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MARSAME Appendix D

D. INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

D.1 Introduction

This appendix provides information on various field and laboratory equipment used to measure
radiation levels and radioactive material concentrations. The descriptions provide information
pertaining to the general types of available radiation detectors and the ways in which those
detectors are utilized for various circumstances. Similar information may be referenced from
MARSSIM Appendix H, “Description of Field Survey and Laboratory Analysis Equipment”
(MARSSIM 2002), and NUREG-1761 Appendix B, “Advanced/Specialized Information” (NRC
2002). The information in this appendix is specifically designed to assist the user in selecting the
appropriate radiological instrumentation and measurement technique during the implementation
phase of the data life cycle (Chapter 5).

The following topics will be discussed for each instrumentation and measurement technique
combination:

• Instruments – A description of the equipment and the typical detection instrumentation it

employs;
• Temporal Issues – A synopsis of time constraints that may be encountered through use of
the measurement technique;
• Spatial Issues – Limitations associated with the size and portability of the instrumentation as
well as general difficulties that may arise pertaining to source-to-detector geometry;
• Radiation Types – Applicability of the measurement technique for different types of
ionizing radiation;
• Range – The associated energy ranges for the applicable types of ionizing radiation;
• Scale – Typical sizes for the M&E applicable to the measurement technique; and
• Ruggedness – A summary of the durability of the instrumentation (note that this is
frequently limited by the detector employed by the instrumentation; e.g., an instrument
utilizing a plastic scintillator is inherently more durable than an instrument utilizing a sodium
iodide crystal); suitable temperature ranges for proper operation of the instrumentation and
measurement technique have been provided where applicable.

D.2 General Detection Instrumentation

This section summarizes the most common detector types used for the detection of ionizing
radiation in the field. This will include many of the detector types incorporated into the
measurement methods that are described in later sections of this chapter.

D.2.1 Gas-Filled Detectors

Gas-filled detectors are the most commonly used radiation detectors and include gas- ionization
chamber detectors, gas-flow proportional detectors, and Geiger-Muller (GM) detectors. These
detectors can be designed to detect alpha, beta, photon, and neutron radiation. They generally
consist of a wire passing through the center of a gas-filled chamber with metal walls, which can
be penetrated by photons and high-energy beta particles. Some chambers are fitted with Mylar

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windows to allow penetration by alpha and low-energy beta radiation. A voltage source is
connected to the detector with the positive terminal connected to the wire and the negative
terminal connected to the chamber casing to generate an electric field, with the wire serving as
the anode, and the chamber casing serving as the cathode. Radiation ionizes the gas as it enters
the chamber, creating free electrons and positively charged ions. The number of electrons and
positively charged ions created is related to the properties of the incident radiation type (alpha
particles produce many ion pairs in a short distance, beta particles produce fewer ion pairs due to
their smaller size, and photons produce relatively few ion pairs as they are uncharged and
interact with the gas significantly less than alpha and beta radiation). The anode attracts the free
electrons while the cathode attracts the positively charged ions. The reactions among these ions
and free electrons with either the anode or cathode produce disruptions in the electric field. The
voltage applied to the chamber can be separated into different voltage ranges that distinguish the
types of gas-filled detectors described below. The different types of gas-filled detectors are
described in ascending order of applied voltage.

D.2.1.1 Ionization Chamber Detectors

Ionization chamber detectors consist of a gas-filled chamber operated at the lowest voltage range
of all gas-filled detectors. 1 Ionization detectors utilize enough voltage to provide the ions with
sufficient velocity to reach the anode or cathode. The signal pulse heights produced in ionization
chamber detectors is small and can be discerned by the external circuit to differentiate among
different types of radiation. These detectors provide true measurement data of energy deposited
proportional to the charge produced in air, unlike gas-flow proportional and GM detectors which
are detection devices. These detectors generally are designed to collect cumulative beta and
photon radiation without amplification and many have a beta shield to help distinguish among
these radiation types. These properties make ionization detectors excellent choices for measuring
exposure rates from photon emission radiation in roentgens. These detectors can be deployed for
an established period of time to collect data in a passive manner for disposition surveys.
Ionization chamber detectors may assist in collecting measurements in inaccessible areas due to
their availability in small sizes.

Another form of the ionization chamber detector is the pressurized ion chamber (PIC). As with
other ionization chamber detectors, the PIC may be applied for M&E disposition surveys when a
exposure-based action level is used. The added benefit of using PICs is that they can provide
more accurate dose measurements because they compensate for the various levels of photon
energies as opposed to other exposure rate meters (e.g., micro-rem meter), which are calibrated
to a 137Cs source. PICs can be used to cross-calibrate other exposure rate detectors applicable for
surveying M&E, allowing the user to compensate for different energy levels and reduce or
eliminate the uncertainty of underestimating or overestimating the exposure rate measurements.

D.2.1.2 Gas-Flow Proportional Detectors

The voltage applied in gas-flow proportional detectors is the next range higher than ionization
chamber detectors, and is sufficient to create ions with enough kinetic energy to create new ion

1
At voltages below the ionization chamber voltage range, ions will recombine before they can reach either the
cathode or anode and do not produce a discernable disruption to the electric field.

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pairs, called secondary ions. The quantity of secondary ions increases proportionally with the
applied voltage, in what is known as the gas amplification factor. The signal pulse heights
produced can be discerned by the external circuit to differentiate among different types of
radiation. Gas-flow proportional detectors generally are used to detect alpha and beta radiation.
Systems also detect photon radiation, but the detection efficiency for photon emissions is
considerably lower than the relative efficiencies for alpha and beta activity. Physical probe areas
for these types of detectors vary in size from approximately 100 cm2 up to 600 cm2. The detector
cavity in these instruments is filled with P-10 gas which is an argon-methane mixture (90%
argon and 10% methane). Ionizing radiation enters this gas-filled cavity through an aluminized
Mylar window. Additional Mylar shielding may be used to block alpha radiation; a lower voltage
setting may be used to detect pure alpha activity (NRC 1998b).

D.2.1.3 Geiger-Mueller Detectors

GM detectors operate in the voltage range above the proportional range and the limited
proportional range. 2 This range is characterized by extensive gas amplification that results in
what is referred to as an “avalanche” of ion and electron production. This mass production of
electrons spreads throughout the entire chamber, which precludes the ability to distinguish
among different kinds of radiation because all of the signals produced are the same size. GM
detectors are most commonly used for the detection of beta activity, though they may also detect
both alpha and photon radiation. GM detectors have relatively short response and dead times and
are sensitive enough to broad detectable energy ranges for alpha, beta, photon, and neutron
emissions (though they cannot distinguish which type of radiation produces input signals) to
allow them to be used for surveying M&E with minimal process knowledge. 3

GM detectors are commonly divided into three classes: “pancake”, “end-window”, and “side-
wall” detectors. GM pancake detectors (commonly referred to as “friskers”) have wide diameter,
thin mica windows (approximately 15 cm2 window area) that are large enough to allow them to
be used to survey many types of M&E. Although GM pancake detectors are referenced beta and
gamma detectors, the user should consider that their beta detection efficiency far exceeds their
gamma detection efficiency. The end-window detector uses a smaller, thin mica window and is
designed to allow beta and most alpha particles to enter the detector unimpeded for concurrent
alpha and beta detection. The side-wall detector is designed to discriminate between beta and
gamma radiation, and features a door that can be slid or rotated closed to shield the detector from
beta emissions for the sole detection of photons. These detectors require calibration to detect for
beta and gamma radiation separately. Energy-compensated GM detectors may also be cross-
calibrated for assessment of exposure rates.

