M. Tech.

VLSI (Fall 2019-20)

Course Code & Title:
EEE5018
Physics of VLSI Devices
Venue & Class Timings:
AB2 – 407
Tue: 9:50 – 10:40 AM
Thur: 10:45 – 11:35 PM
Fri: 8:00 – 8:50 AM
Instructor:
Dr. GARGI RAINA
Professor, SENSE
VIT University- Chennai Campus
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
 Motivation
• To acquire in-depth comprehension of the basics of Semiconductor
Physics.

• To understand the underlying physics and principles of p-n junction

diodes, metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) capacitors, and MOS field
effect transistors (MOSFETs).

• To acquire in-depth understanding of FET devices that plays an

important role in fabrication of integrated circuits.

• An ability to work on state-of-the-art technology computer-aided

design (TCAD) simulation tools that are routinely used in all
semiconductor foundries.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Syllabus
Course code Physics of VLSI Devices L T P J C
ECE 5018 3 0 0 0 3
Pre-requisite None Syllabus
version
v.1.1
Expected Course Outcome :
At the end of the course the student will be able to
1. design extrinsic semiconductors with specific carrier concentrations and, understand the
band structure and diagrams of semiconductors.
2. Calculate and model the carrier transport mechanism in semiconductors.
3. model PN- junctions of given specifications
4. model MOS capacitors
5. model MOSFETs and model the MOSFETs
6. mitigate the short channel effects and design UDSM transistors
Module:1 Semiconductor Physics 5 hours CO: 1
Energy bands in solids - Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors - Direct and Indirect bandgap -
Density of states - Fermi distribution -Free carrier densities - Boltzmann statistics - Thermal
equilibrium.

Module:2 4 hours CO: 2

Current flow mechanisms: Drift current, Diffusion current - Mobility of carriers - Current density
equations - Continuity equation.

Module:3 5 hours CO: 3

Thermal equilibrium physics - Energy band diagrams - Space charge layers - Poisson equation -
Electric fields and Potentials - p-n junction under applied bias - Static current-voltage
characteristics of p-n junctions - Breakdown mechanisms.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

Module:4 8 hours CO: 4
Accumulation - Depletion - Strong inversion - Threshold voltage - Contact potential - Gate work
function - Oxide and Interface charges - Body effect - C-V characteristics of MOS

Module:5 8 hours CO: 5

Drain current - Saturation voltage - Sub-threshold conduction - Effect of gate and drain voltage on
carrier mobility - Compact models for MOSFET and their implementation in SPICE: Level 1, 2
and 3 - MOS model parameters in SPICE.

Module:6 6 hours CO: 5

Effect of scaling - Channel length modulation - Punch-through - Hot carrier degradation -
MOSFET breakdown - Drain-induced barrier lowering.

Module:7 7 hours CO: 6

Effect of tox - Effect of high-k and low-k dielectrics on the gate leakage and Source and drain
leakage - tunneling effects - Different gate structures in UDSM - Impact and reliability challenges
in UDSM.

Module:8 Contemporary issues: 2 hours

Total Lecture hours: 45 hours

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

Text Book(s)
1. Ben G. Streetman and S. Banerjee, Solid State Electronic Devices, Pearson Education, U.S,
Seventh Edition, 2014.
2. J.P. Colinge and C. A. Colinge, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, US, 2017.

Reference Books
1. Y.P. Tsividis and Colin McAndrew, Operation and Modelling of the MOS Transistor,
Oxford University Press, US, Third Edition, 2011.
2. M K Achutan and K N Bhatt, Fundamental of Semiconductor Devices, McGraw Hill
Education, US, 2017.
Mode of Evaluation: CAT / Assignment / Quiz / FAT

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

Academic Calendar

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Evaluation Criteria

• CAT-1 15 %
• CAT-2 15 %
• DAs/Quizzes 30 %
• FAT 40 %

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Office Hours
(AB2 601A)

