Machining Science

Mechanics of Metal Cutting

Mechanics of Metal Cutting

 Why should we study?
– to evaluate the role of various parameters in
Mechanics of Metal Cutting

cutting forces
– to estimate the power requirement for the
machine tool
– to estimate the straining actions that must be
resisted by the machine tool components,
bearings, jigs and fixtures
– to evaluate the temperature rise of the process

1
 Chip formation process

to V
Mechanics of Metal Cutting

to

Deformation in Orthogonal Machining

Mechanics of Metal Cutting

2
Mechanics of Metal Cutting Chip formation process

Pispaanen’s Model
Mechanics of Metal Cutting

Fig.: Pispaanen’s model of metal removal (card model)

The shearing process is analogous to the displacement of a stack
of cards, with each card sliding slightly over the adjacent card.

3
 Orthogonal Cutting
The assumptions on which the two dimensional model is based
include:
Assumptions in Orthogonal Cutting

1. The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the

clearance face.
2. The shear surface is a plane extending upward from the cutting
edge.
3. The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the
direction of motion.
4. The chip does not flow to either side (plane strain).
5. The depth of cut is constant.
6. The width of the tool is greater than that of the workpiece.
7. The work moves relative to the tool with uniform velocity.
8. A continuous chip is produced with no built-up edge.
9. The shear and normal stresses along shear plane and tool are
uniform.

Velocity Relations

− ∅−
Ratio of Velocities

∅ ( − ) ∅

from Sine rule

= =
sin 90 − ∅ − sin 90 − sin ∅

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Length of Shear & Chip Thickness Chip Thickness Ratio,

Chip (∅ − )
Tool
A
A
∅
Work B
∅
B
− (∅ − )

Length of Shear = AB = Chip thickness ratio (r)

sin ∅
= = ⇒ = =
sin ∅ cos ∅ − cos ∅ −

Shear Angle, ∅
It has already been proven that
sin ∅
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
cos ∅ −
Shear Angle

This can be rearranged to determine ∅

as follows:
cos
tan ∅ =
1 − sin

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 Experimental Determination of ‘r ’
Chip thickness ratio may be obtained
either from photo-micrographs or
volume continuity (no chip density
change):
Chip Thickness Ratio

⇒ =
& = (experimental evidence)

⇒ = =
Measuring length of chips is
easier than thickness

Shear Strain during Chip Formation

Thickness
Chip = Parallel of plate
Shear Plates

∅ Tool
Shear Strain

A B Magnitude of
Shear Plane
C strained material

A B
Shear Strain ():
∅
+
x= =
D
= tan ∅ − + cot ∅
C

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Forces in Metal Cutting Merchant’s Theory of Metal Cutting

Fig.: Forces in Orthogonal cutting

Fs = shear force; Fn = normal to shear plane force
F = friction force; N = normal to chip force

Merchant’s Theory of Metal Cutting

Forces on a Chip

Fig.: Forces on chip as a free body

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 Forces on a Dynamometer
Fc = cutting force; Ft = thrust force
Measurement of Forces

Forces are presented as function of

Fc & Ft because these can be measured.

Combined Forces in Orthogonal Cutting

Forces at the Tool Tip

Since = =
we can get the force balance equations

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Forces on Shear Plane Forces in Orthogonal Cutting

Shear Force Components

C
= = −
= −
Forces on Shear Plane

= cos ∅ − sin ∅

G = = +

= +
= sin ∅ + cos ∅

= + = +

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 Friction Force Components
C
B = = +
= +
G
Forces on Rake Plane

= sin + cos

= = −
= −

= cos − sin

= + = +

Merchant’s Circle

Chip 
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ α
Merchant’s Circle Diagram

Work
FN
Ft R 
F

β
N

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Problems in Mechanics of Machining Machining Example

Pb.: In an orthogonal turning of MS a tool having rake

angle 10o, the main cutting force is measured as
1200 N. The force along the shear plane is found
to be 600 N. Find all other force components
assuming 30o shear angle.