2
The limited proportional range produces secondary ion pairs but does not produce reactions helpful for radiation
detection, because the gas amplification factor is no longer constant.
3
GM detectors may be designed and calibrated to detect alpha, beta, photon, and neutron radiation, though they are
much better-suited for the detection of charged particles (i.e., alpha and beta particles) than neutral particles (i.e.,
photons and neutrons).

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D.2.2 Scintillation Detectors

Scintillation detectors (sometimes referred to as “scintillators”) consist of scintillation media that

emits a light “output” called a scintillation pulse when it interacts with ionizing radiation.
Scintillators emit low-energy photons (usually in the visible light range) when struck by high-
energy charged particles; interactions with external photons cause scintillators to emit charged
particles internally, which in turn interact with the crystal to emit low-energy photons. In either
case, the visible light emitted (i.e., the low-energy photons) are converted into electrical signals
by photomultiplier tubes and recorded by a digital readout device. The amount of light emitted is
generally proportional to the amount of energy deposited, allowing for energy discrimination and
quantification of source radionuclides in some applications.

D.2.2.1 Zinc Sulfide Scintillation Detectors

Zinc sulfide detector crystals are only available as a polycrystalline powder that are arranged in a
thin layer of silver-activated zinc sulfide (ZnS(Ag)) as a coating or suspended within a layer of
plastic scintillation material. The use of these thin layers makes them inherently dispositioned for
the detection of high linear energy transfer (LET) radiation (radiation associated with alpha
particles or other heavy ions). These detectors use an aluminized Mylar window to prevent
ambient light from activating the photomultiplier tube (Knoll 1999). The light pulses produced
by the scintillation crystals are amplified by a photomultiplier tube, converted to electrical
signals, and counted on a digital scaler/ratemeter. Low LET radiations (particularly beta
emissions) are detected at much lower detection efficiencies than alpha emissions and pulse
characteristics may be used to discriminate beta detections from alpha detections.

D.2.2.2 Sodium Iodide Scintillation Detectors

Sodium iodide detectors are well-suited for detection of photon radiation. Energy-compensated
sodium iodide detectors may also be cross-calibrated for assessment of exposure rates. Unlike
ZnS(Ag), sodium iodide crystals can be grown relatively large and machined into varying shapes
and sizes. Sodium iodide crystals are activated with trace amounts of thallium (hence the
abbreviation NaI(Tl)), the key ingredient to the crystal’s excellent light yield (Knoll, 1999).
These instruments most often have upper- and lower-energy discriminator circuits and when
used correctly as a single-channel analyzer, can provide information on the photon energy and
identify the source radionuclides. Sodium iodide detectors can be used with handheld
instruments or large stationary radiation monitors.

D.2.2.3 Cesium Iodide Scintillation Detectors

Cesium iodide detectors generally are similar to sodium iodide detectors. Like NaI(Tl), cesium
iodide may be activated with thallium (CsI(Tl)) or sodium (CsI(Na)). Cesium iodide is more
resistant to shock and vibration damage than NaI, and when cut into thin sheets it features
malleable properties allowing it to be bent into various shapes. CsI(Tl) has variable decay times
for various exciting particles, allowing it to help differentiate among different types of ionizing
radiation. A disadvantage of CsI scintillation detectors is due to the fact that the scintillation
emission wavelengths for CsI are longer than those produced by sodium iodide crystals; because

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almost all photomultiplier tubes are designed for NaI, there are optical incompatibilities that
result in decreased intrinsic efficiencies for CsI detectors. Additionally, CsI scintillation
detectors feature relatively long response and decay times for luminescent states in response to
ionizing radiation (Knoll 1999).

D.2.2.4 Plastic Scintillation Detectors

Plastic scintillators are composed of organic scintillation material that is dissolved in a solvent
and subsequently hardened into a solid plastic. Modifications to the material and specific
packaging allow plastic scintillators to be used for detecting alpha, beta, photon, or neutron
radiation. While plastic scintillators lack the energy resolution of sodium iodide and some other
gamma scintillation detector types, their relatively low cost and ease of manufacturing into
almost any desired shape and size enables them to offer versatile solutions to atypical radiation
detection needs (Knoll 1999).

D.2.3 Solid State Detectors

Solid state detection is based on ionization reactions within detector crystals composed of an
electron-rich (n-type or electron conductor) sector and an electron-deficient (p-type or hole
conductor) sector. Reverse-bias voltage is applied to the detector crystal; forming a central
region absent of free charge (this is termed the depleted region). When a particle enters this
region, it interacts with the crystal structure to form hole-electron pairs. These holes and
electrons are swept out of the depletion region to the positive and negative electrodes by the
electric field, and the magnitude of the resultant pulse in the external circuit is directly
proportional to the energy lost by the ionizing radiation in the depleted region.

Solid state detection systems typically employ silicon or germanium crystals 4 and utilize
semiconductor technology (i.e., a substance whose electrical conductivity falls between that of a
metal and that of an insulator, and whose conductivity increases with decreasing temperature and
with the presence of impurities). Semiconductor detectors are cooled to extreme temperatures to
utilize the crystal material’s insulating properties to prevent thermal generation of noise. The use
of semiconductor technology can achieve energy resolutions, spatial resolutions, and signal-to-
noise ratios superior to those of scintillation detection systems.

D.3 Counting Electronics

Instrumentation requires a device to accumulate and record the input signals from the detector
over a fixed period of time. These devices are usually electronic, and utilize scalers or rate-
meters to display results representing the number of interaction events (between the detector and
radionuclide emissions) within a period of time (e.g., counts per minute). A scaler represents the
total number of interactions within a fixed period of time, while a rate-meter provides
information that varies based on a short-term average of the rate of interactions.

4
Solid state detection systems may also utilize crystals composed of sodium iodide, cesium iodide, or cadmium zinc
telluride in non-semiconductor applications.

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Scalers represent the simpler of these two counting approaches, because they record a single
count each time an input signal is received from the detector. Scaling circuits typically are
designed with scalers to allow the input signals to be cut by factors of 10, 100, or 1,000 to allow
the input signals to be counted directly by electromechanical registers when counting areas with
elevated radioactivity. Scalers generally are used when taking in situ measurements and are used
to determine average activities.

Contemporary rate-meters utilize analog-to-digital converters to sample the pulse amplitude of

the input signal received from the detector and convert it to a series of digital values. These
digital values may then be manipulated using digital filters (or shapers) to average or “smooth”
the data displayed. The counting-averaging technique used by rate-meters may be more helpful
than scalers in identifying elevated activity. When using scalers in performing scanning surveys
to locate areas of elevated activity, small areas of elevated activity may appear as very quick
“blips” that are difficult to discern, while rate-meters continue to display heightened count rates
once the detector has moved past the elevated activity, and display “ramped up” count rates
immediately preceding the elevated activity as well. Rate-meters have the inherent limitation in
that the use of their counting electronics varies the signals displayed by the meter because they
represent a short-term average of the event rate. It is conceivable that very small areas of
elevated activity (e.g., particle) might have their true activity concentrations “diluted” by the
averaging of rate-meter counting electronics.

D.4 Hand-Held Instruments

This section discusses hand-held instruments, which may be used for in situ measurements or
scanning surveys.