Wed: 1:00 PM – 3:00 PM

Thur: 1:00 PM – 3:00 PM

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Tentative Course Plan
• July 12- 20, 2018
 Module 1- Semiconductor Physics

• July 23- 30, 2018

 Module 2 – Carrier Transport in Semiconductors

• August 2-10, 2018

 Module 3 – P-N Junction

• August 13-17, 2018

 Module 4 – MOS Cap
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
 Module 1
Semiconductor Physics
• Energy Bands in Solids

• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

• Direct and Indirect Bandgap

• Fermi distribution

• Density of states

• Carrier Concentration
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
 INTRODUCTION
Semiconductors
• Conductivity in between those of metals and insulators.
• Conductivity can be varied over orders of magnitude by changes in
temperature, optical excitation, and impurity content (doping).
• Generally found in column IV and neighboring columns of the periodic table.
• Elemental semiconductors: Si, Ge.
• Compound semiconductors:

Binary :
GaAs, AlAs, GaP, etc. (III-V).
ZnS, ZnTe, CdSe (II-VI).
SiC, SiGe (IV compounds).
•
Ternary : GaAsP.
Quaternary : InGaAsP.
• Si widely used for rectifiers, transistors, and ICs.
• III-V compounds widely used in optoelectronic and high-speed applications.
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
Applications of different types of Semiconductor Materials
• Integrated circuits (ICs) SSI, MSI, LSI, and VLSI.

• Fluorescent materials used in TV screens II-VI (ZnS).

• Light detectors InSb, CdSe, PbTe, HgCdTe.

• Infrared and nuclear radiation detectors Si and Ge.

• Gunn diode (microwave device) GaAs, InP.

• Semiconductor LEDs GaAs, GaP.

• Semiconductor LASERs GaAs, AlGaAs.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

Energy Bands in Solids

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Electrons revolve around a positively charged nucleus in
discrete orbits (K, L, M or n=1, 2, 3 respectively) with specific
levels of energy.
 Electrons positions are fixed as such, however, an electron can
jump to higher or lower energy level by absorption or emission
of energy respectively as shown in Fig. (b)

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

Wave mechanical model

• Electron position is described in terms

of a probability distribution.
• Electron energy is quantized into both
shells and subshells — each electron is
characterized by four quantum
numbers.

Fig.1 Comparison of the (a) Bohr and

(b) wave-mechanical atom models in
terms of electron distribution.
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
 Bonding Forces and Energy Bands in Solids
• Electrons are restricted to sets of discrete energy levels within atoms, with large gaps
among them where no energy state is available for the electron to occupy.

• Electrons in solids also are restricted to certain energies and are not allowed at other
energies.

• Difference in the solid, the electron has a range (or band) of available energies.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

• The influence of neighboring atoms on the energy levels of a particular atom can
be treated as a small perturbation, giving rise to shifting and splitting of energy
states into energy bands.

• The discrete energy levels of the isolated atom spread into bands of energies in
the solid because
i) in the solid, the wave functions of electrons in neighboring atoms
overlap, thus, it affects the potential energy term and the boundary
conditions in the schrödinger equation, and different energies are
obtained in the solution, and

ii) an electron is not necessarily localized at a particular atom.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Note: here ε = E0
i.e. the binding energy

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Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
 Different types of chemical bonding in solids
Ionic bonding in NaCl Covalent bonding in the Si crystal

Ionic Bonding Co-valent Bonding

• Na (Z = 11) gives up its outermost shell electron to • Exhibited by the Silicon lattice semiconductors.
Cl (Z=17) atom, thus the crystal is made up of ions • Each atom surrounded by four nearest neighbors,
with the electronic structures of the inert atoms Ne each having four electrons in the outermost orbit.
and Ar. • Each atom shares its valence electrons with its
• Note: the ions have net electric charges after the four nearest neighbors.
electron exchange ion has a net positive charge, • Bonding forces arise from a quantum mechanical
having lost an electron, and ion has a net negative interaction between the shared electrons.
charge, having acquired an electron. • Both electrons belong to each bond, are
• Thus, an electrostatic attractive force is established, indistinguishable, and have opposite spins.
and the balance is reached when this equals the net • No free electrons available at 0 K, however, by
repulsive force. thermal or optical excitation, electrons can be
• Note: all the electrons are tightly bound to the excited out of a covalent bond and can participate
atom. in current conduction important feature of
• Since there are no loosely bound electrons to semiconductors.
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
participate in current flow NaCl is a good insulator.
Metallic Bonding