Solution
e

Fc= 1200 N  a
b
Ernst & Merchant Theory

Ft

Fc= 1200 N
c Fs= 600 N
 = 300
 = 100
d

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Problems in Mechanics of Machining Machining Example

Pb.: In an orthogonal cutting with a HSS tool having

rake angle 10o, the main cutting force is measured
as 900 N. The coefficient of friction and the shear
angle are found to be 0.31 and 30o simultaneously.
Find all other force components.

Solution
e

Fc= 900 N  a
b
Ernst & Merchant Theory

Ft


 Fc= 900 N
 = 30o
c   = 10o
μ = 0.31
 = 17.2o
d

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Assumptions in Orthogonal Cutting Orthogonal Cutting

Stresses (N/mm2)
On the Shear Plane

, = =
Stresses on Shear Plane

∅
= =

, = =

∅
= =

Note: = yield strength of the material in shear

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 Stresses (N/mm2)
On the Tool Rake Face
, = = =
Stresses on the Rake Plane

often assume = chip-tool contact length ( )

, = = =

Problems in finding stresses on the rake face:

 Hard to find the contact on the rake face.
 Stresses in practice are not uniformly distributed on the
rake face.

Power (N-m/sec)
Power at the cutting spindle:
, = ; ℎ =
60 × 746
Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and
on the rake face:
Motor Power

ℎ , =

, =

Actual Motor Power requirements will depend on

machine efficiency of Machine Tool η (%):
, = × 100
η

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 Material Removal Rate (MRR)
=

( )=
MRR

( )= /

∴ =
/
= /

ℎ
ℎ ℎ ,ℎ =

Specific Cutting Energy

:

, = = =
Specific Energy

ℎ , = =

, = =

= +

If decreases, what happens to Sp. Cutting Energy?

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 Cutting Forces given Shear Strength
The cutting and thrust forces are derived as follows:
let = shear strength

= where =
Cutting Forces

sin ∅

⇒ = ; =
∅ ∅

+ tan
Friction coefficient, = tan = =
−

Worked out problems

Pb.: During orthogonal turning of mild steel with a carbide
cutting tool of 10o rake angle, the following data has
Problems in Mechanics of Machining

been obtained: depth of cut = 2 mm; feed = 0.25

mm/rev; V = 200 m/min; chip thickness = 0.39 mm;
Fc = 320 N; Ft = 170 N. Calculate
a) shear and normal forces on shear plane
b) friction and normal forces on rake plane
c) friction angle; d) shear strain; e) specific cutting
energy; f) specific energy of shear and g) specific
energy of friction.

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 Worked out problems
Pb.: In an orthogonal cutting process with a HSS tool of
Problems in Mechanics of Machining

rake angle 20o, the following data was obtained: feed =

0.25 mm/rev; Fc = 1135 N; Ft = 110 N; Chip thickness
ratio = 0.47; width of cut = 4 mm; Cutting speed = 30
m/min.
Determine the friction coefficient, shear plane angle,
shear strain, resultant cutting force, shear velocity,
power required for shearing operation, power spent in
overcoming friction along the chip-tool interface and the
total power spent in the cutting operation.

Worked out problems

Pb.1: Show that in metal cutting, when the normal rake is 0o,
Problems in Mechanics of Machining

the ratio of shear strength of the work material to the

specific cutting energy is given by
(1 − )
=
1+

Pb.2: Derive an expression for minimum shear strain in

the metal cutting operation and obtain the value of
minimum strain for zero rake angle.