D.4.1 Instruments

In situ measurements with hand-held instruments typically are conducted using the detector types
described in Section D.2. These typically are composed of a detection probe (utilizing a single
detector) and an electronic instrument to provide power to the detector and to interpret data from
the detector to provide a measurement display.

The most common types of hand-held detector probes are GM detectors, ZnS(Ag) alpha/beta
scintillation detectors, and NaI(Tl) photon scintillation detectors. There are instances of gas-flow
proportional detectors as hand-held instruments, though these are not as common because these
detectors operate using a continuous flow of P-10 gas, and the accessories associated with the
gas (e.g., compressed gas cylinders, gauges, tubing) make them less portable for use in the field.

D.4.2 Temporal Issues

Hand-held instruments generally have short, simple equipment set-ups requiring minimal time,
often less than ten minutes. In situ measurement count times typically range from 30 seconds to
two minutes. Longer count times may be utilized to increase resolution and provide lower
minimum detectable limits. Typical scanning speeds are approximately 2.5 centimeters per
second. Slower scanning speeds will aid in providing lower minimum detectable concentrations.

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D.4.3 Spatial Issues

Detectors of hand-held instruments typically are small and portable, having little trouble fitting
into and measuring most M&E. Spatial limitations are usually based on the physical size of the
probe itself. The user must be wary of curved or irregular surfaces of M&E being surveyed.
Detector probes generally have flat faces and incongruities between the face of the detector and
the M&E being surveyed have an associated uncertainty. ZnS scintillation and gas-flow
proportional detectors are known to have variations in efficiency of up to 10% across the face of
the detector. Therefore, the calibration source used should have an area at least the size of the
active probe area.

D.4.4 Radiation Types

Assortments of hand-held instruments are available for the detection of alpha, beta, photon, and
neutron radiations. Table D.1 illustrates the potential applications for the most common types of
hand-held instruments.

Table D.1 Potential Applications for Common Hand-Held Instruments

Detectable Energy Range
Low End High End
Alpha Beta Photon Neutron Boundary Boundary
Ionization chamber detectors NA FAIR GOOD NA 40-60 keV 1.3-3 MeV
Gas-flow proportional
GOOD GOOD POOR POOR 5-50 keV 8-9 MeV
detectors
Geiger-Muller detectors FAIR GOOD POOR POOR 30-60 keV 1-2 MeV
ZnS(Ag) scintillation
GOOD POOR NA NA 30-50 keV 8-9 MeV
detectors
NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors NA POOR GOOD NA 40-60 keV 1.3-3 MeV
NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors
NA FAIR GOOD NA 10 keV 60-200 keV
(thin detector, thin window)
CsI(Tl) scintillation detectors NA POOR GOOD NA 40-60 keV 1.3-3 MeV
Plastic scintillation detectors NA FAIR GOOD NA 40-60 keV 1.3-3 MeV
BF3 proportional detectors 5 NA NA NA GOOD 0.025 eV 100 MeV
3
He proportional detectors5 NA NA POOR GOOD 0.025 eV 100 MeV
Notes:
GOOD The instrument is well-suited for detecting this type of radiation.
FAIR The instrument can adequately detect this type of radiation.
POOR The instrument may be poorly suited for detecting this type of radiation.
NA The instrument cannot detect this type of radiation.

5
The use of moderators enables the detection of high-energy fast neutrons. Either BF3 or 3He gas proportional
detectors may be used for the detection of fast neutrons, but 3He are much more efficient in performing this function.
BF3 detectors discriminate against gamma radiation more effectively than 3He detectors.

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D.4.5 Range

The ranges of detectable energy using hand-held instruments are dependent upon the type of
instrument selected and type of radiation. Some typical detectable energy ranges for common
hand-held instruments are listed above in Table D.1. More detailed information pertaining to the
ranges of detectable energy using hand-held instruments are available in the European
Commission for Nuclear Safety and the Environment Report 17624 (EC 1998).

D.4.6 Scale

There is no definitive limit to the size of an object to be surveyed using hand-held instruments.
Hand-held instruments may generally be used to survey M&E of any size; constraints are only
placed by the practical sizing of M&E related to the sensitive area of the probe. Limitations may
also be derived from the physical size of the detector probes used for surveying. The largest
hand-held detector probes feature effective detection surface areas of approximately 175 to 200
cm2. Detection probes larger than this may be of limited use with hand-held instruments.

D.4.7 Ruggedness

All varieties of hand-held instruments discussed here typically are calibrated for use in
temperatures with lower ranges from -30 ° to -20 °C and upper ranges from 50 ° to 60 °C. The
durability of a hand-held instrument depends largely upon the detection media (crystals, such as
sodium iodide and germanium crystals are fragile and vulnerable to mechanical and thermal
shock) and the presence of a Mylar (or similar material) window:

• Ionization chamber detectors – Ionization chamber detectors are susceptible to physical

damage and may provide inaccurate data (including false positives) if exposed to
mechanical shock.
• Gas-flow proportional detectors – Detection gas used with gas-flow proportional detectors
may leak from seals such that these detectors are usually operated in the continuous gas flow
mode; the use of flow meter gauges to continuously monitor the gas flow rate is
recommended along with frequent quality control checks to ensure the detector still meets
the required sensitivity; gas-flow proportional detectors may also use fragile Mylar windows
to contain the detection gases, which renders the detectors vulnerable to puncturing and
mechanical shock.
• Geiger-Muller detectors – GM tubes typically use fragile Mylar windows to contain the
detection gases; the presence of a Mylar window renders the detector vulnerable to
puncturing and mechanical shock.
• ZnS(Ag) scintillation detectors – Zinc sulfide is utilized as thin-layer polycrystalline
powder in detectors and are noted for being vulnerable to mechanical shock; zinc sulfide
detectors may use fragile Mylar windows, in which case the detector is vulnerable to
puncturing and mechanical shock.
• NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors – Sodium iodide crystals are relatively fragile and can be
damaged through mechanical shock; sodium iodide is also highly hydroscopic such that the
crystals must remain environmentally sealed within the detector housing.

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• Plastic Scintillation Detectors – Plastic scintillators typically are robust and resistant to
damage from mechanical and thermal shock.

D.5 Volumetric Counters (Drum, Box, Barrel, Four-Pi Counters)

The term “box counter” is a generic description for a radiation measurement system that
typically involves large area, four-pi (4-π) radiation detectors and includes the following industry
nomenclature: tool counters, active waste monitors, surface activity measurement systems, and
bag/barrel/drum monitors. Box counting systems are most frequently used for conducting in situ
surveys of M&E that is utilized in radiologically controlled areas. These devices are best-suited
for performing gross activity screening measurements on Class 2 and Class 3 M&E (NRC 2002).
Typical items to be surveyed using box counters are hand tools, small pieces of debris, bags of
trash, and waste barrels. Larger variations of box counting systems can count objects up to a few
cubic meters in size. Because of potential problems with self-shielding, materials may need to be
opened or partially disassembled prior to placing into a box counting system.

