= −kb CAb − Kbc (CAb − CAc )
n
the bubble ub (R12.3-33)
dz
R12.3.5B Balance on Cloud Phase
In the material balance on the clouds and wakes in the section ∆z, it is easiest
to base all terms on the volume of bubble. The material balance for the clouds and
wakes is
⎡ 3(u ε ) ⎤ dC
Balance on
u b δ⎢ + α⎥ = K bc (CAb − CAc )− K ce (CAc − CAe )− k c CAn (R12.3-34)
mf mf Ac
⎢⎣ ubr − (u mf ε mf ) ⎥⎦ dz
the clouds
R12.3.5C Balance on the Emulsion
The fraction of the bed in the emulsion phase is (1 – δ – αδ). The material
balance for A in the emulsion the following expression for the emulsion-phase
material balance on A results in
Balance on ⎛1− δ − αδ ⎞ dCAe
the emulsion ue ⎜ ⎟ = K ce (CAc − CAe )− k e CAe
n
(R12.3-35)
⎝ δ ⎠ dz
The three material balances thus result in three coupled ordinary differential
equations, with one independent variable (z) and three dependent variables (CAb,
CAc, CAe). These equations can be solved numerically. The Kunii-Levenspiel model
simplifies these still further, by assuming that the derivative terms on the left-hand
side of the material balances on the cloud and emulsion are negligible in comparison
R12-21
with the terms on the right-hand side. Using this assumption, and letting t = z/ub
(i.e., the time the bubble has spent in the bed), the three equations take the form:
dCAb
dt
( )
= − kb CAb − Kbc (C Ab − CAc )
n
(R12.3-36)
THE
K bc (CAb − CAc ) = kcCAc + K ce(CAc − CAe )
n
BALANCE (R12.3-37)
EQUATIONS
K ce (CAc − CAe ) = k e CAe
n
(R12.3-38)
or only one differential equation and two algebraic equations. In all equations, kC nA is
Note the g-moles per second reacted in the particular phase per volume of bubbles.
R12.3.5D Partitioning of the Catalyst
To solve these equations, it is necessary to have values of kb, kc, and ke. Three
new parameters are defined:
Volume of solid catalyst dispersed in bubbles
γb :
Volume of bubbles
Volume of solid catalyst in clouds and wakes
γc :
Volume of bubbles
Volume of solid catalyst in emulsion phase
γe :
Volume of bubbles
First of all the specific reaction rate of solid catalyst , kcat must be known. It is
normally determined from laboratory experiments. The term kcat CAn is the g-moles
reacted per volume of solid catalyst. Then
Relating the k b = γ b k cat ; k c = γ ck cat ; ke = γ e kcat (R12.3-39)

specific 3 ⎞ n− 1 3 ⎞ n −1
g cat cm 3 ⎛ cm cm 3 ⎛ cm
reaction rates k cat = ρ c × k ′ = × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
3
cm cat g cat ⋅ s ⎝ mol ⎠ cat ⋅ s ⎝ mol ⎠
The term k′ is the specific reaction rate per weight of catalyst.

The value of γb ranges between 0.001 and 0.01, with 0.005 being the more
Guess typical number. The volume fraction of catalyst in the clouds and wakes is (1 – εmf).
γb ~ 0.01 The volume of cloud and wakes per volume of bubble is
Vc
=
3 umf ε mf( )
Vb ub − umf ε mf ( )
so the expression for γc is
The volume of
catalysts in the R12-22
clouds is γc. CD-Ch12FluidizedBed.doc
⎡ 3(u ε ) ⎤
γ c = (1 − ε mf )⎢ + α⎥
mf mf
(R12.3-40)
⎢⎣ u b − (u mf ε mf ) ⎥⎦
It turns out that the value of α is normally far from insignificant in this expression
for γc and represents a weakness in the model because there does not yet exist a
reliable method for determining α. The typical values of γc ranges from 0.3 to 0.4.
The value of γc can be quite incorrect on occasion, in particular, a value of α=1.
The volume fraction of the solids in the emulsion phase is again (1 – εmf). The
volume of emulsion per volume of bubble is
Ve 1 − δ ⎛ Volume of clouds and wakes ⎞
= −⎜ ⎟
Vb δ ⎝ Volume of bubbles ⎠
and so the expression for γe is
The value of
catalysts in the (
γ e = 1 − ε mf )⎝⎛ 1 −δ δ ⎞⎠ − γ c − γ b (R12.3-41)
emulsion is γe.
Typical values of γb, γc, and γe are 0.005, 0.2, and 1.5, respectively. Using the
expressions given above, the three balance equations become
( )
For reactors dCAb
other than first Bubble balance = − γ b k cat CAb
n
− K bc (CAb − CAc ) (R12.3-42)
dt
or zero order,
K bc (CAb − CAc ) = γ c kcatCAc + K ce(CAc − CAe )
these equations n
Cloud balance (R12.3-43)
must be solved
numerically. Emulsion balance K ce(CAc − CAe ) = γ ekcatCAe
n
(R12.3-44)
R12.3.5E Solution to the Balance Equations for a First-Order

Reaction
If the reaction is first order, then the CAc and CAe can be eliminated using the
two algebraic equations, and the differential equation can be solved analytically for
CAb as a function of t. An analogous situation would exist if the reaction were zero.
Except for these two situations, solution to these two equations must be obtained
numerically.
For first-order reactions, we can combine the three balance equations into one
differential equation, which we can then solve to determine the conversion achieved
in a fluidized-bed reactor. In addition, the closed form solution allows us to examine
certain limiting situations in order to determine which operating parameters are
most influential in dictating bed performance. Here we can pose and ask a number
of “What if . . .” questions. To arrive at our fluidized-bed design equation for a first-
order reaction, we simply express both the concentration of A in the emulsion, CAe,
R12-23
and in the cloud, CAc, in terms of the bubble concentration, CAb. First, we use the
emulsion balance
K ce(CAc − CAe ) = γ ekcatCAe
n
(R12.3-45)
to solve for CAe in terms of CAc.

Rearranging (R12.3-45) for a first-order reaction (n = 1), we obtain
Kce
CAe = CAc (R12.3-46)
γ ekcat + Kce
We now use this equation to substitute for CAe in the cloud balance
⎛ KceC Ac ⎞⎟
K bc (CAb − CAc ) = C Ac γ ck cat + K ce⎜ CAc −
⎝ γ ekcat + Kce ⎠
Solving for CAc in terms of CAb
Kbc
CAc = CAb (R12.3-47)
⎡ K ceγ e kcat ⎤
γ ck cat + + Kbc
⎢⎣ γ ck cat + K ce ⎥⎦
We now substitute for Cac in the bubble balance

⎡ ⎤
dCAb ⎢ K bcCAb ⎥
= γ bk catCAb + ⎢ CAb −
dt ⎡ Kceγ ekcat ⎤ ⎥
⎢ γ ck cat + Kbc +
⎣ ⎢⎣ γ e kcat + Kce ⎥⎦ ⎥⎦
Rearranging
dCAb ⎡ γ eγ c kcat Kbc + γ c KbcK ce + Kceγ eKbc ⎤

