MANUFACTURING

SI EDITION

Engineering and Technology

Seventh Edition

PART
IV
MACHINING PROCESSES AND MACHINE TOOLS

Serope Kalpakjian
Steven R. Schmid ALWAYS LEARNING Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
PART IV:
Machining Processes and Machine Tools

 Parts manufactured can be by the casting, forming and

shaping processes
 They often require further operations before the product
is ready for use

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PART IV:
Machining Processes and Machine Tools

 Machining is the removal of material and modification

of the workpiece surfaces
 Machining generally referred to as secondary and
finishing operations

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PART IV:
Machining Processes and Machine Tools

 Major types of material removal processes:

1. Cutting
2. Abrasive processes
3. Advanced machining processes

 Machining operations is a system consisting of the

1. Workpiece
2. Cutting tool
3. Machine tool
4. Operator

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 MANUFACTURING
SI EDITION

Engineering and Technology

Seventh Edition

CHAPTER
21
FUNDAMENTAL OF MACHINING

Serope Kalpakjian
Steven R. Schmid ALWAYS LEARNING Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Mechanics of Cutting
3. Cutting Forces and Power
4. Temperatures in Cutting
5. Tool Life: Wear and Failure
6. Surface Finish and Integrity
7. Machinability

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Introduction
 Cutting processes remove material from the various
surfaces of a workpiece by producing chips
 Common cutting processes:
1. Turning
2. Cutting off
3. Slab milling
4. End milling

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Introduction
 In the turning process, the cutting tool is set at a
certain depth of cut (mm) and travels to the left as the
workpiece rotates
 Feed, or feed rate, is the distance the tool travels
horizontally per unit revolution of the workpiece
(mm/rev)

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Introduction
 In idealized model, a cutting tool moves to the left
along the workpiece at a constant velocity and a
depth of cut

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Mechanics of Cutting

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Mechanics of Cutting
 Major independent variables in the cutting process:
1. Tool material and coatings
2. Tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness
3. Workpiece material and its processing history
4. Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut
5. Cutting fluids
6. Characteristics of the machine tool
7. Work-holding device and fixturing

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Mechanics of Cutting
 Dependent variables in cutting are:
1. Type of chip produced
2. Force and energy dissipated during cutting
3. Temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool and the
chip
4. Tool wear and failure
5. Surface finish and surface integrity of the workpiece

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Mechanics of Cutting
 Merchant model is known as orthogonal cutting
 It is two dimensional and the forces involved are
perpendicular to each other
 The cutting tool has a rake angle of α and a relief or
clearance angle
 Shearing takes place in a shear zone at shear
angle Φ

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Mechanics of Cutting
Cutting Ratio
 The ratio is related to the two angles by

r cos t sin
tan  r  o 
1  r sin t c cos   

 As the chip thickness is always greater than the

depth of cut, the value of r is always less than unity
 Reciprocal of r is known as the chip-compression
ratio or chip-compression factor
 A measure of how thick the chip has become as ratio
always is greater than unity
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Mechanics of Cutting
Shear Strain
 The shear strain that the material undergoes can
be expressed as
   cot  tan   
AB AO OB
  
OC OC OC
 Large shear strains are associated with low shear
angles or with low or negative rake angles
 Based on the assumption that the shear angle
adjusts itself to minimize the cutting force
 
  45   
2 2 β = friction angle
   45      (when   0.5 ~ 2) μ = tanβ  coefficient of friction
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Mechanics of Cutting
Velocities in the Cutting Zone
 Since mass continuity is maintained,
V sin
Vto  Vc t c or Vc  Vr  Vc 
cos   
 From Velocity diagram, we can obtained equations
from trigonometric relationships,
V Vs V
  c
cos    cos sin 
 Note also that
t o Vc
r  
tc V
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Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

 Types of metal chips are commonly observed in

practice
 There are 4 main types:
a) Continuous
b) Built-up edge
c) Serrated or segmented
d) Discontinuous

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Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

Continuous Chips
 Formed with ductile materials machined at high
cutting speeds and/or high rake angles
 Deformation takes place along a narrow shear zone
called the (primary shear zone)
 Continuous chips may develop a secondary shear
zone due to high friction at the tool–chip interface

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Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips

 Consists of layers of material from the workpiece that
are deposited on the tool tip
 As it grows larger, the BUE becomes unstable and
eventually breaks apart
 BUE can be reduced by:
1. Increase the cutting speeds
2. Decrease the depth of cut
3. Increase the rake angle
4. Use a sharp tool
5. Use an effective cutting fluid
6. Use a cutting tool that has lower
chemical affinity for the workpiece
material
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Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