D.5.1 Instruments

Box counting systems typically consist of a counting chamber, an array of detectors configured
to provide a 4-π counting geometry, and microprocessor-controlled electronics that allow
programming of system parameters and data-logging. Systems typically survey materials for
photon radiation and usually incorporate a shielded counting chamber and scintillation detectors
(plastic scintillators or sodium iodide scintillation detectors). These systems most commonly
utilize four or six detectors, which are situated on the top, bottom, and sides of the shielded
counting chamber (Figure D.1). Some systems monitor M&E for beta activity, using a basic
design similar to photon radiation detection systems, but utilizing gas-flow proportional
counters. In rare cases, neutron detection
has been used for criticality controls and
counter-proliferation screening.

Box counting systems for alpha activity

feature a substantial departure in design
from beta/gamma detection systems.
Alpha activity systems do not require
heavy shielding to filter out ambient
sources of radiation. These devices
utilize air filters to remove dust and
particulates from air introduced into
counting chambers that incorporate
airtight seals. Filtered air introduced into
the counting chamber interacts with any
surface alpha activity associated with the
M&E.

Each alpha interaction with a surrounding

air molecule produces an ion pair. These Figure D-1 Example Volumetric Counter (Thermo 2005)

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Appendix D MARSAME

ion pairs are produced in proportion to the alpha activity per unit path length. This air (i.e., the
ion pairs in the air) is then counted using an ion detector for quantification of the specific
activity. The specific activity of the air in the counting chamber provides a total surface activity
quantification for the M&E (BIL 2005).

D.5.2 Temporal Issues

Typically, box counting systems require approximately one to 100 seconds to conduct a
measurement (Thermo 2005). The count times are dependent on a number of factors to include
required measurement sensitivity and background count rates with accompanying subtraction
algorithms. The count times for box counting typically are considered relatively short for most
disposition surveys.

D.5.3 Spatial Issues

Because box counters typically average activity over the volume or mass of the M&E, the spatial
distribution of radioactivity may be a significant limitation on the use of this measurement
technique. The design of box counting systems is not suited to the identification of localized
elevated areas, and therefore may not be the ideal choice when the disposition criteria is not
based on average or total activity.

Some systems incorporate a turntable inside the counting chamber to improve measurement of
difficult-to-measure areas or for heterogeneously distributed radioactivity. When practical,
performing counts on objects in two different orientations (i.e., by rotating the M&E 90 or 180
degrees and performing a subsequent count) will yield more thorough and defensible data.
Proper use of box counters includes segregating the M&E to be surveyed and promoting accurate
measurements through uniform placement of items to be surveyed in the counting chamber. For
example, a single wrench placed on its side in a box counter has different geometric implications
from a tool of similar size standing up inside the counting chamber. Counting jigs for sources
and M&E to be surveyed are frequently employed to facilitate consistent, ideal counting
positions between the M&E and the counting chamber detector array.

D.5.4 Radiation Types

Box counting systems are intrinsically best-suited for the detection of moderate- to high- energy
photon radiation. As described in Section D.5.1, specific systems may be designed for the
detection of low-energy photon, beta, alpha, and in some cases neutron radiation. For proper
calibration and utilization of box counters, it is often necessary to establish the radiation types
and anticipated energy ranges prior to measurement.

D.5.5 Range

Photon radiation can typically be measured within a detectable energy range of 40 to 60 keV up
to 1.3 to 3 MeV. For example, typical box counters positioned at radiological control area exit
points are configured to alarm at a set point of 5,000 dpm total activity. The precise count time is
adjusted automatically by setting the predetermined count rate to limit the error. Measurement

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times will range from 5 to 45 seconds in order to complete counts of this kind, depending on
current background conditions (Thermo 2005). Lower detection capabilities are achievable by
increasing count times or incorporating background reduction methodologies.

D.5.6 Scale

Size limitations pertaining to the M&E to be surveyed are inherently linked to the physical size
of the counting chamber. Smaller box counting systems have a counting chamber of less than
0.028 cubic meters (approximately one cubic foot) and are often used for tools and other
frequently used small items. The maximum size of box counters is typically driven by the
logistics of managing the M&E to be measured, and this volume is commonly limited to a 55-
gallon waste drum. Some box counting systems allow counts to be performed on oversized items
protruding from the counting chamber with the door open.

D.5.7 Ruggedness

Many volumetric counter models feature stainless steel construction with plastic scintillation
detectors and windowless designs, which translates to a rugged instrument that is resistant to
mechanical shock.

D.6 Conveyorized Survey Monitoring Systems

Conveyorized survey monitoring systems automate the routine scanning of M&E. Conveyorized
survey monitoring systems have been designed to measure materials such as soil, clothing
(laundry monitors), copper chop (small pieces of copper), rubble, and debris. Systems range
from small monitoring systems comprised of a single belt that passes materials through a
detector array, to elaborate multi-belt systems capable of measuring and segregating material
while removing extraneously large items. The latter type comprises systems that are known as
segmented gate systems. These automated scanning systems segregate materials by activity by
directing material that exceeds an established activity level onto a separate conveyor. Simpler
conveyorized survey monitoring systems typically feature an alarm/shut-down feature that halts
the conveyor motor and allows for manual removal of materials that have exceeded the
established activity level.

D.6.1 Instruments

A typical conveyorized survey monitoring system consists of a motorized conveyor belt that
passes materials through an array of detectors, supporting measurement electronics, and an
automated data-logging system (Figure D.2). Systems typically survey materials for photon
radiation and usually incorporate scintillation detectors (plastic scintillators or sodium iodide
scintillation detectors) or high-purity germanium detectors. Scintillation detector arrays are often
chosen for gross gamma activity screening. Conveyorized survey monitoring systems designed
to detect radionuclide mixtures with a high degree of process knowledge work best using plastic
scintillators, while systems categorizing material mixtures where the radionuclide concentrations
are variable are better-suited to the use of sodium iodide scintillation detectors. Conveyorized
survey monitoring systems designed for material mixtures where the radionuclide concentrations

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Appendix D MARSAME

are unknown may be suitable for more expensive and maintenance-intensive high-purity
germanium detector arrays, which will allow for quantitative measurement of complex photon
energy spectra. An alternative method for screening materials for different photon energy regions
of interest is to incorporate sodium iodide detector arrays with crystals of varying thickness to
target multiple photon energies. Systems may also be fitted with gas flow proportional counters
for the detection of alpha and beta emissions. Laundry conveyorized survey monitoring systems
typically are designed for the detection of alpha and beta radiation, as the nature of clothes
allows the survey media to be compressed, allowing the detector arrays to be close to or in
contact with the survey media.

Figure D-2 Example Conveyorized Survey Monitoring System (Laurus 2001)

D.6.2 Temporal Issues

Typically, conveyorized survey monitoring systems require approximately one to six seconds to
count a given field of detection (Novelec 2001a). Systems are designed to provide belt speeds
ranging from 0.75 meters up to 10 meters (2.5 to 33 feet) per minute to accommodate the
necessary response time for detection instrumentation (Thermo 2008; Eberline 2004). This yields
processing times of 15 to 45 metric tons (16 to 50 tons) of material per hour for soil or
construction demolition-type material conveyorized survey monitoring systems (NRC 2002).

D.6.3 Spatial Issues

The M&E that typically are surveyed by conveyorized survey monitoring systems may contain
difficult-to-measure areas. Most systems employ the detector arrays in a staggered, off-set
configuration, which allows the sensitive areas of the detectors to overlap with respect to the
direction of movement. This off-set configuration helps to eliminate blind spots (i.e., locations
where activity may be present but cannot be detected because the radiation cannot reach the
detectors). Some systems are designed specifically for materials of relatively small particles of
uniform size (e.g., soil), while others have been designed to accommodate heterogeneous
materials like rubble and debris.