= kcatCAb ⎢ γ b +
γ eγ ck cat + K ceγ ck cat + K bcγ ek cat + KceK bc + K ceγ e kcat ⎦⎥
2
dt ⎣
After some further rearrangement,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
dCAb ⎜ 1 ⎟
− = k cat CAb ⎜γ b + ⎟ (R12.3-48)
dt ⎜ k cat
+
1 ⎟
⎜ K bc 1 ⎟
⎜ γc + ⎟
⎜ 1 k cat ⎟
⎜ + ⎟
⎝ γ e K ce ⎠
R12-24
The overall 1
KR = γb + k 1 (R12.3-49)
transport cat
+
coefficient KR K bc γ + 1
c 1 k cat
for a first-order
+
reaction. γ e K ce
dCAb
− = k catKR CAb (R12.3-50)
dt
Expressing CAb as a function of X, that is,
CAb = CA 0 (1− X )
We can substitute to obtain
dX
= k catKR (1 − X )
dt
and integrating
The design ⎛ 1 ⎞
ln = kcat KR t (R12.3-51)
equation ⎝1 − X ⎠
The height of the bed necessary to achieve this conversion is
h = tub
ub 1
h= ln (R12.3-52)
k catKR 1−X
The corresponding catalyst weight is
( )
W = ρ cA ch 1 − ε mf (1 − δ ) (R12.3-53)
W =
( )
ρ cA cub 1 − ε mf (1 − δ )
ln
1
(R12.3-54)
kcat KR 1−X
R12.3.5F The Procedure
Unfortunately, one must use an iterative procedure to calculate the catalyst

weight. This predicament is a consequence of the fact that both KR and ub depend
upon the bubble diameter, which depends upon the bed height, Equation (R12.3-52).
Consequently, one should check the estimated average bubble diameter using the
value of h calculated from Equation (R12.3-52). A flow chart outlining this procedure
is shown in Figure R12.3-9.
R12-25
Figure R12.3-9 Computational algorithm for fluidized-bed reactor design. Reprinted with
permission from Fogler and Brown, “Reaction Control and Transport,” Chemical
Reactors, ACS Symposium Series, vol. 168, 1981, H.S. Fogler, ed.
Example R12-2 Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia

Massimilla and Johnstone17 studied the catalytic oxidation of ammonia in a
fluidized-bed reactor. Under their experimental conditions, the reaction was first-
order, dependent only upon the ammonia concentration, and without a significant
change in volumetric flow rate. In one of their runs, 4 kg of catalyst were used with
a gas flow rate of 818 cm3/s at reaction conditions. A conversion of 22% of the
entering ammonia was obtained. Predict this conversion using the Kunii-
Levenspiel model.
17 L. Massimilla and R.F. Jornstone, Chem. Eng. Sci. 16, (105) (1961).
R12-26
Other data:
P = 840 torr =1.11 atm ⎫⎪
⎬ Operating conditions
T = 523 K (250°C) ⎪⎭
Dt = 11.4 cm ⎫
⎪
⎬ Reactor
Distributor plate is porous ⎪
stainless steel. ⎭
v 0 = 818 cm 3 s @ reaction conditions ⎫⎪

⎬ Feed
Composition : 10% NH 3 , 90% O2 ⎪⎭
⎫
dp = 105 µm (0.0105 cm ) ⎪
⎪
ψ = 0.6 (assumed) ⎪⎪
⎬ Catalyst
(
ρ p = 2.06 g cm 3 ) ⎪
⎪
hs = 38.9 (cm ) ⎪
⎪⎭
⎫
(
−rA = kCNH 3 gmoles NH 3 )
(s)(cm 3 of catalyst ) ⎪⎪
⎬ Reaction rate
−1
kcat = 0.0858 s @ reaction conditions ⎪
⎪⎭
⎫
ρ g = 7.85 × 10 −4 g cm 3 ⎪
⎪⎪
−4
µ g = 2.98 × 10 g cm ⋅ s ⎬ Fluid properties
⎪
DAB = 0.618 cm s
2 ⎪
⎪⎭
R12-27
Solution
A. Mechanical Characteristics of Bed
Step 1. Gravitation term, η
η = g(ρ c − ρ g )
(
= 980 cm s 2 2.06 − 7.85 ×10 −4 g cm 3 )
= 2.02 ×10 3 g (s) (cm )
2 2
Step 2. Porosity of bed a minimum fluidization, εmf

0.029
⎛ µ2 ⎞ ⎛ ρg ⎞
0.021
ε mf = 0.586ψ −0.72
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ (R12.3-7)
3⎟
⎝ ρ g ηdp ⎠ ⎝ ρc ⎠
−0.72 ⎧
( )
2
= (0.586)(0.6)
−4
⎨ 2.98 × 10 g cm ⋅s
⎩
0.029
⎡
( ) (2.02 × 10 )(0.0105 cm ) ⎦⎬⎭
3 ⎤⎫
−4 2 3 2 2
7.85 × 10 g cm ⋅ s
⎣
( )
0.021
× 7.85 g cm 3 × 10−4 2.06 g cm 3
ε mf ~ 0.65 ε mf = 0.657
Step 3. Gas velocity at minimum fluidization
(ψdp )
2
ε 3mf
150µ [
u mf = g(ρ c − ρ g )] (R12.3-5)
14243 1 − ε mf
η
[ ( )](2.02 × 10 −3 g cm 2 ⋅ s2 )(0.657)3
2
= (0.6 ) 0.0105 cm 2
[(150 )(2.98 × 10−4 g cm ⋅ s)(1 − 0.657 )]

u mf ~ 1.5 cm s u mf = 1.48 cm s
Step 4. Entering gas velocity u0
u0 = v 0 Ac = v 0 πDt2 4 ( )
= 818 cm 3 s [(π)(11.4 cm ) 4] 2
R12-28
u o ~ 8 cm s u0 = 8.01 cm s
Step 5. Is u0within a reasonable operating range?
Check ut.
( ) (dp )
13
ut = 1.78 × 10−2 η2 ρ g µ (R12.3-11)
⎡
( )( )
2
= 1.78 × 10−2 2.02 × 10−3 g cm 2 ⋅ s 2
⎣
(7.85 × 10−4 g )( )]
13
cm 3 2.98 × 104 g cm ⋅ s (0.0105 )
ut ~ 70 cm s ut = 71.1 cm s Maximum fluidization gas velocity
(Particle blown out of the bed)
Are NRe in proper range for use of Equations (R12.3-6) and (R12.3-11)?
dp ρ g u
N Re =
µ
At umf: ( )
N Re = (0.0105 cm ) 7.85 × 10 −4 g cm 3 (1.48 cm s )
(2.98 × 10 −4 g cm ⋅s )
= 0.0409 (OK, since it is < 10)
At ut ( )
N Re = (0.0105 cm ) 7.85 × 10 −4 g cm 3 (71.1 cm s)
(2.98 × 10 −4 g cm ⋅s )
= 1.97 (OK, since 0.4 < N Re < 500)
Thus u0 is 5.4 times umf, and well below ut.
Step 6. Bubble sizes, dbo, dbm, and db
( ) , cm
2
db0 = 0.00376 uo − umf (R12.3-17)
= 0.00376 (8.01 cm s − 1.48 cm s)