Serrated Chips
 Also called segmented or nonhomogeneous chips
 They are semicontinuous chips with large zones of
low shear strain and small zones of high shear strain
(shear localization)
 Chips have a sawtooth-like appearance

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Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

Discontinuous Chips
 Consist of segments that attached firmly or loosely to
each other
 Form under the following conditions:
1. Brittle workpiece materials
2. Materials with hard inclusions and impurities
3. Very low or very high cutting speeds
4. Large depths of cut
5. Low rake angles
6. Lack of an effective cutting fluid
7. Low stiffness of the machine tool
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Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

Chip Curl
 Chips will develop a curvature (chip curl) as they leave
the workpiece surface
 Factors affecting the chip curl conditions are:
1. Distribution of stresses in the primary and secondary
shear zones.
2. Thermal effects.
3. Work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece
material
4. Geometry of the cutting tool
5. Processing variables
6. Cutting fluids Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

Chip Breakers
 A situation that break the chip intermittently with cutting
tools have chip-breaker features

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Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

Chip Breakers
 Chips can also be broken by changing the tool
geometry to control chip flow

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Mechanics of Cutting:
Oblique Cutting

 Majority of machining operations involve tool shapes

that are three dimensional where the cutting is said to
be oblique
 There is a difference between oblique and orthogonal
cutting

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Mechanics of Cutting:
Oblique Cutting

 Orthogonal cutting the chip slides directly up the face of

the tool
 In oblique cutting, the chip is helical and at an
inclination angle
 The effective rake angle is e  sin 1
sin 2
i  cos2
i sin  n 

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Mechanics of Cutting:
Oblique Cutting

Shaving and Skiving

 Thin layers of material can be removed from straight or
curved surfaces
 Shaving can improve the surface finish and
dimensional accuracy
 Parts that are long or combination of shapes are
shaved by skiving
 A specially shaped cutting tool is moved tangentially
across the length of the workpiece

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Cutting Forces and Power

 Knowledge of the cutting forces and power involved:

1. Data on cutting forces
2. Power requirements
 Cutting force acts in the direction of the cutting speed,
and supplies the energy required for cutting

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Cutting Forces and Power

 It can also be shown that

F  R sin   N  R cos 

 Resultant force is balanced by an equal and opposite

force along the shear plane
 It is resolved into a shear force and a normal force
 Thus, Fs  Fc cos  Ft sin 
Fn  Fc sin   Ft cos
 The magnitude of coefficient of friction is
F F  Fc tan 
  t
N Fc  Ft tan 
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Cutting Forces and Power

Thrust Force
 The toolholder, work-holding devices, and machine tool
must be stiff to support thrust force with minimal
deflections
 The effect of rake angle and friction angle on the
direction of thrust force is

Ft  R sin    or Ft  Fc tan   

 Magnitude of the cutting force is always positive as the

force that supplies the work is required in cutting

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Cutting Forces and Power

Power
 The power input in cutting is
Power  FcV

 The power dissipated in the shear plane is

Power for shearing  FsVs

 Denoting the width of cut as w, the specific energy for

shearing, is
FsVs
us 
wt oV

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Cutting Forces and Power
Power
 The power dissipated in friction is

Power for friction  FVc

 The specific energy for friction is

FVc Fr
uf  
wt oV wt o
 Total specific energy is

ut  us  uf

 Sharpness of the tool tip also influences forces and

power
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Cutting Forces and Power

Power

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Cutting Forces and Power

Measuring Cutting Forces and Power

 Cutting forces can be measured using a force
transducer, a dynamometer or a load cell mounted
on the cutting-tool holder
 It is also possible to calculate the cutting force from the
power consumption during cutting
 The specific energy in cutting can be used to calculate
cutting forces

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Cutting Forces and Power

EXAMPLE 21.1
Relative Energies in Cutting
In an orthogonal cutting operation, to=0.13 mm, V=120
m/min, α=10° and the width of cut 6 mm. It is observed that
tc=0.23 mm, Fc=500 N and Ft=200 N. Calculate the
percentage of the total energy that goes into overcoming
friction at the tool–chip interface.