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MARSAME Appendix D

The data logging system accepts the signal pulses from the detector systems and stores the pulse
data in counting scalers. The recorded values are continuously compared with pre-set alarm
values corresponding to the selected action level(s). The detectors incorporate integral amplifiers
which are routed to a PC containing multi-channel scaler hardware. The multi-channel scaler
hardware allows data to be collected in a series of short, discrete scaler channels known as “time
bins”. The count time for each time bin is selected as a function of the speed of the conveyor
belt. The time bin length is frequently set up to be half the length of “dwell time,” which is the
time the material aliquot to be surveyed spends within the detection field (Miller 2000).

The approach cited in the paragraph above ensures that activity present within the survey unit
will be in full view of the detector for one complete time bin. Data collection is optimized by
performing the measurement when the activity is concentrated (i.e., within an area of elevated
activity) as well as when the activity is approximately homogenously distributed within a given
material aliquot.

D.6.4 Radiation Types

Conveyorized survey monitoring systems generally are best-suited for the detection of photon
radiation. Specific systems may be tailored for the detection of beta emissions of moderate
energy and even alpha radiation by employing gas flow proportional counter detector arrays.

D.6.5 Range

Photon radiation can typically be measured with a detectable energy range from 50 keV up to 2
MeV. Conveyorized survey monitoring systems equipped to measure alpha and beta emissions
can typically measure from 100 keV up to 6 MeV.

D.6.6 Scale

Most conveyorized survey monitoring systems are designed for soils or laundry, both of which
are compressible media. Applicable sample/material heights range from 2 cm to 30 cm (Fuji
2008, Canberra 2008).

D.6.7 Ruggedness

Conveyorized survey monitoring systems have typical operating ranges from −20 °C to 50 °C.
Conveyorized survey monitoring systems are often constructed from steel and with plastic
scintillation detectors and windowless designs, which makes them generally resistant to damage
from extraneous pieces of debris during scanning. Mechanical shock is not a typical concern for
conveyorized survey monitoring systems because there is little need for moving these systems.
For this reason conveyorized survey monitoring systems are seldom transported from one
location to another.

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Appendix D MARSAME

D.7 In Situ Gamma Spectroscopy

In situ gamma spectroscopy (ISGS) systems combine the peak resolution capabilities of
laboratory methods with instrumentation that is portable and rugged enough to be used in field
conditions. These solid state systems can perform quantitative, multi-channel analysis of gamma-
emitting isotopes in both solid and liquid media over areas as large as 100 m2, enabling
spectrographic analysis of M&E that assists the user in identifying constituent radionuclides and
differentiating them from background radiation. ISGS system measurements can also provide
thorough coverage within broad survey areas, minimizing the risk of failing to detect isolated
areas of elevated radioactivity that could potentially be missed when collecting discrete samples.

D.7.1 Instruments

ISGS systems consist of a semiconductor detector, a cryostat, a multi-channel analyzer (MCA)

electronics package that provides amplification and analysis of the energy pulse heights, and a
computer system for data collection and analysis. Semiconductor detection systems typically
employ a cryostat and a Dewar filled with liquid nitrogen (−196 °C). The cryostat transmits the
cold temperature of the liquid nitrogen to the detector crystal, creating the extreme cold
environment necessary for correct operation of the high-resolution semiconductor diode. ISGS
systems may have electronic coolers as well.

ISGS systems use detectors referred to as N- and P-type detectors. N-type detectors contain
small amounts of elements with five electrons in their outer electron shell (e.g., phosphorus,
arsenic) within the germanium crystal (the inclusion of these elements within the germanium
crystal is called “doping”). These result in free, unbonded electrons in the crystalline structure,
providing a small negative current. P-type detectors utilize elements with less than four electrons
in their outer electron shell (e.g., lithium, boron, gallium) are also used in doping to create
electron holes, providing a small positive current. Use of these two varieties of doped germanium
crystals provide different detection properties described below in Section D.7.5.

D.7.2 Temporal Issues

Setup for ISGS semiconductor systems may require one full day. The systems often require one
hour to set up physically, six to eight hours for the semiconductor to reach the appropriate
temperature operating range after the addition of liquid nitrogen, and quality control
measurements may require another hour. 6 Count times using ISGS semiconductor systems tend
to be longer than those associated with simpler detector systems for conducting static
measurements, though this may be offset by enlarging the field-of-view. A measurement time of
several minutes is common, depending on the intensity of the targeted gamma energies and the
presence of attenuating materials.

Count times can be shortened by reducing the distance between the area being surveyed and the
detector to improve the gamma incidence efficiency or by using a larger detector. Each option
will ultimately help the detection system see more gamma radiation in a shorter time. Yet either

6
It is important not to move the apparatus prematurely, as failure to allow the ISGS system to cool and equilibrate to
its proper operating temperatures as may cause damage to the semiconductor detector.

NUREG-1575, Supp. 1 D-14 January 2009

MARSAME Appendix D

approach creates greater uncertainty associated with the source-to-detector geometry. A slight
placement error (e.g., a 0.5-cm placement error) will result in significantly higher quantification
error at a distance of one centimeter than at a distance of 10 centimeters. Additionally, this
technique for decreasing count times promotes an effect called cascade summing, a phenomena
affecting detection of gamma radiation from radionuclides that emit multiple gamma photons in
a single decay event (e.g., 60Co, which yields gamma particles of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV). If both
incident gammas deposit their energy in a relatively short period of time (i.e., when compared to
the detector response time and/or the resolving time for the associated electronics), limitations of
the detection system may prevent these individual photons from being distinguished (Knoll
1999).

D.7.3 Spatial Issues

ISGS semiconductor systems require calibration for their intended use. While ISGS
semiconductor systems can be calibrated using traditional prepared radioactive sources, some
ISGS systems have software that enables the user to calculate efficiencies by entering parameters
such as elemental composition, density, stand-off distance, and physical dimensions. Supplied
geometry templates assist in generating calibration curves that can be applied to multiple
collected spectra. The high resolution of these systems coupled with advanced electronic controls
for system parameters allows them to overcome issues related to source-to-detector geometry
and produce quantitative concentrations of multiple radionuclides in a variety of media (e.g.,
soil, water, air filters). Because ISGS systems integrate all radioactivity within their field-of-
view, lead shielding and collimation may be required to “focus” the field-of-view on a specified
target for some applications.

D.7.4 Radiation Types

ISGS systems can accurately identify and quantify only photon-emitting radionuclides.

D.7.5 Range

ISGS systems can identify and quantify low-energy gamma emitters (50 keV with P-type
detectors, 10 keV with N-type detectors) and high-energy gamma emitters (ISGS systems can be
configured to detect gamma emissions upwards of 2.0 MeV). Specially designed germanium
detectors that exhibit very little deterioration in resolution as a function of count rate use N-type
detectors or planar crystals with a very thin beryllium window for the measurement of photons in
the energy range 5 to 80 keV.

D.7.6 Scale

These systems therefore offer functional quantitative abilities to analyze small objects (e.g.,
samples) for radionuclides. They can also effectively detect radioactivity over areas as large as
100 m2 or more (Canberra 2005a). With the use of an appropriate Dewar, the detector may be
used in a vertical orientation to determine gamma isotope concentrations in the ground surface
and shallow subsurface.