2
db = 0.160 cm
[ ( )]
0.4
dm = 0.652 Ac u0 − umf (R12.3-18)
R12-29
{[ ] } cm
0 .4
π (11.4 ) 4 (8.01 cm s − 1.48 cm s)
2
= 0.652
dbm = 08.8 cm dbm = 8.79 cm (Since this is smaller than column diameter,
slugging will not occur.)
Step 7. Bubble sizes, dbo, dbm, and db

The unexpanded bed height is 38.9 cm. The expanded bed height will
probably be 40 to 50% greater, say ~ 60 cm. We therefore will assume
the average bubble size will be taken as the one calculated for (h/2) =
30 cm.
Step 8. Average bubble diameter
d b = d bm − (d bm − d b 0 )e −0.3 h Dt
(From Equation R12.3 -15)
= 8.79 − (8.79 − 0.160)e ( )( )

− 0.3 30 11.4
db ~ 5 cm db = 4.87 cm
Step 9. Rise velocity of single bubble
[( ) ]
12
ubr = (0.71)(gdb ) = (0.71) 980 cm s 2 (4.87 cm )
12
= 49.0 cm s (R12.3-13)
Step 10. Rise velocity of a bubble when many bubbles are present
ub = u 0 − umf + (0.71)(gd b )
12
(R12.3-14)
= 8.01 − 1.48 + 49.0 = 55.6 cm s

ub ~ 55 cm ub = 55.6 cm /s
From Figure (R12.3-5) for glass spheres with dp = 0.105 mm, then α = 0.4
Step 11. Fraction of bed in bubble phase
(
δ = uo − umf ) [ub − umf (1+ α)] (R12.3-23)
= (8.01− 1.48) [55.6 − 1.48(1+ 0.4)]
δ ~ 0.12 δ = 0.122
Step 12. Bed height
(1
h Ac ) (1− δ )
23 123 (1
1− ε mf )
424 3
ρ p = mass of catalyst in bed
Volume Volume in Volume of solids
of bed emulsion, in emulsion,
clouds, clouds, and
and wakes wakes
R12-30
W
h=
(
A c(1 − δ) 1− ε mf ρc )
4000 g
= = 63.2 cm
[ ]
π(11.4 cm ) 4 (1− 0.122 )(1 − 0.657) 2.06 gm cm 3
2
( )
Good Guess Since the estimated bed height of 60 cm is sufficiently close to the
of h = 60 cm calculated value of 63.2 cm, one can proceed further in the
calculations without making a new estimate of h.
C. Mass Transfer and Reaction Parameters:

Step 1. Bubble-cloud mass transfer coefficient
Order of
magnitude ( )
K bc = 4.5 u mf db + 5.85 D1 2 g 1 4 db 5 4 ( ) (R12.3-30)
parameters
= 4.5 (1.48cm s ) (4.87cm ) + 5.85 0.61cm 2 s ( )1 2(980cm s 2)1 4 (4.87cm )5 4
⇓ −1 −1
= 1.37 s + 3.54 s
K bc ~ 5 s−1 K bc = 4.92 s −1
Step 2. Cloud-emulsion mass-transfer coefficient
( )
12
K ce = 6.78 ε mf Dub db3 (R12.3-32)
[ ( )
= 6.78 (0.657 ) 0.61cm 2 s (55.6cm s ) (4.87cm ) ]
3 12
K ce ~ 3 s −1 K ce = 3.00 s −1
Step 3. Volume of catalysts in the bubble per volume of bubble.
γb = 0.01 (assumed)
Step 4. Volume of catalyst in clouds and wakes/cm3 of bubbles
( ){[3(u mf ε mf ) u b − (u mf ε mf )]+ α}
γ c = 1 − ε mf
= (1− 0.657 ){(3)(1.48 0.657 ) [49.0 − (1.48 0.657 )]+ 0.4} (R12.3-40)
γ c ~ 0.2 γ c = 0.187
Step 5. Volume of catalyst in emulsion/cm3 of bubbles
(
γ e = 1 − ε mf )[(1 − δ) δ]− γ c − γ b
R12-31
[ ]
= (1− 0.657 ) (1− 0.122 0.122) − 0.187 − 0.005 (R12.3-41)
γe ~ 2 γ e = 2.28
Step 6. Calculate KR and X from Equations (R12.3-49) and (R12.3-51)
⎡ K R k cat h ⎤
X =1− exp⎢− ⎥
⎣ ub ⎦
where
1
KR = γb + k 1 (R12.3-49)
cat
+
K bc 1
+γc
1 kcat
+
γ e Kce
1
K R = 0.01+ 0.0858 s
1
+
4.92 s 1
1 0.0858 s + .187
+
2.28 3.0 s
1
KR ~ 2 K R = 0.01+ 1 = 2.23
0.0174 +
.187 + 2.14
K R = 2.23
⎛ 1 ⎞
ln = kcat KR t
⎝1 − X ⎠
h
= kcat KR
ub
Solving for X
( )
⎡ (2.23) 0.0858 s −1 (63.2 cm )⎤
X = 1− exp ⎢ − ⎥
55.6 cm s
⎣ ⎦
X = 0.20
This is close to the observed value of 22% conversion.
R12.3.6 Limiting Situations
As engineers, it is important to deduce how a bed will operate if one were to

change operating conditions such as gas flow rate or catalyst particle size. To give
R12-32
some general guides as to how changes will affect bed behavior, we shall consider
the two limiting circumstances of reaction control and transport control.
In the K-L bubbling bed model, reaction occurs within the three phases of the
bed, and material is continuously transferred between the phases. Two limiting
situations thus arise. In one, the interphase transport is relatively fast, and transport
equilibrium is maintained, causing the system performance to be controlled by the
rate of reaction. In the other, the reaction rate is relatively fast, and the performance
is controlled by interphase transport between the bubbles, clouds, and emulsions. It
will be shown that the ammonia oxidation example used earlier is essentially a
reaction-limited system.
The overall reaction rate in the bed is proportional to KR, so the reciprocal of
KR can be viewed as an overall resistance to the reaction. The different terms and
groups on the right-hand side of Equation (R12.3-49) can be viewed as individual
resistances,zs which can be arranged in series or parallel to give the overall
resistance.
1 1
R0 = = (R12.3-55)
KR 1 1
+
1 k cat 1
+
γb K bc 1 1
+
1 1 k cat
+
γ c γ e K ce
1
R0 = (R12.3-56)
1 1
+
Rrb 1
Rtbc +
1 1
+
Rrc Rre + Rtce
in which:
1
Rrb = = Resistance to reaction in the bubble
γb
k cat
Rtbc = = Resistance to transfer between bubble and cloud
K bc
1
Rrc = = Resistance to reaction in cloud
γc
1
Rre = = Resistance to reaction in the emulsion
γe
k cat
Rtce = = Resistance to transfer between cloud and emulsion
Kce
R12-33
Example R12-3 Calculation of Resistances