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Ernst & Merchant Theory Ernst & Merchant Theory

cos ∅ − sin ∅
= =
⁄sin ∅

⇒ = (∅)

Ernst & Merchant Theory

Objective: to find the shear plane angle
corresponding to minimum
cutting energy
Ernst & Merchant Theory

Assumption: Shear stress ( ) is a

material property and it is
assumed as constant

= ⇒ = = =
sin ∅

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 Ernst & Merchant Theory

from Figure
Ernst & Merchant Theory

= −

= ∅+ −

( − )
∴ =
∅+ −

Ernst & Merchant Theory

cos ( − )
⇒ = ×
sin ∅ cos ∅ + −
Ernst & Merchant Theory

= sin ∅ cos ∅ + −

∴ =0
∅

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 Ernst & Merchant Theory
⇒ ∅ ∅+ − −
∅ ∅+ − =
Ernst & Merchant Theory

⇒ ∅+ − =

⇒ ∅+ − =

⇒∅= −
 Ernst & Merchant Relation

Lessons Based on the Merchant Equation

• Higher shear plane angle ⇒ smaller shear plane
Problems in Mechanics of Machining

• Smaller shear plane ⇒ lower shear force, cutting forces,

power, and temperature

Fig. Effect of shear plane angle 

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 Ernst & Merchant Theory - Drawback

Metals According to Bridgeman,

for metals,
= +
Drawback

Synthetic Plastics where

K = Material property

Modified Merchant’s Theory

2∅ + − = cot

Lee & Shaffer’s Theory

 Ernst and Merchant never considered the state of stress (and
strain) in the work material ahead of the tool, in the chip, and at
Mechanics of Metal Cutting

the tool/chip interface. In other words, it was not their concern

to understand how the force exerted by the tool rake face is
transmitted to the shear plane.
 The first attempt to solve the above was made by Lee and
Shafer.
 The theory of Lee and Shaffer was the result of an attempt to
apply simplified plasticity analysis to the problem of orthogonal
metal cutting.

∅+ − =
4

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Mechanics of Metal Cutting Experimental Evidence

Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Values

Typical Orthogonal Model Violations

 Geometry and form Violations (i.e. non zero angles
of inclination, not sharp - radius end)
 Shear takes place over a volume (not a line or
plane)
Violations

 Cutting is never a purely continuous process

(cracks develop in chip; material not homogeneous)
 'Size Effect' - larger stresses are required to
produce deformation when the chip thickness is
small
 BUE - some workpiece material 'welds' to the tool
face (cyclic in nature)

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Mechanics of Metal Cutting Theories of Metal Cutting

Orthogonal Cutting Model (after Palmer and Oxley)

Stress Distribution on the Rake Face

Stress Distribution

Fig.: Distribution of Normal and Shear stresses

at the tool-chip interface.

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 Machining Example
Pb.:Mild steel is being machined at a cutting speed of 200
m/min with a tool of rake angle 10o. The width of cut and
Problems in Mechanics of Machining

uncut chip thickness are 2 mm and 0.2 mm respectively.

If the average value of μ between the tool and the chip
is 0.5 and of the work material is 400 N/mm2,
determine the shear angle and cutting and thrust
components of machining force using a) Ernst and
Merchant Theory; b) modified Merchant Theory, taking
cot = 70o and c) Lee and Shaffer’s Theory
{ ∅ + − = .}

Worked out problems

Problems in Mechanics of Machining

Pb.: Derive an expression for the specific cutting energy

in terms of the shear angle  and the mean shear
strength of the work material in orthogonal
cutting. Assume that the shear angle relationship of
Ernst and Merchant applies.

=2 cot ∅

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 Machining Example
Pb.: The cutting and thrust components of the machining
force during orthogonal machining of aluminium with a
Problems in Mechanics of Machining

rake angle of 10o are found to be 312 N and 185 N

respectively.
i) Estimate the co-efficient of friction between the tool
and chip.
ii) If the rake angle is reduced to 0o, keeping all other
parameters constant, and if the coefficient of friction
also remains unchanged, estimate the new values of
cutting and thrust force components using Merchant’s
first solution

Rake Angles (back & side)

 These angles can be positive, zero, or negative.
Effect of Tool Geometry

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 Rake Angles (back & side)

 Larger rake angles are beneficial for machining efficiency

giving rise to lower cutting force and power.
Effect of Tool Geometry

 However, increasing to a very high value decreases the

strength of the tool tip.
 Small rake angles are used for cutting hard materials while
large angles are used for cutting soft and ductile
 Exceptions to this rule include tools for brass, bronze,
certain plastics and non-metals.
 Value of rake angle usually varies in between –15º and
+15º; however, it may reach up to ±30º in some cases.