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Appendix D MARSAME

D.7.7 Ruggedness

ISGS semiconductor systems are fragile, because the extremely low temperatures utilized by the
cryostat render portions of the system brittle and susceptible to damage if not handled with care.
Some ISGS systems are constructed of more rugged materials and their durability is comparable
to most hand-held instruments.

D.8 Hand-Held Radionuclide Identifiers

Hand-held radionuclide identifiers represent a relatively new addition to the radiation detection
market, merging the portability of hand-held instruments with some of the analytical capabilities
of ISGS systems. Hand-held radionuclide identifiers also feature data logging and storage
capabilities (including user-definable radionuclide libraries) and the ability to transfer data to
external devices. These devices are most commonly used for nuclear non-proliferation, where
immediate isotope identification is more critical than low-activity detection sensitivity. Design
parameters for hand-held radionuclide identifiers required by ANSI N42.34 (ANSI 2003) are
user-friendly controls and intuitive menu structuring for routine modes of operation, enabling
users without health physics backgrounds (e.g., emergency response personnel) to complete
basic exposure rate or radionuclide identification surveys. These units also feature restricted
“expert” survey modes of operation to collect activity concentration data for more advanced
applications, including disposition surveys.

D.8.1 Instruments

Hand-held radionuclide identifiers consist of two general types: integrated systems and modular
systems. The integrated systems have the detector and electronics contained in a single package;
modular systems separate the detector from the electronics. These spectrometers employ small
scintillators, typically NaI(Tl) or CsI(Tl), or room temperature solid semiconductors, such as
cadmium zinc telluride (CZT), linked to multi-channel analyzers and internal radionuclide
libraries to enable gamma-emitting radionuclide identification.

D.8.2 Temporal Issues

Hand-held radionuclide identifiers require minimal time to set up. 7 Depending upon the
conditions in which data is being collected (i.e., climatic, environmental, the presence of sources
of radiological interference), it may require seconds to several minutes for the unit to stabilize
the input signals from the field of radiation and properly identify the radionuclides.

D.8.3 Spatial Issues

Detectors of hand-held radionuclide identifiers typically are small and portable. Spatial
limitations are usually based on the physical size of the probe itself, and whether the probe is
coupled internally within the casing or externally via an extension cord.

7
The use of multi-point calibrations may add an estimated one to two hours to the time required for instrument set
up.

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MARSAME Appendix D

D.8.4 Radiation Types

Hand-held radionuclide identifiers are most commonly used for the detection of photon
radiation, although many devices have capabilities for detecting neutron and beta emissions (the
detection of neutron radiation requires a different probe from the photon radiation probe).

D.8.5 Range

Photon radiation can typically be measured within a detectable energy range of 10 to 30 keV up
to 2.5 to 3 MeV. Neutron radiation can typically be measured within a detectable energy range of
0.02 eV up to 100 MeV.

D.8.6 Scale

There is no definitive limit to the size of an object to be surveyed using hand-held radionuclide
identifiers. Hand-held radionuclide identifiers may generally be used to survey M&E of any size;
practical constraints are only imposed by the size of M&E related to the sensitive area of the
probe.

D.8.7 Ruggedness

All varieties of hand-held radionuclide identifiers discussed here typically are calibrated for use
in temperatures from −20 °C to 50 °C and feature seals or gaskets to prevent water ingress from
rain, condensing moisture, or high humidity. Most hand-held radionuclide identifiers have a
limited resistance to shock, though the durability of an instrument depends largely upon the
detection media (e.g., NaI(Tl) crystals are fragile and vulnerable to mechanical and thermal
shock).

D.9 Portal Monitors

Portal monitors screen access points to controlled areas, and are designed for detecting
radioactivity above background. These systems are used for interdiction-type surveys, and
generally do not provide radionuclide identification. Portal monitors are primarily designed to
monitor activity on vehicles.

Historically, portal monitors have been used to detect radioactive materials at entrance points to
scrap metal facilities and solid waste landfills, and radiological control area exit points within
nuclear facilities to screen for the inadvertent disposal of radionuclides. The proximity of other
items to be surveyed containing high concentrations of activity may influence the variability of
the instrument background, because portal monitors survey activity by detecting small variations
in ambient radiation (NRC 2002).

D.9.1 Instruments

Portal monitors can easily be arranged in various geometries that maximize their efficiencies.
Most national and international standards, for example ANSI 42.35 (ANSI 2004) require both

January 2009 D-17 NUREG-1575, Supp. 1

Appendix D MARSAME

gamma- and neutron-detecting capabilities, but gamma-only versions are available. Portal
monitors typically use large-area polyvinyl toluene scintillators (a form of plastic scintillators) to
detect photon radiation and 3He proportional tubes to detect neutrons. 8 Individual detectors may
be cylindrical or flat. The detectors are usually arranged to form a detection field between two
detectors, and items to be surveyed pass through the detection field (i.e., between the detectors)
as shown in Figure D.3.

The system usually consists of one

or more detector array(s), an
occupancy sensor, a control box, and
a monitoring PC. The control box
and monitoring PC store and analyze
alarm and occupancy data, store and
analyze all gamma and neutron
survey data, and may even send data
through an integrated internet
connection. The monitoring PC also
manages software that operates
multiple arrangements of detector
arrays as well as third party
instruments. For example, security
cameras can take high-resolution
images of objects that exceed a
Figure D-3 Example Portal Monitor (Canberra 2005b)
radiation screening level (Novelec
2001b).

D.9.2 Temporal Issues

Count or integration times are very short, typically just a few seconds (NRC 2002). Set-up time
in the field is variable, because temporary systems may require two hours to one half-day to set
up, while permanent systems may require one week to install. For vehicular portal monitor
systems, objects may typically pass through the field of detection at speeds of 8 to 9.5 kilometers
per hour (Canberra 2005b). Most systems use speed correction algorithms to minimize the
effects of variations in dwell time (i.e., the time a given area to be surveyed spends within the
detection field).

D.9.3 Spatial Issues

There are a large number of factors that affect portal monitor performance. The isotopic content
of a radioactive material can determine the ease of detection. For example, high-enriched
uranium (HEU) is easier to detect in a gamma portal than low-enriched uranium (LEU) or
natural uranium because of the larger gamma emission rate from 235U.

8
Neutron detectors use materials that detect thermal neutrons, which may be fast neutrons that are thermalized for
detection through the use of moderators.

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MARSAME Appendix D

The chemical composition of a material is also important; background levels of radioactivity

must also be considered. Neutron portals are an effective method for detecting plutonium in
areas with large gamma backgrounds. The surface area and size of the detectors and distance
between the detectors all affect the geometry and response of the system. In a large area system
set-up, the closer together the detector arrays are, the better the geometric efficiencies are going
to be. Finally, for each system there is a maximum passage speed through the portal that gives a
counting time necessary to meet the required detection sensitivity.

D.9.4 Radiation Types

Portal monitors typically detect gamma radiation and can also be equipped to detect neutron
radiation. Gamma portals often use integrated metal detectors to provide an indication of
suspicious metal containers that could be used to shield radioactive materials. If the gamma
radiation is not shielded adequately, the detector’s alarm will sound. Portal monitors can detect
radioactive material even if it is shielded with a material with a high atomic number, like lead.