Calculate each of the resistances to reaction and transfer, and the relationship
between CAb, CAc and CAe for the ammonia oxidation reaction described in
Example R12-2. Assume γb = 0.01.
Solution
1 1
Rrb = = = 100
γ b 0.01
kcat 0.0858
R tbc = = = 0.0174
Kbc 4.92
1 1
R re = = = 0.439
γ e 2.28
1 1
R rc = = = 5.35
γ c 0.187
kcat 0.0858
Rtcb = = = 0.0286
Kce 3.0
To relate CAe and CAc, we rearrange Equation (R12-67) for a first-order reaction as
⎛ Kce ⎞⎟ 3.00
CAe = ⎜ CAc = C
⎝ γ e + k cat + Kce ⎠ (2.28)(0.0858) + 3.00 Ac
CAe = 0.939 CAc
The analog electrical resistance for the system is shown in Figure R12.3-10
along with the corresponding resistances for this reaction. As with its electrical
analog, the reaction will pursue the path of least resistance, which in this case is
along the right hand-side branch of Figure R12.3-10. If the major resistance in this
side, the resistance to reaction in the emulsion Rre, could be reduced, a greater
conversion could be achieved for a specific catalyst weight. To reduce Rre, one
needs to look for ways of increasing γe.
R12-34
Rtbc=0.174
Rtbc=0.174
Electrical
Analog Rrb=100
Rre=0.439 Rrb=100
Rrc=5.35 Rtbe+Rre+Rrc=0.43
Rtce=0.029
Figure R12.3-10 Electrical analog.
⎡ 3umf ε mf ⎤
(
γ e = 1 − ε mf )
⎢
1−δ
− − α⎥ (R12.3-57)
⎣
δ (0.71 db g)12
− u (
mf ε )
mf ⎦
Examination of Equation (R12.3-57) shows that decreasing the bubble fraction, δ,
and the minimum fluidization velocity would increase γe and hence the
conversion. The minimum fluidization velocity could be decreased by decreasing
the particle size. We now will investigate how the various parameters will affect
the conversion for different limiting situations.
R12.3.6A The Slow Reaction
In addition to the obvious way of increasing the temperature to increase the

conversion, and perhaps some unwanted side reactions, there are other ways the
conversion may be increased when the reaction is slow. From Equation (R12.3-31)
we know the conversion depends upon h, kcat, ub, and KR. We will first determine KR
under this situation. For a slow reaction, kcat is small when compared to Kbc and Kce
so that resistance to transport is essentially zero, that is,
k cat
≈0 (R12.3-58)
K bc
and
k cat
≈0 (R12.3-59)
Kce
then
1
KR = γb + 1 = γ b + γc + γ e (R12.3-60)
0+
1
γc +
1
+0
γe
R12-35
Using Equation (R12-64) to substitute for γe, we have
(
K R = γ b + 1− ε mf )⎝⎛ 1 −δ δ ⎞⎠ (R12.3-61)
neglecting γb, with respect of the second term yields
(
K R = 1 − ε mf )⎝⎛ 1−δ δ ⎞⎠ (R12.3-62)
Consequently, we see that KR can be increased by decreasing δ the volume fraction

of bubbles. For the ammonia oxidation example, this would give
KR ≈ 2.47
or about 11% higher than the value obtained by the more elaborate calculations
which included the transport. This would predict a conversion of 21.4%, very close
to the 20% given by the method which includes the transport limitations. Thus the
ammonia oxidation system of Massimilla and Johnstone is essentially a reaction-
limited system. The conversion and catalyst weight are related by
( )
W = A chρ c 1− ε mf (1− δ ) =
( )
A cubρ c 1 − ε mf (1 − δ)
ln
1
(R12.3-63)
k catK R 1− X
Substituting for KR,

A cρ cubδ ⎛ 1 ⎞
W = ln (R12.3-64)
kcat ⎝1 − X ⎠
Recalling Equation (R12.3-23),

uo − umf
δ= (R12.3-23)
ub − umf (1+ α )
In almost all instances, ub is significantly greater than umf (1+α) so that Equation
(R12.3-45) is approximately
u0 − u mf
δ= (R12.3-65)
ub
Combining Equations (R12.3-64) and (R12.3-65) gives
Approximate
catalyst weight
for slow W =
(
A cρ c uo − umf )ln 1
(R12.3-66)
reactions
kcat 1−X
Therefore one observes that to reduce the catalyst weight for a specified conversion,
u0 and umf should be as close as possible. One can now ask in what ways the catalyst
“What if . . .” weight may be reduced for a specified conversion. The answer to this question is the
questions
R12-36
same as to the question, “How may one increase the conversion for a fixed catalyst
weight?”
Example R12-4 Effect of Particle Size on Catalyst Weight for a Slow Reaction
Suppose you are operating at five times the minimum fluidization velocity,
u0 = 5umf. What would be the effect of doubling the particle diameter on the
catalyst weight for the same throughput and conversion?
Solution
Substitution for u0, into Equation (R12.3-66) gives
Case 1
A cρc 4umf 1 1
W1 = ln (RE12-7.1)
k cat1 1− X 1
Case 2
W2 =
(
ρ cA c u o2 − u mf 2 )ln 1
(RE12-7.2)
kcat2 1− X2
Since the temperature remains constant and there are no inter- and intra-particle
resistances, kcat1 = kcat2, the throughput (u01 = u02), and conversion (X1 = X2) are the
same for Cases 1 and 2. The ratio of Equation (E4-1) and (E4-2) yields
W 2 u o1 − u mf 2 5u mf 1 − umf 2
= = (RE12-7.3)
W1 4umf 1 4umf 1
Recalling Equation (R12.3-5),

(ψdp )
2
ε 3mf
u mf = [(
g ρc − ρg
150µ 14243 1 − ε mf
)] (R12.3-5)
η
and neglecting the dependence of εmf on dp we see that the only parameters that
vary between Case 1 (dp) and Case 2 (dp2 = 2dp1) are umf and W. Taking the ratio of
umf2 to umf1 and substituting for dp2 in terms of dp1 we obtain
2 2
u mf 2 ⎛ dp2 ⎞ ⎛ 2dp1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =4 (RE12-7.4)
umf 1 ⎝ dp1 ⎠ ⎝ dp1 ⎠
and therefore
W 2 5umf 1 − 4umf 1
= = 0.25 (RE12-7.5)
W1 4umf 1
R12-37
Thus in the situation we have postulated, with a first-order reaction and reaction
limiting the bed behavior, doubling the particle size will reduce the catalyst by
approximately 75% and still maintain the same conversion.
R12.3.6B The Rapid Reaction
To analyze this limiting situation, we shall assume the particles are

sufficiently small so that the effectiveness factor is essentially one and that the rate of
transfer from the bulk fluid to the individual catalyst particles is rapid in
comparison with the rate of transfer between the fluidization phases. For the case of
rapid reaction,
k cat k
and cat >> 1
K bc Kce
Using these approximations in the equation for KR, which is

1
KR = γb + k 1
cat
+
K cb γ + 1
c kcat 1
+
Kce γ e
one observes the first term to be neglected is γb, and we also note that because the
reaction is rapid k cat K ce is a large number.
1
KR = k 1
cat
+
Kce γ + 1
c 1
(Large No. )+ γ
e
Then neglecting the reciprocal of γe with respect to kcat/Kcb, KR becomes

1 K cb
KR = γb + k 1 ≈ γ b + (R12.3-67)
cat
+ k cat
K cb γ c
There are two situations one can analyze here
Situation 1: Kbc Resistance to transport small wrt
γ b <<
k cat resistance to reaction inside the bubble
Situation 2: Kbc Resistance to transport large wrt