Relief Angles (side and end)

 The function of the relief angles is to prevent the rubbing of the

flank of the tool with the machined surface.
o o
Effect of Tool Geometry

 In general, turning relief angles ranging from 3 to 10 are used.

 Small relief angles give strength to the cutting edge when
machining hard and strong materials.
 Increased values of relief angles allow the tool to penetrate and
cut the work piece material more efficiently, thereby reducing
the cutting forces.
 However too large relief angles weaken the cutting edge and
are not desirable.

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Effect of Tool Geometry Feed Marks in Turning

End Cutting Edge Angle

 The purpose of this angle is to relieve the trailing end of

the cutting edge to prevent rubbing the machined surface.
Effect of Tool Geometry

 To that extent only a small angle is sufficient for this

purpose.
 It is not desirable to have a large ECEA as it takes away
material that supports the cutting edge and hinders the
conduction of heat away from the point.
o o
 In most cases, values of 8 to 15 have been found
satisfactory for boring and turning tools.

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 Side Cutting Edge Angle
 This angle prevents the sudden engagement of the entire depth of
cut when the tool enters the work material.
 Zero SCEA: When it is zero, the entire cutting edge will engage at
the same time with the work piece.
Effect of Tool Geometry

 Non-Zero SCEA:
 When the SCEA is increased the entry of the tool is smooth to
start the cut since the depth of cut will gradually increase.
 The chip produced is thinner and wider, with increased SCEA.
This helps in distributing the produced heat over a larger
cutting edge.
o o
 Angle may vary from 0 to 30 for machining various materials.
 However with larger SCEA, the radial component of the cutting
force increases thereby promoting the possibility of chatter.

Nose Radius
 sharp point on the end of a tool is highly stressed, short lived
and leaves a groove in the path of cut.
 favorable to long tool life.
Effect of Tool Geometry

 improvement in surface finish and permissible cutting speed as

nose radius is increased from zero value.
 too large a nose radius will induce chatter.
 for rough turning, a small nose-radius usually about 0.4 mm
(1/64”) is used.
 for finish turning, a radius from 0.4 -1.6 mm (1/64” to 1/16”) is
used, depending upon the size of the tool.
 a turning tool with a nose radius of 0.8 mm (1/32”) will produce
a satisfactory finish for general rough or finish turning.

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 Surface Roughness
Factors contribute to natural surface roughness
1. The chatter or vibrations on the machine tool.
Effect of Tool Geometry

2. Inaccuracies in machine tool movements

3. Irregularities in the feed mechanism
4. Defects in the structure of the work material
5. Discontinuous chip formation in machining brittle materials
6. Tearing of the work material when ductile metals are cut at
low cutting speeds
7. Surface damage caused by chip flow, etc.

Ideal Roughness Profiles

Effect of Tool Geometry

′ ′ + ′ ′
=ℎ =
Since the areas ‘abc’ and ‘cde’ are equal
2 Pointed
= ′ ′ = Tool
4 ∅ = principal cutting edge angle
Now by geometry (f = ‘ac’ + ‘ce’ ) ∅ = end cutting angle
= ⇒ =
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅

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Effect of Tool Geometry Ideal Roughness Profiles

From figure: AD X DB = CD X DE

= × = ×2 ⇒ =

⇒ = =
4 32

References
 Metal Cutting Principles,
M.C. Shaw, Oxford University Press
 Principles of Metal Cutting,
G.C. Sen and A. Bhattacharya, New Central Book Agency
 Manufacturing Science,
References

M.I. Haque and S. Khan, PHI

 Manufacturing Technology,
P.N. Rao, TMH
 Machining & Machine Tools
A.B. Chattopadhyay, Wiley
 Manufacturing Science,
A. Ghosh and A.K. Malik, EWP

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