D.9.5 Range

Photon radiation can typically be measured within a detectable energy range of 60 keV up to 2.6
MeV. Neutron radiation can typically be measured within a detectable energy range of 0.025 eV
up to 100 MeV. Required detection sensitivities for gamma and neutron sources are described in
ANSI 42.35, Table 3 (ANSI 2004). Portal monitors provide gross counts and cannot compute
quantitative measurements (e.g., activity per unit mass).

D.9.6 Scale

Most systems are designed to monitor items ranging in size from bicycles and other small
vehicles to tractor trailers, railroad cars, and even passenger airplanes (Canberra 2005b). The
width of the detection field (i.e., space between the detector arrays) can usually be modified.

D.9.7 Ruggedness

Portal monitors have typical operating ranges from −20 ° to 55 °C, and some systems may be
functional in temperatures as low as −40 °C according to ANSI 42.35 (ANSI 2004). Portal
monitors are usually designed with weatherproofing to withstand prolonged outdoor use and
exposure to the elements.

D.10 Sample with Laboratory Analysis

Laboratory analysis allows for more controlled conditions and more complex, less rugged
instruments to provide lower detections limits and greater delineation among radionuclides than
any measurement method that may be utilized in a field setting. For this reason, laboratory
analyses are often applied as quality assurance measures to validate sample data collected using
field equipment.

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Appendix D MARSAME

D.10.1 Instruments

This section provides a brief overview of instruments used for radiological analyses in a
laboratory setting. For additional detail on these instruments, please refer to the accompanying
section references in MARLAP.

D.10.1.1 Instruments for the Detection of Alpha Radiation

• Alpha Spectroscopy with Multi-Channel Analyzer – This system consists of an alpha

detector housed in an evacuated counting chamber, a bias supply, amplifier, analog-to-digital
converter, multi-channel analyzer, and computer. Samples are placed at a fixed distance from
the solid state partially implanted silica for analysis, and the multi-channel analyzer yields an
energy spectrum that can be used to both identify and quantify the radionuclides. The overall
properties of the instrumentation allow for excellent peak resolution, although this technique
often requires a complex chemical separation to obtain the best results.
• Gas-Flow Proportional Counter – The system consists of a gas-flow detector, supporting
electronics, and an optional guard detector for reducing the background count rate. A thin
window can be placed between the gas-flow detector and sample to protect the detector from
contamination, or the sample can be placed directly into the detector. This system does not
typically provide data useful for identifying radionuclides unless it is preceded by nuclide-
specific chemical separations.
• Liquid Scintillation Spectrometry – Typically, samples will be subjected to chemical
separations and the resulting materials placed in a vial with a scintillation cocktail. When the
alpha particle energy is absorbed by the cocktail, light pulses are emitted, which are detected
by photomultiplier tubes. One pulse of light is emitted for each alpha particle absorbed. The
intensity of light emitted is related to the energy of the alpha. This system can provide data
useful for identifying radionuclides if the system is coupled to a multi-channel analyzer.
• Low-Resolution Alpha Spectrometry – The system consists of a small sample chamber,
mechanical pump, two-inch diameter silicon detector, multi-channel analyzer, readout
module, and a computer. Unlike alpha spectroscopy with multi-channel analyzer, this method
allows the technician to load samples for analysis without drying because the presence of
moisture generally has negligible effects on the results. This method is therefore estimated to
substantially reduce the time for analysis. However, the low resolution may limit the ability
to identify individual radionuclides in a sample containing multiple radionuclides and thus
may limit the applicability of this method (Meyer 1995).
• Alpha Scintillation Detector – This system is used primarily for the quantification of 226Ra
by the emanation and detection of 222Rn gas. The system consists of a bubbler system with
gas transfer apparatus, a vacuum flask lined with scintillating material called a Lucas Cell, 9 a
photomultiplier tube, bias supply, and a scaler to record the count data.

9
One end of a Lucas cell is covered with a transparent window for coupling to a photomultiplier tube and the
remaining inside walls are coated with zinc sulfide.

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MARSAME Appendix D

D.10.1.2 Instruments for the Detection of Beta Radiation

• Gas-Flow Proportional Counter – The system consists of a gas-flow detector, supporting

electronics, and an optional guard detector for reducing the background count rate. A thin
window can be placed between the gas-flow detector and sample to protect the detector from
non-fixed activity, or the sample can be placed directly into the detector. This technique does
not provide data useful for identifying individual radionuclides unless it is preceded by
nuclide-specific chemical separations.
• Liquid Scintillation Spectrometry – Typically, samples will be subjected to chemical
separations and the resulting materials placed in a vial with a scintillation cocktail. When the
beta particle energy is absorbed by the cocktail, light pulses are emitted, which are detected
by photomultiplier tubes. One pulse of light is emitted for each beta particle absorbed. The
intensity of light emitted is related to the energy of the beta. This system can provide data
useful for identifying radionuclides if the system is coupled to a multi-channel analyzer. This
system must be allowed to darken (i.e., equilibrate to a dark environment) prior to
measurement.

D.10.1.3 Instruments for the Detection of Gamma or X-Radiation

• High-Purity Germanium Detector with Multi-Channel Analyzer – This system consists

of a germanium detector connected to a cryostat (either mechanical or a Dewar of liquid
nitrogen), high voltage power supply, spectroscopy grade amplifier, analog to digital
converter, and a multi-channel analyzer. This system has high resolution for peak energies
and is capable of identifying and quantifying individual gamma peaks in complex spectra. It
is particularly useful when a sample may contain multiple gamma-emitting radionuclides and
it is necessary to both identify and quantify all nuclides present.
• Sodium Iodide Detector with Multi-Channel Analyzer – This system consists of a sodium
iodide detector, a high voltage power supply, an amplifier, an analog to digital converter, and
a multi-channel analyzer. This system has relatively poor energy resolution and is not
effective for identifying and quantifying individual gamma peaks in complex spectra. It is
most useful when only a small number of gamma-emitting nuclides are present or when a
gross-gamma measurement is adequate.

D.10.2 Temporal Issues

Laboratory analysis is usually controlled by the turnaround time involved in preparing and
accurately measuring the collected samples. The sample matrix impacts the preparation time,
because soils and bulk chemicals typically require more extensive preparation than liquids or
smears. Table D.2 describes the typical preparation and counting times associated with the
various analytical instruments and methods described in Section D.10.1. Additional issues that
may result in extended time for sample preparation and analysis are described in MARLAP.

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Appendix D MARSAME

Table D.2 Typical Preparation and Counting Times

Typical Preparation Time Typical Counting Time
Alpha Spectroscopy with Multi-
1 to 7 days 100 to 1,000 minutes
Channel Analyzer
Gas-Flow Proportional Counter Hours to days 10 to 1,000 minutes
Minutes, 10
Liquid Scintillation Spectrometer >60 to 300 minutes
hours to 2 days 11
Low-Resolution Alpha
Minutes (DOE, 1995) 10 to 1,000 minutes
Spectroscopy
High-Purity Germanium (HPGe)
Detector with Multi-Channel Minutes to 1 day 10 to 1,000 minutes
Analyzer
Sodium Iodide (NaI) Detector with
Minutes to 1 day 1 to 1,000 minutes
Multi-Channel Analyzer
1 to 4 days;
Alpha Scintillation Detector 10 to 200 minutes
4 to 28 days 12

D.10.3 Spatial Issues

This section addresses issues related to detector-M&E geometry and provides information on the
range of impacts resulting from dissenting geometries between the calibration source and the
measured sample. Other topics may include detector dimensions and problems positioning
instruments.