γ b >>
k cat resistance to reaction inside the bubble
R12-38
Only situation 1 will be analyzed in the text; the analysis of situation 2 is left as an
exercise.
Assuming very few particles are present in the bubble phase
Kbc
KR ≅ (R12.3-68)
kcat
The catalyst weight is given by combining Equations (R12.3-54) and (R12.3-68)
W =
(
A cub ρc (1 − δ) 1 − ε mf )ln⎛ 1 ⎞
(R12.3-69)
K bc ⎝1 − X ⎠
Neglecting δ with respect to 1 in the numerator
Approximate
catalyst rate for W =
(
A cub ρ p 1 − ε mf )ln⎛ 1 ⎞
(R12.3-70)
a rapid reaction k catKbc ⎝ 1− X ⎠
On observing that the equation for Kbc, Equation (R12.3-30), is the sum of two terms
A0 and B0
⎛ u mf ⎞ ⎛ D 1 2 g1 4 ⎞
K bc = 4.5⎜ ⎟ + 5.85⎜ AB5 4 ⎟ (R12.3-30)
⎝ db ⎠ ⎝ db ⎠
K bc = A0 + B0
one finds the problem can be further divided.
Case A: A0 >> B0
Case B: B0 >> A0
Only Case A will be considered here; Case B again will be left as an exercise.
For Case A
umf
K bc ≅ 4.5 (R12.3-71)
db
Then
u d
(
W = b b ρc A c 1 − ε mf ln
4.5umf
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎝ 1− X ⎠ ) (R12.3-72)
Recalling the equation for ub and neglecting other terms in the equation with respect
to the velocity of rise of a single bubble, that is,
ub ≈ ubr
and
R12-39
12
ubr = 0.71g 1 2 db
32
0.71g 1 2 db
W =
4.5umf
(
A cρc 1− ε mf ln ) ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎝ 1− X ⎠
db3 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
W = 4.9
umf
(
A cρ c 1 − ε mf ln )
⎝ 1− X ⎠
(R12.3-73)
The average bubble diameter is a function of the tower diameter (thus the
tower cross-sectional area Ac), height, u0, and umf. As a first approximation, we
assume the average bubble diameter is some fraction, (say 0.75) of the maximum
bubble diameter.
db = 0.75 dbm (R12.3-74)
Then, from Equation (R12.3-16), we have
[( )]
0.4
dbm = (0.75)(0.652) A c uo − umf (R12.3-75)
which is substituted into Equation (R12.3-73) to give

One
Approximation
for fast reactions
W = 1.69
1 .6
Ac (uo − umf )0.6 ρ (1− ε )ln ⎛ 1 ⎞ (R12.3-76)
umf
c mf ⎝1 − X ⎠
Example R12-5 Effect of Catalyst Weight on Particle Size for a Rapid Reaction
We again consider the effect of doubling particle size while keeping all other
variables the same. Case 1: dp1 = dp1, Case 2: dp2 = 2 dp1.
Solution
Using Equation (R12.3-76) and taking the ratio of Case 1 to Case 2
(u02 − umf 2 )
0.6
W2 umf 1
= (RE12-6.1)
W1 (u − u )0.6 u mf 2
01 mf 1
Recalling from previous examples

u o2 = u o1 = 5umf 1
umf 2 = 4umf 1
then
0 .6
W 2 ⎛ 5u mf 1 − 4u mf 1 ⎞ u mf 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 0 .6 1
=⎜ ⎟ = (RE12-6.2)
W1 ⎝ 5u mf 1 − umf 1 ⎠ 4u mf 1 ⎝ 4⎠ 4
or
R12-40
W2
= 0.11 (RE12-6.3)
W1
In this case, we see that doubling the particle diameter decreases the catalyst
weight by 89% while maintaining the same conversion. However, for a fast
reaction, a significant decrease in effectiveness factor could offset this advantage.
R12-41
SUMMARY
1. Minimum fluidization velocity
(ψdp ) η ε mf
23
u mf = (S12.3-1)
150 µ (1 − ε mf )
2. Porosity at minimum fluidization

0.029
0.586 ⎡ µ2 ⎤
0 .021
⎡ ρg ⎤
ε mf = 0 .72 ⎢ 3⎥ ⎢⎣ ρc ⎥⎦ (S12.3-2)
ψ ⎣ ρ g ηdp ⎦
or
0.415
ε mf = 0 .33 (S12.3-3)
ψ
3. Bubble size
db = dbm − (dbm − dbo)e−0 .3 h D t (S12.3-4)
where
[( )]
0. 4
dbm = 0.652 A c uo − u mf , cm (S12.3-5)
For porous plates
d b 0 = 0.00376(uo − umf ) , cm
2
(S12.3-6)
4. Velocity of bubble rise
ub = u0 − umf + 0.71(gd b )
12
(S12.3-7)
5. Bed height - conversion in first order reaction

ub 1
h= ln (S12.3-8)
k catKR 1−X
1
KR = γb + k 1 (S12.3-9)
cat
+
kbc γ + 1
c 1 k cat
+
γ e K ce
6. Mass Transfer Parameters
a. Between the bubble and the cloud
⎡ umf ⎤ D1 2 g1 4
K bc = 4.5 ⎢ ⎥⎦ + 5.85 (S12.3-10)
⎣ db d5 4 b
b. Between the cloud and the emulsion
R12-42
12
⎡ ε mf D u b ⎤
K ce = 6.78 (S12.3-11)
⎢ d3 ⎥
⎣ b ⎦
7. The reaction rate parameters
k cat = ρ p k (S12.3-12)
a. Bubble
0.001 < γb < 0.01 (S12.3-13)
b. Cloud
⎡ ⎤
)( )
⎢ 3 umf ε mf ⎥
(
γ c = 1 − ε mf ⎢ umf
+ α ⎥ (S12.3-14)
⎢ ubr − ⎥
⎣ ε mf ⎦
c. Emulsion
)(
1 − δ)
(
γ e = 1 − ε mf
δ
−γc (S12.3-15)
u 0 − umf
δ= (S12.3-16)
ub − umf (1 + α )
where α is given by Figure 12.3-5.

8. Procedure
See flow chart in Figure R12.3-9.
R12-43
Supplementary Reading
1. Anonymous, Chem. Eng. Prog., 53 (10), 50 (1957).
2. Blanding, F. H., Ind. Eng. Chem., 45, 1186 (1953).
3. Carlsmith, L. E., and F. B. Johnson, Ind. Eng. Chem., 37, 451 (1945).
4. Davidson, J. F., and D. L. Keairns, Fluidization. Proceedings of the Second

Engineering Foundation Conference, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1978.
5. Grace, J. R., and J. M. Matsen, Fluidization. New York: Plenum Press, 1980.
6. Keavins, D. L., ed. Fluidization Technology, vol. I and II. Washington, D.C.:
Hemisphere Publishing Co. in association with McGraw-Hill I(1975), II(1976).
7. Kunii, D., and O. Levenspiel, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Design Devel., 7, 481 (1968).
8. Kunii, D., and O. Levenspiel, Fluidization Engineering, 2nd Ed., (Boston:

Butterworth, 1991).
9. Mathur, R. B., and N. Epstein, Spouted Beds, (New York: Academic Press, 1974).
10. Weekman, V. W., Jr., Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Design Devel. 7, 91 (1968).
11. Wen, C. Y., and Y. H. Yu, AIChE J., 12, 610 (1966).
12. Zenz, F. A., Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 3, 65 (1964).
13. Zenz, F. A., Ind. Chem. E. Symposium Series, No. 30, 136 (1968).
14. Zenz, F. A., and N. A. Weil, AIChE J., 4, 472 (1958).
R12-44
Multiphase reactors
Slurry reactors
The catalytic reaction can also be carried out in two–phase or three –phase stirred tank reactors also
known as slurry reactors. In three –phase reactor, gas and liquid reactants are brought into contact
with solid catalyst particles. In two–phase reactor, fluid phase is usually liquid reactant in contact
with the solid catalyst. The reaction of gaseous reactant with catalyst is usually carried out in fixed
bed reactor. In three –phase slurry reactor the gaseous reactant and solid catalysts are dispersed in
continuous liquid phase by mechanical agitation using stirrer. The efficient stirring ensures nearly
uniform composition throughout the reactor. This kind of reactor is used in hydrogenation,
oxidation, halogenations and fermentation process. The advantages include nearly isothermal
operation and good heat and mass transfers. The use of powder catalysts having high activity
minimizes the intraparticle diffusion limitation. The reactors can be operated in batch, semi batch or
continuous mode. In three – phase system bubbles of gas rise through agitated slurry. Solid
particles are in size range of 0.01to 1.0 mm. The solid concentration can be up to 30 vol. %. Lower
concentration is also used. In hydrogenation of oil with nickel catalyst, the solid content is 0.5 vol.
%. The external transport effects are important in slurry reactors and details are discussed in lecture
no. 30. Hydrogenation of oils is carried out in slurry of nickel catalyst particles. Industrial
hydrogenation reactors are usually of the size in the range of 500-200 L. The reactors are operated
up to pressure of 200 atm and temperature of 350°C. The reactors are equipped with internal
agitator, gas inlet, facility for insitu sampling and heater or cooler for temperature control.
Trickled bed reactors
In trickled bed reactor gaseous and liquid reactants flow co-currently downward over a packed bed
of solid catalyst particles. The liquid is distributed across the reactor cross section by a distributor
plate. The gas enters at the top and distributed along with the liquid. The liquid flows downward by
gravity and drag of the gas. For low liquid flow rates and low to moderate gas flow rates, the gas
phase is continuous with liquid trickling down forming film over the solid catalyst. The thickness of
the liquid film has been estimated to vary between 0.01 and 0.2 mm. This flow regime is known as a
trickle flow regime. The fluid approaches plug flow leading to higher conversion than slurry reactors
for the same reactor volume. Other advantages include ease of installation, minimal catalyst
handling and low catalyst attrition as in packed bed reactor. Disadvantages include maldistribution
of flow resulting in channeling or bypassing, possibility of non uniformity in packing, incomplete

contacting or wetting and intraparticle diffusion resistance. Catalyst bed depth is limited by pressure
drop, catalyst crush strength and maximum adiabatic temperature increase for stable operation. The
reactor length to diameter ratio can vary between 1 and 10 depending on the allowable pressure
drop. Other parameters important for trickled bed include void fraction of bed, holdup for phases,
wetting efficiency (fraction of catalyst wetted by liquid), gas – liquid mass transfer coefficient,
liquid–solid mass transfer coefficient, liquid and gas mixing, pressure drop and heat transfer
coefficients. The wetting efficiency of the catalyst is important for reaction rate and increases with
increasing liquid rate. The trickle bed reactor is most commonly used for hydrogenation and
hydrodesulfurization reactions.
In trickled bed reactor gaseous and liquid reactants flow co-currently downward over a packed bed
of solid catalyst particles. The liquid is distributed across the reactor cross section by a distributor
plate. The gas enters at the top and distributed along with the liquid. The liquid flows downward by
gravity and drag of the gas. For low liquid flow rates and low to moderate gas flow rates, the gas
phase is continuous with liquid trickling down forming film over the solid catalyst. The thickness of
the liquid film has been estimated to vary between 0.01 and 0.2 mm. This flow regime is known as a
trickle flow regime. The fluid approaches plug flow leading to higher conversion than slurry reactors
for the same reactor volume. Other advantages include ease of installation, minimal catalyst
handling and low catalyst attrition as in packed bed reactor. Disadvantages include maldistribution
of flow resulting in channeling or bypassing, possibility of non uniformity in packing, incomplete
contacting or wetting and intraparticle diffusion resistance. Catalyst bed depth is limited by pressure
drop, catalyst crush strength and maximum adiabatic temperature increase for stable operation. The
reactor length to diameter ratio can vary between 1 and 10 depending on the allowable pressure
drop. Other parameters important for trickled bed include void fraction of bed, holdup for phases,
wetting efficiency (fraction of catalyst wetted by liquid), gas – liquid mass transfer coefficient,
liquid–solid mass transfer coefficient, liquid and gas mixing, pressure drop and heat transfer
coefficients. The wetting efficiency of the catalyst is important for reaction rate and increases with
increasing liquid rate. The trickle bed reactor is most commonly used for hydrogenation and
hydrodesulfurization reactions.
Bioreactors
In bioreactor live cells or enzymes are used as catalyst to perform the biochemical reactions.
Bioreactor operations are limited by the conditions favorable for the biological systems. Most living
cells can tolerate only mild conditions of temperature and pH. Hence in bioreactors stringent control
of temperature, pH or any contamination is needed. Bioreactor may have two phases, liquid-solid as
in anaerobic process or three phases, gas, liquid and solid as in aerobic process. The solid phase
typically contains the cells (bacteria, fungi, algae etc.) that serve as biocatalyst. The density of
biocatalytic phase is close to water. The biocatalyst can also be used in immobilized form in which
cells are trapped within solid or semi solid structure such as porous particles or gel. Liquid is
primarily water with dissolves the feed and products. In aerobic bioreactor the gas phase consists of
primarily air and product gas CO2. Bioreactors are mainly operated in batch or semi batch mode
allowing better control of process parameters. Increasing number of bioreactor is operated in