• In metals, the outer shell is filled by no more than three electrons (loosely
bound and given up easily) great chemical activity and high electrical
conductivity.

• Outer electron(s) contributed to the crystal as a whole solid made up of

ions with closed shells immersed in a sea of free electrons, which are free to
move about the crystal under the influence of an electric field.

• Coulomb attraction force between the ions and the electrons hold the
lattice together.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators
Insulator Semiconductor Metal

Typical band
Structures at 0 K

• For electrons to move under an applied electric field, there must be states
available to them.

• A completely filled band cannot contribute to current transport; neither can a

completely empty band.

• Thus, semiconductors at 0 K are perfect insulators.

• With thermal or optical excitation, some of these electrons can be excited from the
valence band to the conduction band, and then they can contribute to the current
transport process. Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
• At temperatures other than 0 K, the magnitude of the band gap separates an
insulator from a semiconductor, FOR e.g., AT 300 K
Eg (Diamond) = 5 eV (insulator),
Eg (Silicon) = 1.12 eV (semiconductor).

• Number of electrons available for conduction can be increased greatly in

semiconductors by reasonable amount of thermal or optical energy.

• In metals, the bands are either partially filled or they overlap thus,
 electrons and empty states coexist
 great electrical conductivity.
Energy Gap
• Distinguishing feature among metals, insulators, and semiconductors.

• Determines the absorption/emission spectra, the leakage current, and the

intrinsic conductivity.

• Unique value for each semiconductor (e.g. 1.12 eV for Si, 1.42 eV for GaAs)
function of temperature.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Electronic structure and energy levels in a Si atom

Electronic structure and energy levels in a Si atom:

(a) The orbital model of a Si atom showing the 10 core electrons (n = 1 and 2), and the 4
valence electrons (n = 3);
(b) energy levels in the coulombic potential of the nucleus are also shown schematically.
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 Linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO)
Wavefunction of the two atoms

Coulombic potential wells

of two atoms close to
each other

Isolated atoms

Nearby atoms

The LCAO when 2 atoms are brought together leads to 2 distinct "normal" modes—a
higher energy antibonding orbital, and a lower energy bonding orbital.
Note that the electron probability density is high in the region between the ion cores
(covalent "bond"), leading to lowering of the bonding energy level and the cohesion of
the crystal. If instead of 2 atoms, one brings together N atoms, there will be N distinct
LCAO, and N closely spaced energy levels in a band.
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
 Energy Bands

Splitting of individual
energy levels to energy
bands as atoms are
brought closer together

Si
Atomic number: 14

Electronic Configuration:

* As isolated atoms are brought together to form a solid, the electron wave
functions begin to overlap.
* Various interactions occur, and, at the proper interatomic spacing for the
crystal, the forces of attraction and repulsion find a balance.
* Due to Pauli exclusion principle, the discrete energy levels of individual atoms
split into bands belonging to the pair instead of to individual atoms.
* In a solid, due to large number of atoms, the split energy levels for essentially
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
continuous bands of energy.
 Energy levels in Si as a function of interatomic spacing

The core levels (n = 1,2) in Si are completely filled with electrons. At the actual atomic spacing
of the crystal, the 2 N electrons in the 3s subshell and the 2 N electrons in the 3p subshell
undergo sp3 hybridization, and all end up in the lower 4N stales (valence band), while the
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higher-lying 4 N states (conduction band) are empty, separated by a band gap.
 Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductors
IMPURITIES
• Can be added in precisely controlled amounts.
• Can change the electronic and optical properties.
• Used to vary conductivity over wide ranges.
• Can even change conduction process from conduction by negative charge carriers to
positive charge carriers and vice -versa.
• Controlled addition of impurities doping.
n-type Si p-type Si
Intrinsic Si with acceptor (B)
with donor (P)
Three basic
bond pictures
of a
semiconductor

Electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 1s2 2s2 2p1

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

Intrinsic Semiconductor Material

• A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities or lattice defects.

• No carriers at 0 K, since the valence band is completely full and the conduction band is
completely empty.

• For T > 0 K, electrons are thermally excited from the valence band to the conduction
band (EHP generation).

• EHP generation takes place due to breaking of covalent bonds required energy = Eg.

•The excited electron becomes free and leaves behind an empty state (hole).

• Since these carriers are created in pairs, the electron concentration (n/cm3 ) is always
equal to the hole concentration (p/cm3 ), and each of these is commonly referred to as
the intrinsic carrier concentration (ni).

• Thus, for intrinsic material n = p = ni.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

• These carriers are not localized in the lattice; instead they spread out over several
lattice spacings, and are given by quantum mechanical probability distributions.

• Note: ni = f(T).

• To maintain a steady-state carrier concentration, the carriers must also recombine

at the same rate at which they are generated.

• Recombination occurs when an electron from the conduction band makes a

transition (direct or indirect) to an empty state in the valence band, thus annihilating
the pair.

• At equilibrium, ri= gi , where ri and gi are the generation and recombination rates
respectively, and both of these are temperature dependent.

• gi(T) increases with temperature, and a new carrier concentration ni is established,

such that the higher recombination rate ri(T) just balances generation.

• At any temperature, the rate of recombination is proportional to the equilibrium

concentration of electrons and holes, and can be given by
where r is a constant of proportionality (depends on the mechanism by which
recombination takes place).
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
Extrinsic Semiconductor Material
• In addition to thermally generated carriers, it is possible to create carriers in the
semiconductor by purposely introducing impurities into the crystal doping.

• Most common technique for varying the conductivity of semiconductors. By doping, the
crystal can be made to have predominantly electrons (n-type) or holes (p-type).

• When a crystal is doped such that the equilibrium concentrations of electrons (n0) and holes
(p0) are different from the intrinsic carrier concentration (ni), the material is said to be
extrinsic. Doping creates additional levels within the band gap.

• In Si, column V elements of the periodic table (e.g., P, As, Sb) introduce energy levels very
near (typically 0.03-0.06 eV) the conduction band.

• At 0 K, these levels are filled with electrons, and very little thermal energy (50 K to 100 K) is
required for these electrons to get excited to the conduction band.

• Since these levels donate electrons to the conduction band, they are referred to as the
donor levels.

• Thus, Si doped with donor impurities can have a significant number of electrons in the
conduction band even when the temperature is not sufficiently high enough for the intrinsic
carriers to dominate, i.e., n0>> ni , p0  n-type material, with electrons as majority carriers
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
and holes as minority carriers.
• In Si, column III elements of the periodic table (e.g., B, Al, Ga, In) introduce energy
levels very near (typically 0.03-0.06 eV) the valence band.

• At 0 K, these levels are empty, and very little thermal energy (50 K to 100 K) is
required for electrons in the valence band to get excited to these levels, and leave
behind holes in the valence band.

• Since these levels accept electrons from the valence band, they are referred to as
the acceptor levels.

• Thus, Si doped with acceptor impurities can have a significant number of holes in
the valence band even at a very low temperature, i.e., p0>>ni ,n0  p-type material,
with holes as majority carriers and electrons as minority carriers.

• The extra electron for column V elements is loosely bound and it can be liberated
very easily ionization; thus, it is free to participate in current conduction.

• Similarly, column III elements create holes in the valence band, and they can also
participate in current conduction.

• Rough calculation of the ionization energy can be made based on the Bohr's model
for atoms, considering the loosely bound electron orbiting around the tightly bound
core electrons. Thus, where is the  relative permittivity of Si
r
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 Direct & Indirect Bandgap
Direct and indirect
transition of electrons
from the conduction band
to the valence band: (a)
direct - with accompanying
photon emission, (b)
indirect via defect level

• In a typical quantitative calculation of band structures, the wave function of a single

electron traveling through a perfectly periodic lattice is assumed to be in the form of a plane
wave moving in the x-direction (say) with propagation constant k, also called a wave vector

• In quantum mechanics, the electron momentum can be given by

• The space dependent wave function for the electron is

where the function modulates the wave function according to the periodicity of the lattice.
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
• Allowed values of energy, while plotted as a function of k, gives the E-k diagram.

• Since the periodicity of most lattices is different in various directions, the E-k diagram is a
complex surface, which is to be visualized in three dimensions.
• Direct band gap semiconductor: the minima of the conduction band and the maxima of the
valence band occur at the same value of k  an electron making the smallest energy
transition from the conduction band to the valence band can do so without a change in k
(and, the momentum).

• Indirect band gap semiconductor: the minima of the conduction band and the maxima of
the valence band occur for different values of k, thus, the smallest energy transition for an
electron requires a change in momentum.

• Electron falling from conduction band to an empty state in valence band recombination.

• Recombination probability for direct band gap semiconductors is much higher than that for
indirect band gap semiconductors.

• Direct band gap semiconductors give up the energy released during this transition (= Eg ) in
the form of light  used for optoelectronic applications (e.g., LEDs and LASERs).

• Recombination in indirect band gap semiconductors occurs through some defect states
within the band gap, and the energy Dr.
is Gargi
released
Raina Fallin2019-20
the form of heat given to the lattice.
 Variation of Energy Bands with Alloy Composition

The E-k diagram of

(a) GaAs and (b) AlAs,
showing the three
valleys (L,  , and X) in
the conduction band.

• The band structures of III-V ternary and quaternary compounds change as their composition is
varied.

• There are three valleys in the conduction band: (at  k = 0), L, and X.

• In GaAs, the  valley has the minimum energy (direct with Eg= 1.43 eV) with very few
electrons residing in L and X valleys (except for high field excitations).
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
• In AlAs, the X valley has minimum energy (indirect with Eg= 2.16 eV).
 Conduction Band Minima in AlxGa1-xAs

Positions of the three conduction band minima in AlxGa1-xAs

as x varies over the range of compositions from GaAs (x = 0) to AIAs (x = 1).
The smallest band gap, Eg (shown in color), follows the direct  band to
x = 0.38, and then follows the indirect XRaina
Dr. Gargi bandFall 2019-20
 Realistic band structures in semiconductor

(a)
(b)

(a) Conduction and valence bands in Si and GaAs along [111] and [100]

(b) Ellipsoidal constant energy surface for Si, near the 6 conduction band
minima along the X directions. Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
Shapes of constant-energy surfaces for electrons in Si and GaAs.

For Si there are six ellipsoids along For GaAs the constant-
the (100)-axes with the centers of energy surface is a
the ellipsoids located at about sphere at zone center.
three-fourths of the distance from
the Brillouin zone center.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

Carrier Concentrations

• For the calculation of semiconductor electrical properties and analyzing device

behavior, it is necessary to know the number of charge carriers/cm3 in the
material.

• The majority carrier concentration in a heavily doped material is obvious, since

for each impurity atom, one majority carrier is obtained.

• However, the minority carrier concentration and the dependence of carrier

concentrations on temperature are not obvious.

• To obtain the carrier concentrations, their distribution over the available

energy states is required.

• These distributions are calculated using statistical methods.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Fermi Distribution
The Fermi Level
• Electrons in solids obey Fermi-Dirac (FD) statistics.

• This statistics accounts for the indistinguishability of the electrons, their wave
nature, and the Pauli exclusion principle.