D.10.3.1 Alpha Spectroscopy with Multi-Channel Analyzer

Sample geometry (lateral positioning on a detector shelf) in some detectors may be a small
source of additional uncertainty. Uncertainty in the preparation of the actual calibration standards
as well as the applicability of the calibration standards to the sample analysis should also be
considered.

D.10.3.2 Gas-Flow Proportional Counter

Even deposition of sample material on the planchette is critical to the analytical process. In some
analyses, ringed planchettes may aid in the even deposition of sample material. An uneven
deposition may result in an incorrect mass-attenuation correction as well as introducing a
position-dependent bias to the analysis. The latter situation arises from the fact that gas-flow
proportional counters are not radially symmetric, so rotation of an unevenly deposited sample by
45° may drastically change the instrument response.

10
Minimal preparation times are possible if the sample does not require concentration prior to being added to the
liquid scintillation cocktail vial.
11
Longer preparation times are necessary for speciation of low-energy beta emitters.
12
Longer count times represent the necessary time for in-growth of 222Rn for 226Ra analyses.

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MARSAME Appendix D

D.10.3.3 Liquid Scintillation Spectrometer

For gross counting, samples (e.g., smears and filters) can be placed directly into a liquid
scintillation counter (LSC) vial with liquid scintillation cocktail, and counted with no
preparation. There are samples with more complicated matrices that require chemical separation
prior to being placed and counted in LSC vials. Calibration sources are also kept and counted in
these vials, so the geometry of the source and the sample compared to the detector generally are
similar.

D.10.3.4 Low-Resolution Alpha Spectroscopy

Sample geometry (lateral positioning on a detector shelf) in some detectors may be a small
source of additional uncertainty. Uncertainty in the preparation of the actual calibration standards
as well as the applicability of the calibration standards to the sample analysis should be
considered.

D.10.3.5 High-Purity Germanium Detector with Multi-Channel Analyzer

Geometry considerations are most important for spectroscopic gamma analyses. Sample
positioning on the detector may significantly affect the analytical results, depending on the size
and shape of the germanium crystal. Moreover, the instrument is calibrated with a source that
should be the same physical size, shape, and weight as the samples to be analyzed. 13 Discrepan-
cies between the volume or density of the sample and the source introduce additional uncertainty
to the analytical results.

Sample homogeneity is a critical factor in gamma spectroscopy analyses, particularly with

relatively large samples. For example, sediment settling during the course of analysis of a turbid
aqueous sample will result in a high bias from any activity contained in the solid fraction.
Likewise, the positioning of areas containing elevated activity in a solid sample will create a bias
in the overall sample activity (the activity will be disproportionately high if the particle is located
at the bottom of the sample, and the activity will be disproportionately low if it is located at the
top of the sample).

D.10.3.6 Sodium Iodide Detector with Multi-Channel Analyzer

The spatial considerations for NaI detectors are the same as those listed above for high-purity
germanium detectors.

D.10.3.7 Alpha Scintillation Detectors

Accurate sample analysis depends heavily on the complete dissolution of the 226Ra or other
radionuclides of interest in the bubbler solution. Adequate sample preparation will help ensure
that spatial issues do not influence results, as the apparatus itself minimizes any other potential
geometry-related sources of error or uncertainty.

13
Some software packages allow a single calibration geometry to be modeled to assimilate the properties of other
geometries.

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Appendix D MARSAME

D.10.4 Radiation Types

Table D.3 describes the types of radiation that each laboratory instrument and method can
measure.

Table D.3 Radiation Applications for Laboratory Instruments and Methods

Differentiate
Radiation Identify Specific
Alpha Beta Photon Neutron Types Radionuclides
Alpha Spectrometry with a
GOOD NA NA NA NA GOOD
Multi-Channel Analyzer
Gas-Flow Proportional Counter GOOD GOOD POOR NA FAIR POOR
Liquid Scintillation
POOR GOOD 14 POOR NA FAIR FAIR
Spectrometer
Low-Resolution Alpha
GOOD NA NA NA NA FAIR 15
Spectroscopy
High-Purity Germanium
Detector with Multi-Channel NA NA GOOD NA NA GOOD
Analyzer
Sodium Iodide Detector with
NA NA GOOD NA NA FAIR
Multi-Channel Analyzer
Alpha Scintillation Detector GOOD NA NA NA NA FAIR
Notes:
GOOD The instrumentation and measurement technique is well-suited for this application
FAIR The instrumentation and measurement technique can adequately perform this application
POOR The instrumentation and measurement technique may be poorly suited for this application
NA The instrumentation and measurement technique cannot perform this application

D.10.5 Range

All of the instrumentation discussed here has physical limitations as to the amount of activity
that can be analyzed. This limitation arises primarily from the ability of the detector to recover
after an ionizing event, and the speed with which the component electronics can process the data.
Typically, a count rate on the order of 106 counts per second taxes the physical limitations of
most detectors. Other practical considerations, (such as the potential to impact the detector with
non-fixed activity) often override the physical limitations of the counting system.

There are energy range limitations as well. For example: window proportional counters are poor
choices for very low energy beta emitters; some gamma spectrometers have poor efficiencies at
low energies; and some systems are not calibrated for high-energy gammas. Table D.4 describes
the energy range that each instrument and method can be used to determine, and the maximum
activity per sample that the method can be used to count. 16

14
This system is designed for the detection of low-energy beta particles.
15
The low resolution may limit the ability to identify individual radionuclides in a sample containing multiple
radionuclides.
16
David Burns, Paragon Analytics, Inc., private communication with Nick Berliner, Cabrera Services, Inc., March
2005.

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MARSAME Appendix D

Table D.4 Typical Energy Ranges and Maximum Activities

Energy Range Maximum Activity
Alpha Spectrometry with Multi-
3 to 8 MeV <10 Bq (<270 pCi)
Channel Analyzer
3 to 8 MeV (α)
Gas-Flow Proportional Counter 35 Bq (946 pCi)
100 to 2,000 keV (β)
>3 MeV
Liquid Scintillation Spectrometer 15 to 2,500 keV (β); 100,000 Bq (2.7 μCi)
>1.5 MeV (β) 17
Low-Resolution Alpha Spectrometry 3 to 8 MeV (α) <10 Bq (<270 pCi)
50 to >2,000 keV (P-type
High-Purity Germanium (HPGe)
detector); 370 Bq (10,000 pCi)
Detector with Multi-Channel Analyzer
5 to 80 keV (N-type detector)
Sodium Iodide (NaI) Detector with
>80 to 2,000 keV 370 Bq (10,000 pCi)
Multi-Channel Analyzer
Alpha Scintillation Detector All α emission energies <10 Bq (<270 pCi)

D.10.6 Scale

There is no minimum sample size required for a given analysis. Smaller sample sizes will
necessarily result in elevated detection limits. Minimum sample sizes (e.g., 0.1 gram) may be
specified in order to ensure that the sample is reasonably representative given the degree of
homogenization achieved in the laboratory. Typical liquid and solid sample sizes are noted in
Table D.5.

January 2009 D-25 NUREG-1575, Supp. 1

Appendix D MARSAME

D.10.7 Ruggedness

Ruggedness does not hold relevance to laboratory analyses, because they are performed in a
controlled environment that precludes the instrumentation from being exposed to conditions
requiring durability.

NUREG-1575, Supp. 1 D-26 January 2009