continuous mode such as in wastewater treatment, lactic acid production, production of human
insulin etc.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of different type of reactors
are Deff = 2 x 10-5 cm2/s, A = 3 X cal/s cm"K. 3. First-order isothermal, irreversible reaction with re-
AT becomes 0.33"C. spect to the reactant in the liquid. Gaseous reactant pres-
If pores are filled with vapor, however, temperature ent in great excess.
differences in the hundreds of degrees are quite possible, 4.Catalyst pellets are completely bathed with liquid.
because values of Deff for vapors are 3 to 4 orders of 5. Reaction occurs only at the liquid-catalyst interface.
magnitude greater than for solutes and gas phase con- 6. No vaporization or condensation occurs.
centrations are not lowered by as large a factor. The key Consider a digerential volume element across the
limiting component will then usually be vaporized re- reactor and set the rate of reaction in that element equal
actant rather than hydrogen. Representative conditions to the disappearance of reactant as the liquid passes
are as follows: -AH = 5 x lo4 cal/mole (this is now through the element: Then
per mole of vaporized reactant), Deft = 10+ cm2/s, C,
= 3 x 10-5 g-mol/cm3, representing vaporized reactant
present in small mole fraction but superatmospheric total where cin = concentration of reactant in entering liquid,
pressure, and A as before. AT becomes 50°C. This situa- moles/cm3
tion will not develop, of course, if the reactant does not x = fractional conversion of reactant
have an appreciable vapor pressure. dV = reactor volume in slice under considera-
If a reaction is substantially diffusion-limited when tion, cm3
pores are filled with liquid reactant, then circumstances
causing the pores to become instead filled with vaporized If the reaction is first order,
reactant can cause a marked increase in reaction rate, r = k,c(l - C ) (22)
associated with the marked increase in d8usivity. This,
of course, cannot happen if the reactant has insignificant cm3 of liquid
vapor pressure. In an early study by Ware (1959) of the where k, =
(cm3 of cat. pellet vol.) ( s )
hydrogenation of benzene at 70" to 100°C and 7 to 34-
atm pressure the rate varied by a factor of 5 to 10 Substituting Equation (22) in (21), we obtain
depending upon the startup conditions. The higher rate
was interpreted as a system in which pores were filled Fcindx = k, ( 1 - e ) CdV
c = Cin(l-z)
with benzene vapor and hydrogen and diffusion limita-
tions were negligible; the lower rate was inteipreted as resulting in
involving diffusional resistance inside liquid-filled pores.
More recently the same effect was reported by Sedricks
and Kenney (1972, 1973) in a well-defined study of the
or
hydrogenation of crotonaldehyde. In both cases, how-
ever, a highly exothermic and rapid reaction was being
In---
C&
-
v k,(l =
k,( 1 - t ) - 3600ku(1 - t )
-
studied at a low liquid flow rate (about 0.15 kg/m2 s in -t)
Ware's work and 0.045 kg/m2 s in that of Sedricks and Cout F L,/h LHSV
Kenney ) . Liquid phase reaction could presumably switch (23)
to vapor phase reaction at a critical value of the local where V is the volume of the trickle bed packed with
liquid flow rate below which the heat evolved could no catalyst.
longer be carried away by the flowing liquid. This effect
could interact with liquid flow to cause temperature in- 4.2 Comparison with Autoclave Meosurements
stabilities in various ways. Germain et al. (1974) de- If the same simplifying assumptions again hold, one
scribe a cyclic and irregular performance of a trickle should be able to obtain the same values of the reaction
bed using countercurrent flow of gas against downflowing rate constant k, from studies in a stirred autoclave. In
a-methyl styrene which was hydrogenated to cumene at the autoclave, one measures change in concentration with
liquid flow rates of 0.08 to 1.6 kg/m2 s, but here the time, whereas in the trickle-bed reactor we have change
erratic behavior may have stemmed in substantial degree in concentration with distance, but the autoclave and the
from the use of countercurrent flow which could have trickle-bed reactor should give the same value of k, be-
substantially altered the flow and mixing patterns from cause there is a one-to-one correlation between time in
those obtained with concurrent trickle flow at the same the autoclave and distance traversed in the trickle bed.
gas and liquid flow rates. Quantitative analysis of cou- (For a specified flow rate the distance traversed is in-
pling effects between heat release on catalyst pellets and versely proportional to the dynamic liquid holdup, but
dissipation to the flowing fluids might be very helpful in it is unnecessary to know this in the ideal case-see Sec-
revealing possible causes of instabilities in trickle bed tion 5.5). In the autoclave,
reactors in general.
dc
-= r(vcat + vliq)
(24)
dt U1iq
4. MODELS FOR DESIGN A N D ANALYSIS Here r is moles/(s) (cm3 of liquid plus cm3 of catalyst in
4.1 The ldeol Trickle Bed Reactor the autoclave)
The analysis of trickle bed performance under ideal uCat= volume of catalyst pellets in autoclave, cm3
circumstances and assuming simple first-order kinetics z)liq = volume of liquid in autoclave, cm3
provides a point of departure for analysis of real cases. t = time, s
We assume the following:
1. Plug flow of liquid, that is, no dispersion in the axial Substituting Equation (22) in Equation (24), where
or radial direction. (1 - C) is now the volume fraction of solid catalyst in
2. No mass or heat transfer limitations between gas the liquid slurry in the autoclave,
and liquid, between liquid and solid catalyst or inside
dc
catalyst particles. The liquid is saturated with gas at all
times.
- vliq
-= k,c
dt %at
Page 220 March, 1975 AlChE Journal (Vol. 21, No. 2)

 Introduction to Slurry Reactors
 Types & Construction
 Operation and Working
 Start up and Shut down
 Trouble shooting
 Advantages & disadvantages
 Applications
 Incident
Any mixture of solid
liquid or a gas gas is called
slurry.
Sloppy mud, cement or

mixture of additives in
petrochemicals.
Slurry reactors are three-phase
reactors, meaning they can be
used to react solids, liquids,
and gases simultaneously.
They usually consist of a solids

suspended in a liquid, through
which a gas is bubbled. They
can operate in either semi-
batch or continuous mode.
Types Of Slurry Reactors are :
Bubble Column Reactor
Fischer Tropsch Reactor
Slurry Batch Reactor

Reaction tank
Made of glass or
steel.
Hold Media and

catalyst.
Additional parts
are mounted on it.
Sparger
Used to introduce air in
reactor.
Install at the bottom, consist
of tube and holes for escape
air and gases.
Cooling Coils
Water is circulated
through these coils to
lower the temperature
inside the reaction
vessel.
Probes
Heat transfer probes
Mass Transfer Probes
Bubble size
measurement probe
Temperature probe
Hydro-cloning Section
Hydro-cloning section is
attached separate to the
vessel.
A Hydro-clone is a static
device that applies
centrifugal force to a liquid
mixture so as to promote
the separation of heavy
and light components.
Carbon monoxide and hydrogen react over a
catalyst to produce methanol.
Catalyst is a mixture of copper, zinc oxide, and

alumina.
At 5–10 MPa (50–100 atm) and 250 °C.
CO + 2 H2 → CH3OH
Step-1:
Clean &
purge the
reactor
Step-2:
Check the
probes.
Step-3:
Check the
drain &
inlet valves. Step-4:
Fill the
catalyst.
CH3OH
Steam
BFW
Sparger
Syn gas
CH3OH
Steam
BFW
Sparger
Syn gas
Step-1:
Open the
drain valve.
Step-2:
Remove
the catalyst
Step-3:
Clean the
reactor.
problem cause consequence solution
Hot spot formation. Due to non uniform Catalyst will Rapid removal of large
temperature deactivate. heat of a reaction.
distribution. Decrease product
selectivity.
Agglomeration Uneven distribution of Mass transfer rate will Change the type of
feed gas. decrease. sparger.
Very high superficial product selectivity will Low the velocity of
velocity of the gas decreases. gas .
feed.
Sparger is not working Nozzle may be choked Very low flow rate of Clean or replace the
syn gas sparger
problem cause consequence solution
Coagulant formation Very high Agitation will not be Regenerate the