• The Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) of electrons over a range of allowed

energy levels at thermal equilibrium can be given by

where k is Boltzmann's constant (= 8.62 x 10-5 eV/K = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K)

• This gives the probability that an available energy state at E will be occupied by an
electron at an absolute temperature T.

• EF is called the Fermi level and is a measure of the average energy of the electrons in the
lattice an extremely important quantity for analysis of device behavior.

• Note: for (E - EF ) > 3kT (known as Boltzmann approximation), f(E)  exp[ - (E- EF)/kT] 
this is referred to as the Maxwell-Boltzmann (MB) distribution (followed by gas atoms).
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• The probability that an energy state at EF will be occupied by an electron is 1/2 at all
temperatures.

• At 0 K, the distribution takes a simple rectangular form, with all states below EF
occupied, and all states above EF empty.

• At T > 0 K, there is a finite probability of states above EF to be occupied and states below
EF to be empty.

• The F-D distribution function is highly symmetric, i.e., the probability f(EF + E ) that a
state EF above is filled is the same as the probability [1- f(EF - E )] that a state EF below
is empty.

• This symmetry about EF makes the Fermi level a natural reference point for the
calculation of electron and hole concentrations in the semiconductor.

• Note: f(E) is the probability of occupancy of an available state at energy E, thus, if there
is no available state at E (e.g., within the band gap of a semiconductor), there is no
possibility of finding an electron there.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Fermi-Dirac distribution function

At T= O K,
(i) When E= EF ; f(E) = ½
(ii) When E > EF ; f(E) = 1/ (1 + ) = 0
(iii) When E < EF ; f(E) = 1/ (1 + 0) = 1
* At temperatures higher than 0 K
For example,
At T = T1  There is some probability f(E) that states above EF are filled, and there is a
corresponding probability [1 - f(E) ] that states below EF are empty
* The Fermi function is symmetrical about EF for all temperatures; that is, the probability
f(EF + E) that a state E above EF is filled is the same as the probability [1 - f(EF - E)] that
a state E below EF is empty.
* The symmetry of the distribution of empty and filled states about EF makes the Fermi
level a natural reference point in calculations of electron and hole concentrations in
Semiconductors.
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
 Intrinsic material n-type material p-type material

• For intrinsic materials, the Fermi level lies close to the middle of the band gap (the
difference between the effective masses of electrons and holes accounts for this small
deviation from the mid gap).

• In n-type material, the electrons in the conduction band outnumber the holes in the
valence band, thus, the Fermi level lies closer to the conduction band.

• Similarly, in p-type material, the holes in the valence band outnumber the electrons in
the conduction band, thus, the Fermi level lies closer to the valence band.

• The probability of occupation f(E) in the conduction band and the probability of
vacancy [1- f(E)] in the valence band are quite small, however, the densities of available
states in these bands are very large, thus a small change in f(E) can cause large changes
in the carrier concentrations. Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
• Note: since the function f(E) is symmetrical about EF , a large electron
concentration implies a small hole concentration, and vice versa.

• In n-type material, the electron concentration in the conduction band increases as

EF moves closer to EC ; thus, (EC - EF ) gives a measure of n.

• Similarly, in p-type material, the hole concentration in the valence band increases
EF as moves closer to EV ; thus, (EV - EF) gives a measure of p.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Density of States
Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium
• The F-D distribution function can be used to calculate the electron and hole
concentrations in semiconductors, if the densities of available states in the conduction
and valence bands are known.

• In equilibrium, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band can be given by

where N(E)dE is the density of available states/cm3 in the energy range dE

• Note: the upper limit is theoretically not proper, since the conduction band does not
extend to infinite energies; however, since f(E) decreases rapidly with increasing E, the
contribution to this integral for higher energies is negligible.

• Using the solution of Schrödinger’s wave equation under periodic boundary conditions, it
can be shown that

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

• Thus, N(E) increases with E, however, f(E) decreases rapidly with E, thus, the product
f(E)N(E) decreases rapidly with E, and very few electrons occupy states far above the
conduction band edge, i.e., most electrons occupy a narrow energy band near the
conduction band edge.

• Similarly, the probability of finding an empty state in the valence band [1 - f(E)]
decreases rapidly below , and most holes occupy states near the top of the valence
band.

• Thus, a mathematical simplification can be made assuming that all available states in
the conduction band can be represented by an effective density of states NC located at
the conduction band edge and using Boltzmann approximation.

Thus,

where,

• Note: as (EC -EF ) decreases, i.e., the Fermi level moves closer to the conduction band,
the electron concentration increases.
Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
• By similar arguments,

where NV is the effective density of states located at the valence band edge EV.

• Note: the only terms separating the expressions for NC and NV are the effective masses
of electrons ( mn* ) and holes (mp* ) respectively,

• Thus, as ( EF - EV ) decreases, i.e., the Fermi level moves closer to the valence band
edge, and the hole concentration increases.

• These equations for n0 and p0 are valid in equilibrium, irrespective of the material
being intrinsic or doped.

* For intrinsic material EF lies at an intrinsic level Ei (very near the middle of the band
gap), and the intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are given by

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

• Note: At equilibrium, the product n0p0 is a constant for a particular material and
temperature, even though the doping is varied,

i.e.,

• This equation gives an expression for the intrinsic carrier concentration ni as a function of
NC, NV , and temperature:

• These relations are extremely important, and are frequently used for calculations.

• Note: if NC were to be equal to NV , then Ei would have been exactly at mid gap
(i.e., EC-Ei = Ei - EV = Eg/2).

• However, since NC NV , Ei is displaced slightly from mid gap (more for GaAs than that for
Si).

• Alternate expressions for n0and p0 :

• Note: the electron concentration is equal to ni when EF is at Ei , and n0 increases

exponentially as EF moves away from towards the conduction band.

• Similarly, the hole concentration p0 varies from ni to larger values as EF moves from Ei
towards the valence band. Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
Schematic band diagram, density of states, Fermi-Dirac distribution, and the
carrier concentrations for (a) intrinsic, (b) n-type, and (c) p-type
semiconductors at thermal equilibrium

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentrations
The intrinsic carrier concentration as a function
• The intrinsic carrier concentration has a of inverse temperature for Si, Ge, and GaAs
strong temperature dependence, given by

• Thus, explicitly, ni is proportional to T3/2

and to e 1/T, however, Eg also has a
temperature dependence (decreasing with
increasing temperature, since the
interatomic spacing changes with
temperature).

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

• As ni changes with temperature, so do n0 and p0 .

• With ni and T given, the unknowns are the carrier concentrations and the Fermi
level position with respect to Ei one of these quantities must be given in order to
calculate the other.

• Example: Si doped with 10 15 /cm3 donors (Nd).

• At very low temperature, negligible intrinsic EHPs exist, and all the donor electrons
are bound to the donor atoms.

• As temperature is raised, these electrons are gradually donated to the conduction

band, and at about 100 K (1000/T = 10), almost all these electrons are donated 
this temperature range is called the ionization region.

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Once all the donor atoms are ionized, the electron concentration n0 
Nd , since for each donor atom, one electron is obtained.

Carrier concentration
vs. inverse
temperature for Si
doped with 1015
donors/cm3

• Thus, n0 remains virtually constant with temperature for a wide range of temperature
(called the extrinsic region), until the intrinsic carrier concentration ni starts to become
comparable to Nd .

• For high temperatures, ni >> Nd , and the material loses its extrinsic property (called the
intrinsic region).

• Note: in the intrinsic region, the device loses its usefulness => determines the maximum
operable temperature range. Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20
 Problems

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 Problem

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20

 References

1. Ben G. Streetman and S. Banerjee, “Solid State Electronic

Devices”, Prentice Hall, Sixth edition, 2015

2. NPTEL COURSE on ‘SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES”- IIT- Delhi

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-
Delhi/Semiconductor%20Devices/index.htm

Dr. Gargi Raina Fall 2019-20