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Cutting Forces and Power

Solution
Relative Energies in Cutting
The percentage of the energy can be expressed as
Friction Energy FVc Fr
 
Total Energy FcV Fc
where
t o 0.13
r    0.565
t c 0.23

F  R sin  , F  R cos    and

We have

R Ft
2

 Fc2  200 2  500 2  539 N
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Cutting Forces and Power

Solution
Relative Energies in Cutting
Thus,
500  539 cos  10    32
F  539 sin 32  286 N

Hence

Percentage
286 0.565 
 0.32 or 32%
500

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Temperatures in Cutting

 Temperature rise - its major adverse effects:

1. Lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness and wear
resistance of the cutting tool
2. Causes uneven dimensional changes
3. Induce thermal damage and metallurgical changes in
the machined surface
 Expression for mean temperature is
0.000665Yf Vto
T 3
c K
 Mean temperature in turning on a lathe is given by
Tmean  V a f b
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Temperatures in Cutting

Temperature Distribution
 The sources of heat generation are concentrated in the
primary shear zone and at the tool–chip interface
 There are temperature gradients in the cutting zone

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Temperatures in Cutting

Temperature Distribution
 The temperature increases with cutting speed
 Chips can become red hot and create a safety hazard
for the operator
 The chip carries away most of the heat generated

Techniques for Measuring Temperature

 Temperatures and their distribution
can be determined from thermocouples

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Tool Life: Wear and Failure

 Cutting tools are subjected to:

1. High localized stresses at the tip of the tool
2. High temperatures
3. Sliding of the chip along the rake face
4. Sliding of the tool along the newly machined workpiece
surface
 Wear is a gradual process
 The rate of tool wear depends workpiece materials, tool
material and its coatings, tool geometry, process
parameters, cutting fluids and the characteristics of the
machine tool
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Tool Life: Wear and Failure

 Tool wear and the changes in tool geometry and they

are classified as:
a) Flank wear
b) Crater wear
c) Nose wear
d) Notching
e) Plastic deformation
f) Chipping
g) Gross fracture

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Tool Life: Wear and Failure

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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Flank Wear
 Occurs on the relief (flank) face of the tool
 It is due to (a) rubbing of the tool along the machined
surface and (b) high temperatures
 Taylor tool life equation states that
VT n  C
V = cutting speed
T = time taken to develop a certain flank wear land
n = an exponent that depend on tool and workpiece materials and cutting conditions
C = constant

 To appreciate the importance of the exponent,

1/ n
C 
T  
V 
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Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Flank Wear
 For turning, it can be modified to
VT n d x f y  C

 Since x and y must be determined experimentally for

each cutting condition, we have

T  C 1/ nV 1/ n d x / n f y/n

 To obtain a constant tool life:

1. The cutting speed must be decreased
2. Depending on the exponents
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Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Flank Wear
Tool-life Curves
 Tool-life curves are plots of experimental data obtained
from cutting tests on various materials under different
cutting conditions
 The exponent n can be determined from tool-life curves

 As temperature increases, flank wear rapidly increases

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Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Flank Wear
EXAMPLE 21.2
Increasing Tool Life by Reducing the Cutting Speed
Assume that for a given tool and workpiece combination, n
= 0.5 and C = 400. Calculate the percentage increase in
tool life when the cutting speed is reduced by 50%, using
the Taylor equation for tool life.
Solution
T2 1
Since n=0.5, we have 0 . 5V1 T2  V1 T1   4
T1 0.25
This indicates that the change in tool life is
T2  T1  T2 
    1  4  1  3 or 300% increase
T1  T1 
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Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Flank Wear
Allowable Wear Land
 Cutting tools need to be replaced when:
1. Surface finish of the machined workpiece begins to
deteriorate
2. Cutting forces increase
significantly
3. Temperature rises
significantly

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Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Flank Wear
EXAMPLE 21.3
Effect of Cutting Speed on Material Removal
 When cutting speed is 60 m/min, tool life is 40 min
 The tool travels a distance of 60 x 40 = 2400 m
 When cutting speed is increased to 120 m/min, tool life
reduced 5 min and travel 600 m
 It can be seen that by decreasing the cutting speed,
more material is removed between tool changes

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Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Crater Wear
 Crater wear occurs on the rake face of the tool

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Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Crater Wear
 Factors influencing crater wear are
1. The temperature at the tool–chip interface
2. The chemical affinity between the tool and workpiece
materials
 Diffusion rate increases with increasing temperature,
crater wear increases as temperature increases
 Location of the max depth of crater wear, KT, coincides
with the location of the max temperature at the tool–
chip interface

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Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Other Types of Wear, Chipping, and Fracture

 Nose wear is the rounding of a sharp tool due to

mechanical and thermal effects
 It dulls the tool, affects chip formation and causes
rubbing of the tool over the workpiece
 Tools also may undergo plastic deformation because
of temperature rises in the cutting zone
 Tools may undergo chipping, in which a small
fragment from the cutting edge of the tool breaks away
 Chipping may occur in a region of the tool where a
small crack or defect already exists
 Two main causes of chipping: Mechanical shock &
Thermal fatigue
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Tool Life: Wear and Failure:
Tool-condition Monitoring
 Tool-condition monitoring systems are integrated into
computer numerical control and programmable logic
controllers
 Classified into 2 categories:
1. Direct method is observing the condition of a cutting
tool involves optical measurements of wear
2. Indirect methods is observing tool conditions involve
the correlation of the tool condition with parameters
 Another similar system consists of transducers, which
continually monitor torque and forces during cutting

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Surface Finish and Integrity

 Surface finish influences the dimensional accuracy of

machined parts, properties and performance in service
 Surface finish describes the geometric features of a
surface while surface integrity pertains to material
properties
 The built-up edge has the greatest influence on surface
finish

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Surface Finish and Integrity

 A dull tool has a large radius along its edges

 In a turning operation, the tool leaves a spiral profile
(feed marks) on the machined surface as it moves
across the workpiece
f2
 Typical surface roughness is expressed as Rt 
8R

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Surface Finish and Integrity

 Factors influencing surface integrity are:

1. Temperatures generated
2. Surface residual stresses
3. Plastic deformation and strain hardening of the
machined surfaces, tearing and cracking
 Finish machining is considering the surface finish to
be produced
 Rough machining is to remove a large amount of
material at a high rate

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Machinability
 Machinability is defined in terms of:
1. Surface finish and surface integrity
2. Tool life
3. Force and power requirements
4. The level of difficulty in chip control
 Good machinability indicates good surface finish and
surface integrity, a long tool life, and low force and
power requirements
 Machinability ratings (indexes) are available for each
type of material and its condition

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Machinability:
Machinability of Ferrous Metals
Steels
 If a carbon steel is too ductile, chip formation can
produce built-up edge, leading to poor surface finish
 If too hard, it can cause abrasive wear of the tool
because of the presence of carbides in the steel
 In leaded steels, a high percentage of lead solidifies at
the tips of manganese sulfide inclusions
 Calcium-deoxidized steels contain oxide flakes of
calcium silicates (CaSO) that reduce the strength of the
secondary shear zone and decrease tool–chip interface
friction and wear

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Machinability:
Machinability of Ferrous Metals
Effects of Various Elements in Steels
 Presence of aluminum and silicon is harmful, as it
combine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and
silicates, which are hard and abrasive
 Thus tool wear increases and machinability reduce

Stainless Steels
 Austenitic (300 series) steels are difficult to machine
 Ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good
machinability
 Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive
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Machinability:
Machinability of Nonferrous Metals
 Aluminum is very easy to machine
 Beryllium requires machining in a controlled
environment
 Cobalt-based alloys require sharp, abrasion-resistant
tool materials and low feeds and speeds
 Copper can be difficult to machine because of builtup
edge formation
 Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface
finish and prolonged tool life
 Molybdenum cab produce poor surface finish, thus
sharp tools are essential

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Machinability:
Machinability of Nonferrous Metals
 Nickel-based alloys and superalloys of machinability
depends on their condition and improves with
annealing
 Tantalum produces a poor surface finish, and tool wear
is high
 Titanium and its alloys have very poor thermal
conductivity
 Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive
 Zirconium has good machinability, but it requires a
coolant-type cutting fluid

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Machinability:
Machinability of Miscellaneous Materials

 Machining thermoplastics requires sharp tools with

positive rake angles, large relief angles, small depths of
cut and feed and relatively high speeds
 Polymer-matrix composites are difficult to machine
 Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be
difficult to machine, depending on the properties of the
matrix material and the reinforcing fibers
 The type of chips and the surfaces produced also vary
significantly, depending on the type of wood and its
condition

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Machinability:
Thermally Assisted Machining
 In thermally assisted machining (hot machining), a
source of heat is focused onto an area just ahead of
the cutting tool
 Advantages of hot machining are:
1. Reduced cutting forces
2. Increased tool life
3. Higher material-removal rates
4. Reduced tendency for vibration and chatter

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