of solid catalyst in the temperature. done properly. catalyst.
liquid oil.
Orifice of the sparger Over time Fine particles of Change the orifice and
damage. catalyst will enter in clean the sparger.
the sparger and chock
the sparger.
High heat capacity to provide good temperature
control.
Potentially high reaction rate per unit volume of
reactor if the catalyst is highly active.
Easy heat recovery.
Adaptability to either batch or flow processing.
The catalyst may readily be removed and replaced
if its working life is relatively short.
Because of high intraparticle diffusion rate, small
particles can be used.
Generation of fine particles by abrasion of the
catalyst.
Catalyst removal by filtration may provoke problems
with possible plugging difficulties on filters, further
time of operation, and the costs of filtering systems
may be a substantial portion of the capital
investment.
Higher catalyst consumption than that of fixed - bed
reactors.
Back mixed flow and the volume of the reactor are
not fully utilized.
Stack gas scrubbing with lime or magnesia.
Waste water treatment.
Ethylene oxychlorination.
Oxidation of toluene to benzoic acid.
Ethylene oxidation to acetaldehyde.
Olefin polymerization using catalyst suspension.
Fatty oil hydrogenation with catalytic
suspension.
On January 11, 2006, an
explosion and fire
occurred at the City of
Daytona Beach, Bethune
Point WWTP in Daytona
Beach, Florida. Two
employees died and one
was severely burned
after.
a worker using a cutting torch accidentally
ignited vapors coming from the methanol
storage tank vent.
An explosion inside the tank followed,

causing the attached piping to fail and
release about 3,000 gallons of methanol,
which burned.
Gandhi, B.; Prakash, A.; Bergougnou, M. A.
Hydrodynamic Behavior of Slurry Bubble Column at
High Solids Concentrations. Powder Technol. 1999, 103,
80.
Sherwin, M. B.; Frank, M. C. Make Methanol by Three
Phase Reaction. Hydrocarbon Process. 1976, 55, 122.
BAHA E. ABULNAGA, P.E. Slurry systems handbook.
1990
Deckwer, W.-D.; Bubble Column Reactors; Wiley, 1985.
Shimizu K, Takada S, Minekawa K, Kawase Y.
Phenomenological model for bubble column reactors:
prediction of gas holdups and volumetric mass transfer
coefficients. Chem Eng J 2000;78:21–8.
Q1: What is trickle bed reactor?
A1: Trickle-bed reactors is most widely used type of three-phase reactors.

The gas and liquid co-currently flow downward over a fixed bed of catalyst
particles. Concurrent down-flow of gas and liquid over a fixed-bed of
catalyst. Liquid trickles down, while gas phase is continuous
In a trickle-bed, various flow regimes are distinguished, depending on gas
and liquid flow rates, fluid properties and packing characteristics.
Approximate dimensions of commercial trickle-bed reactors are a height of
10 m and a diameter of 2 m.
Q2: What is fluidised bed reactor?
A2: A fluidized bed reactor (FBR) is a type of reactor device that can be
used to carry out a variety of multiphase chemical reactions. In this type of
reactor, a fluid (gas or liquid) is passed through a granular solid material
(usually a catalyst possibly shaped as tiny spheres) at high
enough velocities to suspend the solid and cause it to behave as though it
were a fluid. This process, known as fluidization, imparts many important
advantages to the FBR. As a result, the fluidized bed reactor is now used in
many industrial applications
Q3: What are the advantages of fluidised bed reactor?
A3: Advantages of fluidised bed reactor are

• The smooth, liquid-like flow of particles allows continuous
automatically controlled operations with ease of handling.
• The rapid mixing of solids leads to nearly isothermal conditions
throughout the reactor, hence the operation can be controlled simply
and reliably.
• It is suited to large-scale operations.
Q4: What are the disadvantages of fluidised bed reactor?
A4: Disadvantages of fluidised bed reactor are

• The difficult-to-describe flow of gas, with its large deviation from plug
flow and the bypassing of solids by bubbles, represents an inefficient
contacting system.
• The rapid mixing of solids in the bed leads to non-uniform residence
times of solids in the reactor.
• Friable solids are pulverized and entrained by the gas.
Erosion of pipes and vessels from abrasion by particles
Q5: What are the different types of fluidised bed reactor?

A5: There are different type of FBR such as Fix fluidised bed
reactor.circulating fluidised bed reactor.

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AGH University

Department of Energy nad Fuels

1.1 Goal of this course

1.2 The phenomenon of ﬂuidization

Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of ﬂuidization

Figure 1.2: Fluidization type depending on gas velocity

Figure 1.3: Pressure drop vs. gas velocity.

1.3 Discussion points

1. Deﬁnition of ﬂuidization phenomenon.

3. Circulating ﬂuid bed characteristics.

4. Liquidlike features of ﬂuid beds

5. Advantages and disadvantages of ﬂuidized beds.

6. Heat transport phenomenon in ﬂuidized bed.

7. Drying process in ﬂuid bed - basic process conﬁguration.

8. Catalytic cracking in ﬂuid bed.

9. Fluid bed boilers for energy generation.

10. Fluid bed pyrolysis and gasiﬁcation.

2.1 Characterization of particles

2.2 Particle size distribution

Figure 2.1: Diﬀerence between P (left) and p (right)

2.3 Fluidization velocities

2.3.1 Pressure drop

where μ is gas viscosity, dp is solid diameter, ρg is gas density, u0 is superﬁcial gas

2.3.2 Minimum ﬂuidizing velocity

ΔPbed At = At Lmf (1 − mf )[(ρs − ρg )g] (2.8)

1.75 150(1 − mf )

Rep,mf = (33.72 + 0.0494Ar)1/2 − 33.7 (2.10)

2.3.3 Terminal ﬂuidization velocity

To avoid numerical calculations of equation (2.13) some simpliﬁcation can be used,

An example of minimum ﬂuidization velocity and terminal velocity as a function of

2.4 Gas distributor design

1. Calculate pressure drop across the distributor (??):

Δpd = (0.2 ÷ 0.4)Δpb (2.17)

where Δpb can be calculated form (2.5) or (2.8).

Ret 100 300 500 1000 2000 > 3000

3. Calculate gas velocity through the oriﬁce

2.5 Discussion and problem solving

1. Dimensionless numbers - deﬁne Archimedes and Reynolds number.

4. Prove that in steady state condition equation

5. Calculate mean diameter for the system of particles presented below

7. Design gas distributor for the given system.

8. Describe Geldart’s powder classiﬁcation.

Bubbling ﬂuidized bed

3.1 Bubbles in ﬂuidized bed

3.1.1 Bubble formation

The following calculations are presented in CGS unit system!

db (h) = 0.853[1 + 0.272(U0 − Umf )]0.333 (1 + 0.0684h)1.21 (3.4)

Finally we can calculate the velocity of a single bubble ﬂowing upward:

Ubr (h) = 0.711[g ∗ db (h)]0.5 (3.5)

where db (h) is bubble velocity calculated according to Werther.

3.2 Bubbling ﬂuidization

Figure 3.2: Schematic bubble in bubbling bed

3.2.1 Kuni-Levenspiel model

Kuni-Levenspiel model (later simply called K-L) is based on following assumptions:

1. All bubbles are of the same size.

2. The solids forming emulsion phase ﬂow downward.

Fig. 3.3 shows the KL model with its assumptions.

Figure 3.3: K-L bed model

1. Calculate bubbles velocity based on single bubble velocity (3.5: