UNIT-I

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

Definition, Basic principles of Measurement, Measurement systems, Generalized

configuration and functional description of measuring instruments- Examples, Static
performance characteristics, Dynamic performance characteristics Sources of error,
Classification & elimination of error
__________________________________________________________________________

1. 1 INSTRUMENTATION:
The division of engineering science which deals with measuring techniques, devices and
their associated problems is called instrumentation.

Instrumentation of engineering science which deals with measuring techniques, devices and
their associated problems is called instrumentation.

Instrumentation is the technology of making measurements and it implies the application of

instruments for sensing, measurement, control and monitoring physical variables.
Instrumentation is a multi disciplinary subject, its different aspects are based on the subject
areas of physics, system dynamics, thermo-fluid mechanics and electrical principles.

1.2 MEASUREMENT:

Measurement is the act, or result of a quantitative comparison between a predetermine

standard and a measurand.

The act of measurement process produces result.

Measurement is the result of an opinion formed by one or more observers about their
relative size or intensity of some physical quantity. The opinion is formed by the
observer after comparing the object with a quantity of some kind chosen as a unit called
standard. The result of measurement is expressed by a number representing the ratio of
unknown quantity to the standard. Forexample10cm length of an object implies
thattheobjectis10timesaslargeas1cm, the unit employed in expressing length. This
number gives the value of measured quantity.

All mechanical quantities are not measured by mechanical means and, measurement of
mechanical quantities, in modern technology, involves the use of electrical and electronic
techniques.

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1.2 FUNDAMENTAL MEASURINGPROCESS

In order that the results of measurement are meaningful, the basic requirements are:

(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should,
be commonly acceptable.
(ii) The standard must be of the same character as the measurand (the unknown quantity
or the quantity under measurement) and is prescribed and defined by a legal or
recognized agency or organization like National Bureau of Standards (NBS) or the
International Organization of Standards (ISO), the American National Standards
institute(ANSI)
(iii) The apparatus used and the method adopted for the purposes of comparison must be
provable.

1.3 METHODS OFMEASUREMENTS:

1. Direct Methods. The unknown quantity is directly compared against a standard. The
result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit. The standard, in fact, is a physical
embodiment of a unit.
 Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of physical quantities
like length, mass and time.
 As direct measurement involve human factors are less accurate, less sensitive
 The direct methods may not always be possible, feasible and practicable.
 Hence direct methods are not preferred and are less commonly used.

2. Indirect Methods:
The value of the physical parameter (measurand) is more generally determined by
indirect comparison with secondary standards through calibration.
In direct method of measurement system consists of a transducing element which
converts the quantity to be measured into an analogous signal. The analogous signal is
then processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to the end devices which
present the results of the measurement.

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 Based upon the complexity of the measurement system the measurements are
generally grouped into three categories.

i) Primary measurements
ii) Secondary measurements
iii) Tertiary measurements.

i) Primary Measurements. A primary measurement is one that can be made by direct

observation without involving any conversion (translation) of the measured quantity
into length. In this case, the change in the measured quantity stimulates a set of the
observer's nerve endings, so that he can see or sense the change directly. The sought value
of a physical parameter is determined by comparing it directly with reference standards.

Typical examples of primary measurements are:

 The matching of two lengths, such as when determining the length of an object
with a meter rod,
 The matching of two colors, such as when judging the color of red hot
metals.

ii) Secondary Measurements:. The indirect measurements involving one translation

are called secondary measurement. Involves only one translation.
Ex: The conversion of pressure into displacement by means of bellows. Conversion
of force into displacement by means of spring. Therefore, a secondary measurement
requires an instrument which translates pressure changes into length changes, and.
A length scale or a standard which is calibrated in length units equivalent to known
changes in pressure.
Therefore, in a pressure gauge, the primary signal (pressure) is transmitted to a
translator and the secondary signal (length) is transmitted to observer's eye.

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 Example-3. for Tertiary measurement:
Ex-3. Measurement of speed of a rotating shaft by means of an
electric tachometer.

Primary signal Secondary

Tertiary signal
voltage

Rotating First Second Observers

translation eye
shaft (Shaftspeed) translation (Voltage) (Length)
Shaftspeed Voltage
isconverted converted
intoVoltage intolength

Fig:Tertiarymeasurement:Measurementofangularspeedbyelectrictachometer

 The angular speed of rotating shaft is first translated into an electrical

voltage, which is translated by a pair of wires to a volt meter. In voltmeter,
the voltage move a pointer on a scale. ie voltage is translated into length
change. The tertiary signal of length change is the measure of speed of
shaft.
• .

1.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENT:

Performance characteristics of an instrument are classified as
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

1.4.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:

The characteristics which describe the performance of measuring instruments when
subjected to low frequency inputs or DC inputs are referred to as static characteristics
In some of applications the parameter of interest is more or less constant or varies
very slowly with time. Measurement of such applications are called static
measurement
(i) Accuracy
(ii) Error
(iii) Reproducibility
(iv) Drift
(v) Sensitivity
(vi) Dead Zone
(vii) Precision
(viii) Linearity
(ix) Threshold
(x) Hysteresis

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 (xi) Resolution
(xii) Stability
(xiii) Range and Span

i) Accuracy: Accuracy is de fined as the closeness with which the reading of the
instrument approaches true value. The term accuracy describes how close the
measurement is to the true measured quantity.
It is defined as ratio of difference between the measured value and true value to the
true value.
The accuracy of the measuring system is expressed as Percentage of true value =
[(Measured value – True Value)/True Value]*100
Percentage of full scale deflection = [( Measured value – True Value)/Maximum
Scale value]
Ex- for accuracy: ± 1 % of accuracy of true value would mean that accuracy ± 1̊ C
when reading at 100̊ C and only ± 0.25̊ C when reading 25̊ C on the instrument
having scale range of 0 -100 ̊ C

ii) Error:
Errors are unavoidable in any instrument system. Attempts can be made to minimize
them by suitably designing the system by taking care of all sources of errors. The
accuracy of the instrument is measured in terms of its error.

Static error : is defined as the difference between the best measured value and
the true value of the quantity.
Static Error = Measured value – True value

iii) Reproducibility: Reproducibility represents the degree of closeness with

which a given value of a quantity (variable) may be repeatedly measured with in a
close range.
Reproducibility is a measure of closeness with which a given input may be
measured over and over again.
The reproducibility of an instrument is the ability to produce the same value of
output (response) for equal inputs applied over a period of time.

iv) Drift:
It indicates the change in the output of the instrument (transducer ) for a zero input
Drift causes the measurement result to vary for given input quantity
Drift can be carefully guarded wit care, prevention, inspection and maintenance.

v) Sensitivity or static sensitivity :

It is the ratio of magnitude of the output to the magnitude of input signal being
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 measured.
Sensitivity = Change in output signal / Change in input signal
K = qo/qi where K =sensitivity
qo = Value of output signal
qi = Value of input signal
Sensitivity can be re presented by slope of the calibration curve or
input-output curve

vi) Dead zone: Dead zone (Dead band) can be defined as the largest variation in
the value of input for which the instrument cannot respond and produces no output.
Dead zone is the largest change in input quantity for which a noticeable change in
the output is observed from zero reading. It may occur due to friction in the
instrument, which does not allow pointer to move till sufficient driving force is
developed to overcome the friction force. Dead zone is caused by back lash and
hystereresis in the instrument.

vii) Precision: The ability of the measuring system to reproduce the same output
among several independent measurements under specified conditions or within a
given accuracy is referred to as precision and is expressed in terms of deviation in
measurement.
Let us consider an example in which an input of accurately known value is applied
to the transducer. With this known input if the measuring instrument produces its
output which lies between ± 1%, then the precision of the measuring instrument
can be ± 1%.

viii) Linearity: Linearity can be defined as the closeness of actual calibration

curve of the instrument to he idealized straight line with in a given range of full
scale output. or
It can be stated as the deviation of output curve of measuring instrument from
specified or idealized straight line as shown in figure

vii) Threshold: Threshold of an instrument can be stated as the smallest quantity

of input below which the output will not be detected. It can be specified as
percentage of maximum scale deflection or an absolute value in terms of units of
input.

viii) Hysteresis:
Hysteresis can be defined as maximum differences in output at any measured value
within the specified range when approaching the point with increasing and then
decreasing input.
Hysteresis can be noticed when the input/output characteristics for an instrument
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 are not the same for the increasing values of inputs than for decreasing values of
inputs.
The magnitude of input for a given input depend on the direction of the change in
input, whether the input signal is ascending (Loading) or descending(Unloading)

ix) Resolution
Resolution of a measurement can be stated as any smallest increment in the
measured variable that can be noticed or detected by that instrument with certainty.
If an instrument has higher resolution, ,then it can distinguish very small changes
in the input quantity.

Increasing input value

Decreasing value of
input of input

x) Stability:
It is the ability of the instrument to have the same standard of performance over a
prolonged period of time.
The need for calibrating the instrument frequently is less for instrument having high
stability.

xi) Range and Span:

The region between which the instrument is to operate is called range.
Range = Lc to Hc where Lc=Lower calibration value, Hc= higher calibration value
Span is the difference between Upper and Lower limits of the instrument.

Sol: Range of the Instrument = 5000Cto 10000c.

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 Span : Span is the algebraic difference between the higher calibration value
and lower calibration value.
Span of the instrument = H - L = 10000c - 5000c = 5000c
c c

1.6 DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OFINSTRUMENT

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are as follows:
i) Speed of response
ii) Measurement Lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
v) Dynamic range
vi) Bandwidth
vii) Setting time
viii) Time constant.
The dynamic behavior of an instrument can be determined by applying some form of
known and predetermined input to its primary element and study the output ie., movement
of pointer)

Generally the behavior is judged for 3 types of inputs.

1. Step change: In this case the input having changed remains constant.
2. Linear change: In this case the input changes linearly with time.
3. Sinusoidal change: In this case the magnitude of the input changes in accordance with
a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude

i) Speed of response :
It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to sudden changes in the measured
quantity.
It is the quickness of an instrument with which it responds to sudden changes in amplitude of
the input signal.
Speed of response can also be stated as the total time taken by the system to come closer to
steady state condition.
Speed of response of a system can be evaluated by knowing the ―measurement Lag‖ of that
system.
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ii) Lag (measurement lag):
It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured quantity. The measuring Lag can be either of the retardation type in
which case ,the response of the instrument begins immediately on change in
measured variable or of the time delay type called dead time in which case the
response of the instrument is simply shifted along the timescale.

It is the time delay in the response of the input signal to the changes in the input signal.
iii) Fedelity:
It is determined by the fact that how closely the instrument reading follows the measured
variable. Ie It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in measured
variable with out dynamic error.

iv) Dynamic error :

It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time ie measured
variable and the instrument reading if no static error is assumed.

v) Dynamic range: The range of values of certain quantity ( for example temperature,
pressure, voltage,….. etc.) for which the measuring instrument can produce faithful
response under dynamic conditions is known as dynamic range of the instrument.
Dynamic range is represented as the ratio of the maximum value to minimum value for
which the system can respond effectively.

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 vi) Band width:
The range of frequencies with in which the dynamic sensitivity of the system lies
within a specified band ( for example ± 2% band) of static sensitivity of the system is
known as ‗band width‘ of the system. The amplitude versus frequency characteristics of
a system are flat with in the band width of the system.

vii) Settlingtime:
The required by the response of the system (after the application of a step input to it), to
reach and stay within close range of the steady state output value is known as ‗Settling
time‘. The settling time depicts the speed of response of the system. If the settling time
is small it can be inferred that the speed of response of the system is high.

viii) Timeconstant:
Time constant is defined as the time required for the output of the system to reach
63.2% of the final output value.
It is preferred to have a low time constant in order to have high speed of response and
Time constant depends on the parameters of the system

1.7 FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTSYSTEMS

The three main functions are as shown below:
1) Indicating function.
2) Recording function.
3) Controlling function.

1.8 APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS.:

The applications of measurement system as follows.
1) Monitoring of processes and operations.
2) Control of processes and operations.
3) Experimental Engineering analysis

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1.9 GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTONALELEMENTS:

 Sensor : The function of sensor element is to sense the measurand ie physical parameter
to be measured.

 Transducer : the transducer element accepts the output of sensor and converts in to an
electrical quantity without changing the actual signal (value of measurand)

 Manipulator: Manipulator element is used to manipulate (modify) the output of variable

conversion element such that it can be accepted by other element. For example; electrical
amplifier which is a manipulator and it amplifies the signal applied to it. It increases its
electrical signal of low magnitude to high magnitude signal. It also operates like
addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation etc,.

 Transmitter (Data Transmission element): the function of this element is to transmit

the measured signal from one place to other (ie from the field to control station).

 Processor (Data processing element): is an element that modifies the data before it is
displayed or finally recorded. Corrections to measured physical variables to
compensate for scaling, non-linearity, temperature error. Perform repeated
calculations that involve addition, subtraction, multiplication or division. Collect
information regarding average, statistical and algorithmic values. Convert the data

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 into useful form (calculation of engine efficiency from speed, power input & torque.
Reducing error, generate information for display.
 Controller: The controller element controls the parameter to be monitored within the
operational limits.
 Indicator: the indicating element is to indicate the specific value with an indicating hand
over a suitably calibrated scale.
 Recorder: this element produces a written continuous record of measurand with
respect to time.

1.10 THE STAGES (PHASES) OF GENERALIZED MEASUREMENTSYSTEM

The most measurement system fall within the frame work of a general arrangement
consists of three phases or stages.

Stage-I : A detector –transducer stage ( sensor stage)

Stage-II : An intermediate stage (signal conditioning stage).
Stage-III : A terminating or Read out stage:

Auxiliary power
source

Intermediate Terminating
Basic detector
modifying Device
Transducer
Input Signal systems
Element

Each stage consists of distinct components that form required and definite steps in the
measurement.
Stage-1: A detector-transducer stage or sensor stage: The prime function of the first stage is
to detect or to sense the measurand. At the same time , ideally it should be insensitive to every
other possible input. It detects the physical variable (input) and performs either a mechanical or
an electrical transformation to convert the signal into a more usable form.

Stage-2 : An intermediate stage (Signal conditioning stage) : The purpose of second stage is
to modify the transduced information, so that it is acceptable to the third or terminating stage.
In addition it may perform one or more basic operations such as selective filtering, integration,
differentiating, or telemetering as may be required. The common function of 2nd stage is to
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increase either amplitude or power of signal or both, to the level required to drive the final
terminating stage. It must be designed for proper matching characteristics between first and
second and between second and third stages.

Stage-3: A final or terminating stage: The stage provides the information sought in a form
comprehensible to one of the human senses or to a controller. The output is presented as in one
of the following form. As a relative displacement such as movement of indicating hand,
displacement of oscilloscope trace or oscillograph light beam / in digital form as presented by a
counter, or digital meters ( volt meter, automobile odometer) digital or analog.

Sensor transducer
Read out (scale )
Piston/ or Spring
cylinder (Force to
Input (Pressure) & index)
(Pressure to Displacement)
Force)

Fig: Block diagram of tire gauge functions

In this example the spring serves as secondary transducer. It consists of a cylinder and piston, a
spring resisting piston movement, and stem with scale divisions. - As air pressure bears against
the piston, the resulting force compresses the spring until spring & air forces balance. The
calibrated system which remains in place after the spring returns the piston indicates the applied
pressure. The piston-cylinder combination constitutes a force summing apparatus, sensing and
transducing pressure to force. As a secondary transducer, the spring converts the force to a
displacement. Finally the transduced input is transferred without signal conditioning to the scale
& index for readout

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1.10 ERROR, TYPES OF ERRORS, CAUSES, REMEDIALMEASURES ERROR:
Error = Reading of standard value – measured value
The accuracy and precision of an instrument depends upon its design, the material
used and workmanship that goes into making the instrument. The choice of an
instrument for a particular application depends upon the accuracy desired. If only a
fair degree of accuracy is desired, it is not economical to use expensive meter and
skill for the manufacture of the instruments. But an instrument used for an application
requiring a high degree of accuracy has to use expensive and a highly skilled workmanship

No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but it is important to find out
what accuracy actually is and how different errors entered into the measurement.
Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as under.

ERRORS

1) GROSS ERRORS:
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instrument
recording and calculating measurement results.The responsibility of the
mistake normally lies with the experimenter.

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 CAUSES FOR GROSS ERRORS
• The experimenter
• may grossly misread the scale, for example due to an over sight, he may read
the temperature as 31.50C while the actual reading may be21.50C
• He may transpose the reading while recording.
• For example , he may read 25.80C and record 28.50C instead.
• As long as human beings are involved, some gross errors will definitely be
committed.
•Although complete elimination of gross errors is probably impossible, one
should try to anticipate and correct them.

MEANS OF AVOIDING GROSS ERRORS:

1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2.Two, three or even more readings should be taken for quantity under
measurement.
3.These readings should taken preferably by different experimenters and the
reading should be taken at a different reading point to avoid re-reading with same
error.

2) SYSTEMATIC ERRORS:
Systematic errors are those which are repeated consistently with repetition of
the experiment. The systematic errors are as follows
2.1 Instrument Errors
2.2 Environmental errors
2.3 Observational errors

2.1 Instrument errors:

These errors arise due to three main reasons.
i. Due to inherent shortcomings in the instruments
ii Due to misuse of the instruments:
iii.Due to loading effects of instruments:
i. Due to inherent shortcomings in the instruments:
• These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical
structure. They may be due to construction, operation of instruments
• These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high. For
example: if the spring of a permanent magnet instrument has become
weak, the instrument will always read high. Errors may be caused
because of friction, hysteresis or even gear back lash.

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 Elimination & reduction
• The procedure of measurements must be carefully planned.
• Correction factors should be applied after determining the
instrumental errors.
• The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
ii. Misuse of instruments:
Too often the errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the
operator that of the instrument. Using good instruments in an
unintelligent way may give erroneous results.
Example: Failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial
adjustments, using a leads of too high a resistance etc.
Using the instrument contrary to manufacturer‘s instructions and
specifications ( over loading, over heating may ultimately result in failure
of the instrument).

Eliminate & reducing error:

Ensuring above instructions carefully while usage of instruments it
possible to eliminate or reduce errors

iii. Due to loading effects of instruments:

One of the most common errors committed by beginners is the improper
use of an instrument for measurement work.
For example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give misleading voltage
reading when connected across a high resistance circuit. The same
voltmeter when connected in a low resistance circuit may give a more
dependable reading. Therefore errors caused by loading effects of the
meters can be avoided by using them intelligently.

Eliminate & reducing error:

In planning any instrument, the loading effects of instrument should be
considered and corrections for these effects should be made.

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 2.2. ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS:
These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device
including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument.
These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations,
and external magnetic or electronic fields.

Corrective measures to eliminate & reducing error:

 Arrangement should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as
possible. Ex: temperature can be kept constant by keeping the instrument in
temperature controlled enclosure.
 Using equipment which is immune to these effects. For ex: variations in
resistance with temperature can be minimized by using resistance materials which
have very low resistance temperature coefficient.
 Employing techniques which eliminate the effect of these disturbance.
 Ex: effect of humidity, dust etc. can be entirely eliminated by hermetically
sealing equipment.
 In case it is suspected that external magnetic or electro static fields can affect
the readings of the instruments, magnetic or electrostatic shields may be provided.
 Applying the computed corrections.

2.3 OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS

There are many sources of observational error.
For an example: the pointer of a voltmeter slightly above the surface of the
scale. Thus an error on account of parallax will be incurred unless the line of
vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize parallax
errors, highly accurate meters are provided with mirror scales.

Eliminate & reducing error:

• Using the meters provided with mirror scales.
• Using instruments having digital display of output

2.3. RANDOMERRORS
• Random errors are those which are accidental and whose magnitude and sign
cannot be predicted from a knowledge of measuring system & conditions of
measurement.
• It has been consistently found that experimental results show variation
from one reading to another, even after all systematic errors have been
accounted for. These errors are due to a multitude of small factors which
change or fluctuate from one measurement to another and are due surely to
chance. We are aware of and account for some of the factors influencing
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 the measurement, but about the rest lie are unaware.
• The happenings or disturbances about which we are unaware are lumped to get
her and called Random or Residual error.

112 SOURSES OF ERRORS ( factors contributing for uncertainty of measurement)

Noise: it is defined as any signal that does not convey useful information. The
noise or signal disturbances contribute to the uncertainty of measurement.
• Noise may originate either at the primary sensing device
• In a communication channel.
• In the indicating element of the system.
Noise can be reduced to a maximum level through filtering, careful selection
of components, shielding and isolation of the entire measuring system.

i) Response time: measuring system cannot immediately indicate the

input signal applied to it. This factor contributes to uncertainty. ( mercury
thermometer)
ii) Design limitations: In the design of instruments there are certain inevitable
factors which lead to uncertainty of measurement.
iv) Effects of friction in the instrument movement:
v) Effect of resolving power: the ability of observer to distinguish between
nearly equal divisions.
vi) Energy exchanged by interaction : when ever energy required for
operating the measuring system is extracted from the measurand, the value
of latter is altered to a greater or lesser extent.
vii) Transmission: In the transmission of information from primary sensing
element to
indicator.
viii) Deterioration of measuring system: it is due to physical or chemical
deterioration or other alterations in characteristics measuring elements.
ix) Ambient influences on measuring system:
The changes in atmospheric temperature may alter the elastic constant
of a spring, changes in resistance. Other factors like humidity, pressure.
x) Errors of observation and interpretation: mistakes in observing,
interpreting,
recording the data. (Parallax errors, personal observer)

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 1.13 DESIRED, MODIFYING AND INTERFERING INPUTS FOR A
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM or (GENERAL INPUT-OUTPUT
CONFIGURATION OF MEASUREMENTSYSTEM)
The general configuration of measuring instruments has three types of inputs. They are
i. Desired inputs
ii. Interfering inputs
iii Modifying inputs

i)Desired inputs:
The input quantities for which the measurement system is designed to measurand
produce output are known as desired inputs.
If the transfer function of the system is G and the applied input is ‗r‘
the Output will be C= G.r
Let the desired input is represented as rD
According to the input-output relationship of mathematical model, the output (CD)
produced due to the desired input rD is given as
CD= GD . rD where GD = Transfer function

i.e., it is a mathematical operation required to get the output from desired input.
From this we can understand that the transfer function is a constant, and it will be
multiplied with input rD to produce output
CD= GD. rD.

it is because to get an amplified output in linear systems.

In non-linear systems , the transfer function will be represented by using algebraic or
transcendental function.
If the inputs applied to the system are dynamic in nature, then its input-output
relationship will be represented by differential function.

ii) Interfering Inputs:

Interfering input quantities are those which make the measurement system or instrument
unintentionally sensitive. The measurement system or instruments respond to the
interfering inputs and produces an output through they are not desired to respond. This
occurs because of its design, operating principle and some other factors like
environments in which they are placed.
The interfering input is represented by rI and transfer function is GI is similar to
producing output using desired input rD and transfer function GD

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iii) Modifying inputs:
The inputs which causes a change in the input-output relationship of a measurement
system for both desired and interfering inputs or any one of the inputs alone.

Modifying input is represented by rM which modifies both GD GI or any

one of these ( ie GD or GI)
The manner in which rM affects GD is represented by GMD And the manner in which rM
affects GI is represented by GMI
The interpretation of these GMD and GMI is same as GD and Gr
The instantaneous output due to desired, modifying and interfering inputs is given to
summer or summing point which produces the sum of the instantaneous values. The
measurement system or instrument produces several output, if it is subjected to several
inputs of each of these three types.

Output: It is the final response ( or result of measuring process).

Example-1. Differential pressure measurement of a gas using U-tube manometer.
From the figure, we know that
P1, P2 are input pressures applied at the two ends of the monometer The differential
pressure of manometer is explained as
Pdiff = P1 – P2 = ( ƿm - ƿf ) gh Where g = gravitational constant H= scale reading
ƿm = density of mercury ƿf = density of gas as the density of gas is very small
compared to the density of the mercury, ƿf can be neglected therefore Pdiff = P1 – P2
= ƿm gh

when the both pressures are equal ie P1 = P2 Then Pdiff= P1 – P2 = P1-P1 = 0

In this case the mercury levels in the two limbs of the manometer become equal and
hence the scale reading ‗h‘ will be zero.

In some cases, the scale readings does equal to zero, though both pressures are equal.
This is due to

a) the improper position or angle of tilt of manometer

b) The presence of acceleration , vibrations near the manometers

Any variation in the atmospheric conditions such as ambient temperature causes

change in the length of the calibrated scale and also density of mercury. Due to this the
proportionality factor relating the pressures and scale reading may gets modified or
changed in this example.

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i) Desired inputs are input pressures P1 andP2
ii) Modifying inputs are ambient temperature , gravitational force.
iii) Interfering inputs are Improper position or angle of tilt of manometer, the
presence of acceleration, vibrations near the manometers
iv). Output is scale reading ‗h‘.

Example-2. Measurement of Strain using strain gauge- wheatstone bridge arrangement.

A strain gauge mounted on a cantilever beam is connected in one of the four arms of the
wheatstone bridge. The other three arms of the bridge contains a resistor of same resistance
values (ie R2 = R3 = R4 = R )

When no strain is applied, the resistance of the strain gauge R1 – R and the bridge becomes
balanced and hence, no voltage is produced at the output.

When force or strain is applied to the cantilever beam, the strain gauge element senses the
strain due to which the length and hence, the resistance of the gauge changes.

When the resistance of gauge changes, the balanced condition of the bridge is disturbed.

( ie the bridge becomes unbalanced) and voltage is produced at its output. The resistance of
the gauge element changes and voltage is generated at the output even though no force is
applied to the cantilever. This is due to following

 Change in temperature of environment in which strain gauge is located.

 Electromagnetic field of 50HZ frequency of near by circuits or power lines.
The voltage supplied to the bridge circuit through a battery modifies proportionality
factor relating the force and voltage or temperature and voltage.

1) Desired input is force

2) Modifying input is battery voltage (ei)
3) Interfering inputs are Change in temperature of environment n which strain gauge is
located. Electromagnetic fields of 50HZ frequency of nearby circuits or power lines.

1.14 CLASSIFICATION / TYPES OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

Measuring instruments are classified as follows

i) Mechanical instruments
ii) Electrical instruments
iii) Electronic Instruments
iv) Deflection and null type instruments

22
v) Analog and digital type instruments
vi) Self generating and power operated instruments
vii) Automatic and manually operated instruments
viii) Contacting and non-contacting instruments
ix) Remote indicating measuring instruments
x) Intelligent indicating measuring instruments

i) Mechanical instruments: Ex- Screw gauge

 simple in construction
 do not require external power
 Do not respond quickly to dynamic and transient conditions.
 Causes noise pollution.
 Do not give accurate results.
ii) Electrical instruments: Example – Ammeters, voltmeters
 The output indicated by these is quick in comparison to mechanical
instruments
 For indicating records, mechanical devises are used.
iii) Electronic Instruments: Example- Cathode ray Oscilloscope
 These instruments respond quickly to dynamic and transient conditions.
 Light in weight Very compact
 Consume less power
 High sensitivity and flexibility
 Remote indication is possible
iv) Deflection and null type instruments:
Deflection type instruments: example- Spring balance
Measured quantity generates an effect that is ultimately related by the
deflection of a pointer. Null type instruments: Example- Beam balance
In null type instruments, the physical effect caused by the quantity being
measured is nullified deflection maintained at zero) by generating an
equivalent opposing effect.

v) Analog and digital instruments:

Analog instruments: The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous
fashion and can take an infinite number of values in a given range.
Ex- Wrist watch, ammeters, volt meters

Digital instruments: example:- Digital voltmeters, digital Ammeters

A signal is said to be digital if it changes in a discrete manner it takes finite
number of values in any specified range.

23
 vi) Self generating and power operated instruments:
Self generating instruments: Example: The motive power in mercury-
in-glass thermometer. The output energy is supplied entirely by the input
signal. It Donot require any external power source .Energy is met from
input signal.

Power operated instrument: Example: multimeter

It require external power source such as compressed air, hydraulic
supply etc. for their operation

vii) Contacting and non-contacting instruments:

Contacting instruments: Example; Thermometer, thermocouple
instrument comes in contact with measured medium.
Non-contacting instruments: ex: optical pyrometers for
temperature measurement. The instrument does not come in
contact with medium.

viii) Intelligent instruments: A microprocessor will be present along with

basic element. It will enable pre-programmed signal processing and
application of data-manipulation algorithms to the measured variable.

1.15 ZERO ORDER, FIRST-ORDER and SECOND-ORDERSYSTEMS:

Consider an ideal measuring system ie a system whose output is directly proportional
to input, no matter how the input varies.
The output is a faithful reproduction of input without any
distortion or time lag. The mathematical equation relating output
to input is of form
Qo = KQi or
where Qo = output
Qi = input
K= sensitivity of the system.
This equation of the Zero-order system is obtained when the power of ‗n‘ is set equal
to zero in the general equation for measurement system.
That gives : Ao Qo = Bo Qi

ϴo =
𝐁𝐨
ϴi= K ϴi Type equation here.
𝐀𝐨

24
 The static sensitivity is the ony parameter which characterizes a zero-order system and its
value can be obtained through the process of static calibration.

A block diagram representation of Zero-order system is as follows:

ϴi ϴo
K

• Examples of Zero-order system are

• Mechanical levers
• Amplifiers
• Potentiometer which gives an output voltage portioned to the displacement of
wiper

1.16 CALIBRATION & CALIBRATIONPROCEDURE

CALIBRATION: A known input is given to the measurement systems and output is

noted. If the system output deviates with respect to the given known input, corrections are
made in the instrument so that the output matches the input. This process is called as
calibration.

PROCEDURE OF CALIBRATION:

i) To calibrate an instrument initially adjust the instrument such that it produces null
output when no input is applied.
ii) Then apply an accurately known value of measurand and adjust the instrument again
until its scale exactly indicates the value of measurand. This process of adjusting the
instrument is called calibration.
iii) The graphical representation of calibration record is called calibration curve. This
curve relates standard values of input to the actual values of output throughout the
operating range of the instrument.

CALIBRATION METHODS:
The calibration methods of instruments are as follows:.
1) Primary calibration: System is calibrated against a primary standard.
Example: While calibrating a flow meter, if the flow is determined by measuring the
time and volume or mass of fluid, then it is called primary calibration.
2) Secondary calibration: A device that has been calibrated by primary calibration
is used as a secondary standard for further calibration of other devices of lesser
accuracy.
25
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE CALIBRATING AN INSTRUMENT:

1. Calibration of the instrument is carried out in the same position (upright or

horizontal) and subjected to the same temperature and other environmental
conditions under which it is to operate while in service.

2. The instruments calibrated with values of measurand impressed both in the

increasing and in the decreasing order.

3. The results are then expressed graphically output is plotted as ordinate and input
as the abscissa.
.

26
 UNIT-II
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

2.0 MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT

SYLLABUS: Theory and construction of various transducers to measure displacement.
Piezo electric transducer, Inductive transducer, Capacitance transducer, Resistance
transducer, Ionization transducer, Photo Electric transducer, Calibration procedure

2.1 TRANSDUCER:
A transducer is a device which senses the physical variable to be measured and converts
into a suitable signal ( voltage or current)
A device to convert the quantity or phenomenon to be measured into a voltage or current,
which can be observed on an oscilloscope, read on a meter or recorded on a chart
Ex: - Pressure transducer: Pressure gauge
Temperature transducers ie RTD, Thermistor, Thermocouple, pyrometer
Displacement transducers: 1) Variable resistance transducer, 2)LVDT 3)Capacitive, 4)
variable Reluctance displacement transducer, 5) piezo electrictransducer, 6) Hall effect
displacement transducer, 7) photoelectric transducer, 8)Ionization transducer, 9)LDR

2.2 FACTORS ON WHICH TRASDUCER SELECTION DEPEND

i. Fundamental parameters : These include
a) Type of measurand (input)
b) Range of measurement
c) Required precision , which include
d) Allowable non-linearity effects
e) Allowable dead-zone effects
f) Frequency response
g) Resolution
ii. Environment:
This includes conditions of
a) Ambient temperature
b) Corrosive or non-corrosive atmosphere
c) What shock and vibration to withstand
iii. Physical conditions: These are
a) Room or available space to mount the transducer.
b) Whether the measurement is static or dynamic.
c) How much energy can be extracted from the input to do measurement without
much loading.
iv. Compatibility with next stage:
Transducer should be so chosen so as to meet the requirements of next stage.
27
 a) Impedance matching.
b) Excitation voltage matching.
c) Sensitivity tolerance matching.
v. General requirements:
a) Ruggedness to withstand overloads
b) Linearity
c) Repeatability
d) Stability and reliability
e) Good dynamic response
f) Convenient instrumentation.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

Transducers are classified as follows:
i. Active and passive transducer and Passive transducer.

1a. Active Transducer:

The transducers which do not require any external excitation energy to provide their output
are known as active transducer.
Example: Piezo electric transducer, Photo voltaic cell, Thermocouple,
Moving coil generator
1b. Passive transducer:
The transducers which require external excitation energy to provide their output are
known as passive transducers.
Examples: - Resistance transducer
Capacitive transducer
Inductive transducer
Hall-effect transducer
Photo emissive cell (Photo electric type transducer)

2) On the basis of transduction principle used:

The input variable to the transducer is being converted into resistance, capacitance or
Inductance value.
2a) Resistive transducers:
Resistance thermometer, Potentiometer device, Resistance strain gauge, Thermistor ,
Photo conductive cell
2b) Capacitive transducers: Dielectric gauge, capacitor microphone, Variable capacitance
pressure gauge
2c) Inductive transducers: Differential transformer type transducer (LVDT, RVDT),
Reluctance type transducer.

3) Primary and secondary transducers:

28
3a) Primary transducer:
It is the first element in a measurement system and it senses the physical parameters (like
temperature, pressure, displacement, force etc.) and converts them into a mechanical parameter
(usually displacement)
These are mechanical type and electrical type

Ex: -pressure sensing elements (diaphragm, bellows, and bourdon tube)

Solid rod expansion thermometers (Bimetallic strip).The cylindrical column of a load
cell which converts displacement in to strain
3b) Secondary transducer:
A transducer which is used as the second element of a measurement system, to convert the
mechanical output of primary transducer into an electrical quantity is known as secondary
transducer. Generally these are electrical type transducers.
Example: -strain gauge, LVDT (Linear variable differential transformer).

4. Analog and Digital transducers:

4a) Analog transducer: It is a transducer which produces an output in analog form or a form
which is a continuous function of time. .
Example: -Thermistor , Thermocouple, Strain gauge, LVDT
4b) Digital transducer: It is a transducer which produces an output in digital form or in the
form of pulses.
Example: Turbine flow meter.

5) Transducers and Inverse Transducers:

5a) Transducer (Input transducers): a measuring device which measures and converts
non- electrical quantity into electrical quantity is known as transducer. Such transducers are
usually used in the input stage of a system and hence they are also known as input
transducers Example:
Thermocouple
Potentio meter
LVDT
Moving coil generator
5b) Inverse Transducer (output transducers): A measuring device which measures and
converts an electrical quantity into non-electrical quantity is known as inverse transducer. Such
transducers are usually placed at the output stage of a measurement system and hence they are also
known as output transducers. Inverse transducers are used in feedback measuring systems like
servo-mechanism etc.
Example: - Piezo electrical crystal, Data indicating and recording instruments ( Analog
ammeter, Volt meter, pen recorders etc.)

29
2.3 ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS FOR LINEAR DISPLACEMENTMEASUREMENT
1a) Variable resistance transducer ( Potentio meter)
2a) Variable inductance transducer – LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transducer)
3a) Variable reluctance displacement transducer.
4a) Linear Variable capacitance transducer
5) Piezo electric transducer
6) Light dependent Resistance(LDR)
7) Ionization transducer

2.4 ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS FOR ANGULAR DISPLACEMENTMEASUREMENT

1b) Angular potentiometric displacement transducer
2b) Variable inductance transducer-RVDT ( Rotary variable differential Transformer)
3b) Angular variable capacitance transducer
4) Hall-effect angular displacement transducer

2.3.1a) VARIABLE RESISTANCE TRANSDUCER (potentiometer)

Resistance of an electrical conductor varies according to the relation

R=ƿL/A
where R = resistance in ohms
L = Length of the conductor
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor
Ƿ = the resistivity of material in ohm cm
This device is a variable resistor whose resistance is varied by movement of a slider over its
resistance element. The slider is connected to an arm which is moved by the component whose
linear motion is to be sensed. The schematic arrangement is shown in fig below. When the
component moves to the right, the resistance of the potentiometer is increased and the amount of
increase is a function of the amount of linear motion of the component. The direction of the
movement of component is indicated by whether the resistance is increasing or decreasing. The
resistance can be measured by employing a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

30
2.3.1b) ANGULAR POTENTIOMETRIC DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER

Resistance of an electrical conductor varies according to the relation R= ƿL /A

where R = resistance in ohms
L = Length of the conductor
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor
Ƿ = the resistivity of material in ohm cm
It resembles the linear motion potentiometer, except that the resistance element is circular
instead of straight. The slider is mounted upon a shaft and as this shaft is rotated, the slider
moves over the resistance element, cutting off a part of total resistance. The rotating component
whose angular motion is to be sensed is coupled to this shaft. Thus the resistance of the
potentiometer changes in proportion to the angular motion of the rotating component and the
direction of rotation is determined by whether the resistance is increasing or decreasing.
Generally this type of sensor is suitable only for angular motion not exceeding about 300
degrees.

2.3.2a) VARIABLE INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCER (Example: Linear variable Differential

Transformer–LVDT)
LVDT is one of the most useful of the variable inductance transducer which is as shown in
figure. The device converts linear motion to a voltage signal. It consists of a primary winding
(PW) and two identical secondary windings (SW1, SW2) and a soft iron core which is connected
by means of an arm to the moving component and moves with it.The core is so positioned that
normally, the voltage output from each secondary winding is the same. The secondary windings
are symmetrically placed, are identical and are connected in phase opposition so that the emf
induced in them is opposite to each other.

31
 When the core is placed centrally, equal but opposite emf are induced in the secondary
windings and zero output is recorded. This is termed as the balanced point or null position. A
variation in the position of the core from its null position produces an unbalance in the resistance
of the secondary windings to the primary windings, thus upon displacement of the core, the
result will be a voltage rise in one secondary and a decrease in the other. The asymmetry in the
core position thus produces a differential voltage ( Eo ) which varies linearly with change in the
core position. Within the range limits on either side of the null position core displacement results
in proportional output.

MERITS OF LVDT:
1. It produces linear output voltage
2. It can measure displacement of very high range from 1.25 mm to250mm
3. It has high sensitivity
4. Since it produces high output. it does not require amplification device.
5. It is simple and rugged in construction, ie it can with stand high degree of shock and
vibration.
6. It has no sliding contacts,. Therefore there is no Problem of friction.
7. It has low hysteresis
8. It consumes less power (about <1w)

DEMERITS OF LVDT
1. It is sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
2. The performance of LVDT is affected by variations in temperature.
3. It has limited dynamic response.
4. To provide high differential output, it requires large displacements.
5. It provides AC output. Therefore it requires a demodulator circuit.

32
2.4.2b) ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

This is similar to the LVDT, except that its core is cam shaped and may be rotated between the
windings by means of a shaft coupled to the rotating component. The circuit is as shown in
figure and its working is similar to that of LVDT.
At the null position of the core, the voltage output from the two windings SW1 and SW2 are
equal through opposite in phase. Hence in that position, the net output is zero. Any rotary
displacement from this null position results in a differential voltage output. Greater is the rotary
displacement, the larger will be the differential voltage output.

2.3.3 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER:

Inductance or self inductance: when a varying current is made to pass through a coil, an induced
counter emf results due to magnetic flux intersecting the turns of the coil. This effect causes
resistance to flow of current and it is called inductance or self–inductance.
Mutual inductance: The term refers to the set up of an emf in a coil or in a circuit element due to
varying flux in neighboring coil or circuit element.
Inductance: The term refers to that characteristic of a magnetic circuit which determines the total
magnetic flux when a given magneto motive force is applied. Reciprocal of reluctance is termed
as permeance.

33
Permeability: It is defined as the ratio of the flux lines set up in a coil under given conditions to
the number of magnetic flux lines that would occur if the path were air ( other conditions
remaining unchanged)

WORKING OF VARIABLE RELUCTANCE DISPLACEMENTTRANSDUCER:

Figure shows the variable reluctance transducer in which the variable air gap serves to alter the
inductance of a single coil.The change in inductance may be calibrated in terms of the armature
movement. The variable reluctance principle is particularly applicable to the measurement of
displacement and angular position.
2
The self inductance of coil is given by L = N / ( Ri +Rg ) -------- eqn-1
Ri = reluctance of iron parts.
Rg = reluctance of air gap
As Ri <<Rg, Ri =0
L = N2/Rg ------- Eqn-2
2
L = N / Rg --------- Eqn -2
But the reluctance of air gap is given by
Rg = lg / (A g ..uo)
where lg = length of air gap Ag = area of flux
path
uo =permeability
As u0 and Ag are constants Rg ἀ lg
L ἀ 1/lg

ie., the self inductance of a coil is inversely proportional to the length of the air gap.
When the target is near the core, lg is small and hence ‗L‘ is large.
Since, it is the displacement which changes the length of area, the variation in the self
inductance is a function of displacement as
lg ἀ x i
L ἀ 1/ xi therefore the input, output relation is non-linear.

2.3.4) TRANSDUCER FOR MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR DISPLACEMENT

Capacitive transducer operates on the principle of capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor which
is given by
C = є. A/d where C = Capacitance of a capacitor in Farads)
є = єrєo
є = Permittivity of medium ( F/m)
єr = Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
єo= Permittivity of free space ( 8.54*10-12 F/m )

34
 d = Distance between two plates (m2 )
The capacitance of a capacitor varies when
a) the over lapping area (A) of the plates changes.
b) The distance between two plates (d)changes
c) The dielectric constant (єr )changes

2.3.4a) CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER USING THE EFFECT OF VARIATION OF

OVERLAPPING AREA OF PLATES.

C = є. A/d -------equation-1
From the equation-1, it is clear that the capacitance e of the capacitor is directly proportional to
the overlapping area of plates.
The area linearly Varies with the applied displacement. Therefore the capacitive transducer
using this principle is used to measure the linear displacements o about 1mm to 10 mm.

From the equation-1 , the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is

C = є.A/d = є . L*b/d ,
l = length of overlapping area of plates, b= width of overlapping area of plates.

35
2.3.4b) CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER USING THE EFFECT OF VARIATION OF
DISTANCE BETWEEN PLTES.

The capacitor operates on the principle of variation of capacitance due to variation in distance
between plates. Among two plates one is fixed and the other is movable . From the equation- 1,
it is clear that the capacitance of the two plate capacitor is inversely proportional to the distance
between the plates.
When the movable plate moves towards the fixed plate or moves away from the fixed plate w.r.t
applied displacement, the distance between the plates and hence capacitance changes. In this case
the response is non-linear; hence it is used to measure only small displacements.

2.3.4c) CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER USING THE EFFECT OF VARIATION OF

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
The capacitive transducer working on the principle of change in capacitance due to

variation of dielectric constant w.r.t linear displacement is shown in figure.

36
The capacitive transducer working on the principle of change in capacitance due to variation of
dielectric constant w.r.t linear displacement is shown in figure. it contains two fixed plates . A
dielectric material with relative permittivity єr moves between two plates w.r.t applied
displacement.
At initial condition the capacitance of the transducer is
C = єo bL1 /t + єo єr bL2 / t = єo b( bL1 + єr L2) /t
C= єo b ( L1 + єr L2 )
When the dielectric material moves towards left by displacement x, the capacitance varies from
C to C + ΔC.
When the dielectric material moves towards left by x, it changes L1 = L1 -x and L2 = l2
+ x C+ΔC = єo b(l1 - x) /t + єo єr b( l2 + x ) /t
C+ΔC = єo b [l1 - x + єr ( l2 + x )] /t

C+ΔC = єo b [l1 - x + єr ( l2 + x )] /t
= єo b [l1 + єrl2)/t + єo bx [ єr - 1) /
t C+ΔC = C + єo bx [ єr - 1) /t
ΔC = єo bx [ єr - 1) /t
The variation in capacitance is ΔC = єo bx [ єr - 1) / ΔC ἀ x
The variation in the directly proportional to applied displacement.

2.4.3b)ANGULAR VARIABLE CAPACITANCE TRANSDUCER FOR MEASUREMENT

OF ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT
The capacitive transducer working on the principle of change in capacitance due to
change in overlapping area of plates can be used for angular displacement measurement.
The capacitive transducer used for measurement of angular displacement is shown in
figure. The capacitive transducer contains two plates,. Out of these two, one plate is
movable and the other is fixed.
When the angular displacement to be measured is applied to the movable plate, the
overlapping area between the two plates changes, which in turn changes the capacitance
of the capacitive transducer.

37
 The capacitance will be maximum , when ϴ = 1800 Ie , when two plates overlap each
other completely.
Considering the radius of capacitor plate = r
Area = π r2 /2
Maximum capacitance = Cmax = є . A/d = π
є r2 /2d The value of capacitance at angle ϴ
is given by
C = ( π є r2 /2d ) * ( ϴ/ 2 π) = є ϴ r2
/2d Where ϴ= angular displacement (
in radians)
Now
Sensitivity S = ∂C/ ∂ϴ Differentiating C w.r.t ϴ
∂C/ ∂ϴ = є
r2 /2d S =
є r2 /2d
Therefore Sensitivity is directly proportional to area, since є and d are constant

2.3.5 PIEZO-ELECTRICTRANSDUCER:

38
Piezo-electric effect: When some pressure or stress is applied to the surface of the piezo- electric
crystal, the dimensions of the crystal change and an electric charge voltage will be developed
across certain surfaces of the pizo-electric crystal, conversely when an electric charge voltage or
potential is applied to the crystal, the crystal get deformed and hence the dimensions (thickness
change) of it will change. This effect is referred as Piezo-electric effect. All the piezoelectric
transducers work on the principle of piezo-electric effect. The materials used in the construction
of piezoelectric crystals are Quartz, Rochelle salt, Dipotassium tartrate, Lithium sulphate,
Barium titanate, Potassium dihydrogen phosphate, Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate.

PIEZO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER WORKING:

A piezo-electrical crystal subjected to a force as shown in figure. A typical mode of operation of
a piezo-electric device for measuring varying force applied to a simple plate.
Metal electrodes are attached to the selected faces of a crystal in order to detect the electrical
charge developed. The magnitude and polarity of the induced charge on the crystal surface is
proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force and is given by
Q = K*F -----as per coulombs‘ law Eqn--1
Where Q= is the charge in colomb
F= impressed force in Newton
K= crystal sensitivity in C/N it is constant for a particular crystal
The relationship between the force F , and the change δt in the crystal thickness ‗ t‘ is
given by the stress-strain relationship
Young's modulus =
F = A.Y δt /t------Eqn - 2
The charge at electrode gives rise to voltage such that Vo = Q/C --------eqn-3
where C= Capacitance between electrodes
C = єr єo A/t farads -------- eqn-4

Substituting the values of Q, F, C in equation -3

Vo = Q/C = KF/C = KF/ (єr єoA/t) = K ( F/A)t / єr єo
Since P = F/A, Vo = K ( F/A)t / єr єo = K.P.t/(єr єo ) = [ K/(єr єo )]Pt = gPt Where g = K/(єrєo)
g= crystal voltage sensitivity in Vm/N
P= applied pressure in N/m2

ADVANTAGES OF PIEZO-ELECTRICTRANSDUCER:
• High frequency response
• High output.
• Rugged in construction
• Negligible phase shift.
• Small in size.

39
DISADVANTAGES
• In cannot measure static conditions as its output is affected by changes in temperature.
• Measuring system is increasingly expensive.

PPLICATION OF PIEZO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER:

• The small size of the transducer is especially useful for accelerometers
• Pressure cell.
• Force cells
• Used for dynamic force

2.3.5 PHOTO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER:

PRINIPLE: These transducers operate on the principle that when light strikes special
combination of materials, a voltage may be generated; a resistance change may take place or
electrons my flow.

APPLCATION: used in control engineering for precision measuring devices, Exposure meters
used n photography
Used in solar batteries as source of power for rockets & satellites

TYPES OF PHOTO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

i) Photo-emissive (photo tube ) transducer
ii) Photo conductive transducer
iii) Photo-Voltaic transducer

i) PHOTO-EMISIVETRANSDUCER

The operating principle of photo-emissive transducer is that when a light beam exposed on to
special combination of materials, electrons are emitted. Therefore , a current flow is produced in
the circuit. (since the emitted electrons attracted towards anode).
The arrangement consists of a glass tube in which anode and cathode are enclosed. This glass
tube is usually filled with an inert gas. The current produced in the circuit is proportional to the
intensity of radiation. The cathode of photo-emissive transducer is made with an oxidized silver
base and is covered with a thin film cesiam. One of the most frequently used photo-emissive
transducer is photomultiplier.

40
i) PHOTO MULTIPLIER: Most frequently used photo-emissive transducer is
The electrons emitted from the cathode of photomultiplier are not immediately drawn to the
anode. But they are attached to another electrode called dynode D1 . When the incident electrons
strikes D1, it emits secondary electrons. The electrons from D1 are attached to the dynode D2
and at the end all are collected by anode, producing current(I)

ii) PHOTO-CONDUCTIVE CELL /TRANSDUCER

These are variable resistance transducers. They operate on the principle of photo-
conductive effect, ie some special type of semi conductor materials change their
resistance when exposed to light.
Light information  resistance information.
It consists of a thin layer of material such as silenium or metallic sulphide of germanium
is coated between electrodes on a glass plate. In this type, resistance of material is
directly proportional to the light striking on it.

iii) PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL ( SOLAR CELL)

 In the photo voltaic cell there is a coating of certain oxide on a metal surface.
 When Light strikes the coating and generates an electrical potential directly
proportional to intensity of light.
 Generally used in photo-graphic exposure meter.

41
 2.3.7 IONIZATION TRANSDUCER: to measure displacement

The operating principle of Ionization transducer is that when two electrodes are placed in an
ionized gas, they produce potential difference ( Eout). The magnitude of this potential
difference depends on the following factors.
i) Electrode spacing, ii) State of balance.
The gas is enclosed inside a glass tube under reduced pressure. In the above arrangement the
external electrodes are connected to a RF generator which produces an electric field. When the
glass tube is subjected to this electric field, the potential difference is developed across the
internal electrode. Therefore the gas inside the glass tube gets ionized. The potential difference is
zero, when the electrode spacing is at null position. The potential difference is varied with the
displacement of glass tube, since it is relative to the external electrodes.

APPLICATIONS:
• It is used for the measurement of displacement
• It can be used for detection of radiation.

2.4.4 HALL EFFECT DISPLACEMENTTRANSDUCER:

Hall Effect: relates to the generation of transverse voltage difference on a conductor which
carries current and is subjected to magnetic field in perpendicular direction.

42
The fig. shows the schematic of a circuit which produces Hall effect. Here Hall strip carries a
current ‗I‘ in the x-direction and is subjected to magnetic field B in the Z-direction

The thickness of the strip is very small as compared to its length and width, the voltage E is setup
in the transverse direction orY-direction. The voltage is directly proportional to the current I, field
strength B and inversely proportional to thickness ‗t‘ of the strip. That is

E = K. B.I/t => K= Et/(BI) ,

the unit o of K is V. m3 / (Wb . A)

WORKING OF HALL EFFECT DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER

The fig shows the arrangement of Hall effect transducer as used for the measurement of Linear
displacement. This proximity pickup requires a ferrous target whose approach changes the
reluctance of an internal magnet circuit. The Hall Effect element is located in the gap adjacent to
the permanent magnet. When a plate of iron or other ferrow magnetic material is moved with
respect to the structure, thee magnet field in the gap changes due to the permanent magnet. That
produces the output voltage which is a measure of the displacement of ferrow magnetic plate
with respect to the structure. This arrangement is successfully employed for measuring
displacement as small as 0.025 mm.

USES OF HALL EFFECT TRANSDUCERS:

• To measure whether a semiconductor is of N-type or P-type.
• To measure either the current or strength of magnetic field.
43
 • To measure the displacement

2.3.6)LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR) FOR DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT

Operating principle of LDR is change in resistance corresponding to the change in the light
energy falling on its surface, that is the conduction of LDR depends upon
• The amount of light on its surface.
• Materials used for making LDR:
• Cadmium sulfide
• Cadmium solenoid
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESITOR (LDR): When LDR is subjected to light energy, electron-
hole pair combination occurs within the material due to valence electrons. With the movement
of these charge carriers conduction takes place in the device. If more amount of light is made to fall
on the surface, more charge carriers will be generated which intern increases the conduction and
decreases the resistance. Similarly less amount of light on the surface causes less current to flow in the
device and hence the resistance will be high, ie the resistance is inversely proportional to the light on the
surface.

MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT USING LDR:

The LDR consists of a square sectioned or circular sectioned case which accommodates a LDR
at its sealed end. At the open end of the case, a rod is fitted which can slide into the case. A light
source (say LED) is mounted on the inner end of the rod and the object whose displacement is to
be measured is connected to the outer end of the rod. The displacement of the object causes the
rod to slide either front or back inside the case, ie either towards or away from LDR. The inward
movement of the rod decreases the distance between the light source (LED) and LDR. As a result
more amount of light falls on the surface of LDR. Thus the increase in the amount of incident
light decreases the resistance of LDR and consequently increases the flow of current through
LDR. Whereas, the outward movement of the rod increases the distance between LED and LDR
and hence decreases the amount of light incident on LDR. As a result, the resistance of LDR
increases which in turn decreases the current flow through LDR. Thus the change in current of
LDR is measured by using multi meter , which is calibrated in terms of displacement.

44
2.5 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature is an indication of intensity of molecular activity.
Definition of Temperature: ― A condition of a body by virtue of which heat is transferred to
or from other bodies‖ and a quantity whose difference is proportional to the work from a
carnot engine operating between a hot source and a cold receiver.

TEMPERATURE:
Temperature may be defined as
• Degree of hotness or coldness of a body or an environment measured on a definite scale.
• Driving force or potential causing the flow of energy as heat.
• Measure of the mean kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance

1.6. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER USED FOR MEASUREMENT OF

TEMPERATURE
i) Change in physical state : example : Bimetallic thermometer.
The temperature which is to be measured is applied to the bimetallic strip. As soon as the
bimetallic strip senses the temperature, it will expand or contract. When this happens, the
pointer attached to the free end of the strip moves over the calibrated scale which
indicated the value proportional to the applied temperature.

ii) Change in chemical state or properties: example: Liquid-in-glass thermometer.

The operating principle of liquid-in-glass thermometer is that differential expansion of
liquid and glass on heating is used to indicate temperature.

iii) Change in physical properties ( or dimensions): Expl: gas thermometer.

The operating principle of gas thermometer is that the change in pressure of a gas
corresponding to change in temperature.

iv) Change in the electrical properties: example; thermocouples, resistance temperature

detector (Resistance thermometer)
The operating principle of resistance thermometer is that the resistance of conductor
changes with the change in temperature.
iv) Change in radiation properties: example : Total radiation pyrometers, optical
pyrometers etc.
The process of measuring temperature using total radiation pyrometers makes use of total
energy emitted by the hot body.

45
2.7. CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTS
I) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON THE TYPE OF METHOD USED: as follows.
1) Mechanical Instruments ( Non electrical method)
1a) Liquid-in-glass thermometer
1b) Gas thermometer
1c) Vapor pressure thermometer
1d) Bimetallic thermometer
1e) Solid rod thermometer

2) Electrical Instruments( Electrical method)

2a) Resistance thermometer
2b)Thermistor
2c)Thermocouple
3) Optical Instruments (Radiation method)
3a) total radiation pyrometers
3b) Infrared pyrometers
3c) Optical pyrometers.(Disappearing filament type pyrometers )

II) CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTS BASED EXPANSION

i) Expansion of solids: - bimetallic thermometer
- Solid rod thermometer
ii) Expansion of Liquids : -Liquid-in-glass thermometer
- Liquid-in-metal thermometer
iii) Expansion of gas : Gas thermometer

46
2.7.1a). LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER

•It consists of a temperature sensing bulb, responsive fluid and a

scale. One end of the capillary tube is connected to safety bulb
and other end is connected to temperature sensing bulb. The
most widely used fluids in Liquid-in-glass thermometer is
either mercury or alcohol.
•The quick transfer of heat is possible with the liquid-in-glass,
when the temperature sensing bulb walls should be thin.
•As the temperature is raised, the greater expansion of liquid,
causes it to rise in the capillary or stem of the thermometer and
height is used as a measure of temperature.
•The volume enclosed in the stem above the liquid may either
contain a vacuum or filled with air or gas
For a higher temp ranges an inert gas at a controlled initial
pressure is introduced in this volume, thereby raising the boiling
point of the liquid and increasing the total useful range

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF LIQUID USED IN A GLASSTHERMO

METER
a. The temperature-dimensional relationship should be linear, permitting a linear instrument scale.
b. The liquid should have as large co-efficient of expansion as possible. For this reason Alcohol is
better than mercury.
c. The liquid should accommodate a reasonable temp range without change of state.
d. The liquid should be clearly visible when drawn into a fine thread.
e. The liquid should not adhere to the capillary walls.

2.7.1b) GAS THERMOMETER

When the pressure of a gas is maintained constant: As temperature increases, the volume of gas

47
also increases. Therefore, in case of constant pressure thermometer, as temperature increases,
the volume of the gas also increases. Here the pressure and mass of the gas are kept constant.

when the volume of the gas is maintained constant: As temperature increases the pressure of gas
also increases. Therefore, in case of constant volume thermometer as temp increases the pressure
of gas also increases. Hence the volume and mass of the gas are kept constant.
we know that constant volume
Pr = Po ( 1+ β1T) ( since temp increases, pressure of gas also increases)
Pr = Po ( 1+β1T)
Pr = Pressure at T 0C , Po = Pressure at 0 0C
β1 = Thermal coefficient of pressure
The pressure change in gas pressure is given by ΔP =
Po β1 (T2 - T1)
ΔP = Po β1 (T2 - T1)
ΔP = Po β1 ΔT Where ΔP = pressure change, ΔT = T2 -T1 = change in temp
ΔP = Po β1ΔT-----eqn-1 Where ΔP = pressure change,
ΔT = T2 -T1= change in temp, From the eqn-1, it is
observed that ΔP = Po β1 (T2 - T1)
ΔP = Po β1 ΔT Where ΔP = pressure change, ΔT = T2 -T1 = change in temp
ΔP is proportional to ΔT

WOKING OF GAS THERMOMETER

If consists of a sensing bulb, a bourdon tube and a capillary tube.A bourdon tube is a pressure
transducer which is used to measure the change in the pressure of a gas.The bourdon tube is
calibrated directly on the basis of change in pressure corresponding to the temperature of a bulb.
The volume of gas in the capillary is very small compared to that of volume of gas in the bulb,
and this thermometer bulb is made large. Therefore, the effect of ambient temp is reduced; due to
this the dynamic response of the gas thermometer for transient changes is also reduced.

48
2.7.1c) VAPOUR PRESSURE THERMOMETER

It contains a sensible bulb, a capillary and the bourdon tube. The most widely used liquids –in-
filled system are propane, tolune, methyl chloride, sulphur dioxide and ethyl ether. In this type of
thermometer the sensing bulb is filled with liquid vapour mixture. One end of the bourdon tube is
connected to a capillary and the other end is connected to a pointer. The vapor liquid interface

lies in the sensing bulb. In this type of thermometers, the capillary tube and bourdon tube is filled
with non- volatile liquid, where as the sensing bulb is filled with volatile liquid. The vapour
pressure of the volatile liquid is increased due to the increase in temp of sensing bulb. This
change in vapour pressure of the volatile liquid is transmitted to the pressure transducer
(bourdon tube) through non-volatile liquid. If the non-volatile liquid used in vapour pressure
thermometer remains in liquid phase, then the ambient temp effect is very small. The vapor
pressure thermometer has a non-linear relation between temp and vapour pressure.

ADVANTAGES:
i) Its cost is very low
ii) It has very fast response
iii)The size of the sensing bulb is very small when compared to other thermometers.

2.7.1d) BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS

i ) Spiral shaped Bimetallic Strip thermometer

ii) Helical shaped Bimetallic strip thermometer
Bimetallic thermometers are of solid expansion type of thermometers. When two
different materials which have different thermal expansion coefficient are joined
together, then bimetallic thermometer or bimetallic sensor is formed.

The two types of materials used are brass and Invar. Of these two brass has high thermal
49
 expansion coefficient and invar has low thermal expansion coefficient. The bimetallic
strip can be available in helical, cantilever, flat type or also in spiral shape.

WORKING:
One end of the helical shaped bimetallic strip is fixed and other end is left out free. A
pointer is attached at the free end f the bimetallic strip. The temperature which is to be
measured is applied to the bimetallic strip. As soon as the bimetallic strip senses the
temp, it will expand or contact
When this happens the pointer attached to the free end of the strip moves over the
calibrated scale, which indicates the value proportional to the applied temperature.
When it is subjected to temperature change, the free end of the bimetallic spiral
deflects proportional to the change in temperature. This deflection becomes a measure
of change in temperature

SPIRAL SHAPED BIMETALLIC STRIL THERMOMETER:

One end of the spiral shaped bimetallic strip is fixed and the other end is left out free. A pointer
is attached at the free end of the bimetallic strip. As soon as the bimetallic strip senses the
temperature, it will expand or contact. When it is subjected to temperature change, the free end

50
 of the bimetallic spiral deflects proportional to the change in temperature. This deflection
becomes a measure of change in temperature.

WORKING OF SPIRAL SHAPED BIMETALLIC THERMOMETE

One end of the spiral shaped bimetallic strip is fixed and the other end is left out free.
A pointer is attached at the free end of the bimetallic strip. As soon as the bimetallic strip senses
the temperature, it will expand or contact. When it is subjected to temperature change, the free
end of the bimetallic spiral deflects proportional to the change in temperature. This deflection
becomes a measure of change in temperature.

APPLIATIONS OF BIMETTALIC THERMOMETERS

1. These are used in control devices in aprocess
2. A spiral shaped strips finds application in A.C thermostats
3. Bimetallic shaped strips (helical type ) are widely used in oil burners, refineries, tyre
vulcanizes

MERITS OF BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS

• Since the scale is calibrated in terms of temp, we can take readings easily and directly
• These are available in various types, so can choose any one type depending on requirement.
• Simple in construction
• Simple in operation
• Fast response
• Light weight
• Cost is less

DEMERITS OF BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS

1. Can not be used for measurement of high range of temperature.
2. Measurement of temperature at remote areas is not possible.
3. Low accuracy
2.7.1e) SOLID ROD THERMOMETER

A solid rod thermometer is a temperature measuring device, which is based on the

51
 principle of linear expansion of the metals due to changes in temperature. A solid rod
thermometer consists of a metal rod. One end of the metal rod is fixed and the other end
is movable, so as to allow the expansion of the metal. To measure the expansion of the
metal rod, its movable end is connected to the pointer and scale arrangement. A spring is
attached to pointer so as to restore the deflection of pointer

2.7.2a) RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD) or RESISTANCE

THERMOMETER
The principle of operation of RTD: is that the resistance of the conductor varies with the
variation in temperature. The amount of change occurred in the resistance can be given
2 3
by R = Ro ( 1+ α1 T + α2 T +α3T + + αnTn)
Where Ro is the resistance at zero temperature
and α1, α2 , α3 ………. αn are constants
The value of change in resistance is measured with the help of wheatstone bridge circuit.
The output voltage of the bridge gives the measure of the change in resistance of RTD and
hence the change in temperature when properly calibrated. Generally temperature
sensitive materials such as platinum, copper, tungsten and nickel which has a positive
temperature coefficient of resistance are used as temperature sensing element. Example:

Platinum resistance thermometer, in which platinum metal is used as the sensing element,
because of its ability to with stand high temperatures (6000 C ) , maintaining excellent
stability, and high degree of accuracy.

CONSTRUCTION OF RTD:
The construction of the resistance thermometer, the temperature sensitive resistance
element platinum or copper which is in the form of wire is wound arround a hallow
insulating ceramic former. Protective cement is applied over this ceramic former. The
ends of coil are welded to copper leads. To measure change in resistance of the coil,
when it is subjected to temperature, the thermometer is connected in one of the arms of
the wheatstone bridge. To provide mechanical strength and rigidity and to protect the resistance

52
 thermometer assembly from contamination due to high temperatures, the whole assembly is
placed in a protective metal shield.
The linear resistance temperature relationship over a temperature range around 00 C
(ie 2730 K) is given as
Rt = Ro ( 1+ α T ) …… eqn--1
Where Ro = Resistance
at 00 C T= temperature
relative to 00 C
α = temperature Coefficient of resistance of material in (Ω/ Ω)/ 00 C
for a change in temperature from t1 to t2 the following relationship
is used R1 = R0 + R0 αt1 ---------eqn-2
R2 = R0 + R0 αt2-----------eqn-3
R2 - R1 = R0 α (t2–t1) subtracting eqn—2, from eqn—3.
R2 = R1 + R0 α (t2 –t1)
R1 = resistance at temperature 1
R2 = resistance at temperature 2

IMPORTANCE OF PROTECTION NEEDED FOR SENSING ELEMENT

• The sensing element of a RTD requires protection in order to prevent from harmful
chemicals and gases.
• It is usually coated with a thin layer of glass.
• Resistance element leads are protected to avoid damage.
• The resistance wire can be protected by providing suitable protections and coatings to the
sensing element.
27.2b) THERMISTOR
Thermistor or thermal resistors are made up of sintered mixtures of metallic oxides like
copper, nickel, cobolt, iron, manganese and uranium. when there is any variation in the
temperature applied to the thermistor, then the resistance of the thermistor varies. This
variation in the resistance value of thermistor gives the measure of the change in the
temperature. Most of the thermistors have the property of negative temperature
coefficient

of resistance. Therefore, the resistance of thermistor increases with decrease in

temperature and decrease in resistance with increase in temperature. The changes in
resistance values ( with respect to temperature) can be known with the help of wheatstone
bridge measuring circuit.

53
 CONSTRUCTION OF THERMISTOR
The sensing element of the thermistor is enclosed in a metallic tube and an insulating
material is placed between these two (thermistor and metal tube). Two leads are connected
to the thermistor sensing element. The leads, metal tube and sensing element all together
is known as a temperature measuring device called thermistor.

Thermistors are made in different sizes and forms (shapes) such as beads, discs, rods and
probs .

WORKING OF THERMISTOR:
The temperature-resistance function for a thermistor is given by
R = Ro ek
K = β ( 1/T - 1/To ) Ro
R = the resistance at any temperature T in 0 K Ro = the resistance
at reference temp To in 0 k
E = the base of Naperian logarithms. , β = a constant
The constant β generally has a value between 3400 and 3900 depending on thermistor
formulation.
Working: The circuit used to measure temperature using a thermistor is shown in figure. Here the
thermistor is connected to one of the four arms of the wheatstone bridge. At the start of
measurement process, some current whose magnitude is known is made to pass through the
sensing element of the thermistor and its initial resistance value is determined with wheatsone
bridge.

when the temperature of the process increases, the thermistor sensing element will be heated
which causes its resistance to decrease. Similarly when the temperature of the process decreases
the resistance of the thermistor sensing element increases. The variation of resistance sensin
element is determined by wheatstone bridge. Here the change of resistance is displayed by the
output device and the displayed signal gives the measurement of the temperature of the process
when calibrated. The resistance-temperature characteristics of thermistor are illustrated in figure
54
MERITS OF THERMISTOR:
1) exhibits high sensitivity
2) provides fast response
3) can be used to measure high temperature.
4 sze is small and cost is low.
5) lead wire compensation is not required
6) high accuracy and can with stand electrical and mechanical stresses
7) can be used with simple resistance measuring circuits.

DEMRITS OFTHERMISTOR:
1) exhibits non-linear characteristics
2) stability is low
3) problem of a ‗Gain effect‘ ( increase in the resistance of thermistor when time lapses)

APPLICATIONS OF THERMISTOR:
1) These can be effectively used for the measurement of variations in temperature, control
of temperature.
2) These can be used to measure thermal conductivity
3) These are used in electrical circuits to provide time delay.
4)These can be applied to measure vacuum flow, pressure and level of liquids.
5)These can be used to measure power at high frequencies.

CALIBRATION PROCEDURE OF THERMISTOR:

The general procedure employed in laboratories to calibrate a thermistor is as follows:
1) Place the thermistor at ice point ie at 00 C and measure its resistance.
2) Construct a wheatstone bridge circuit with four resistors of same resistance.
3) Now replace any one resistor of the ridge with thermistor. Therefore the bridge gets
unbalanced. Hence adjust the resistance value of thermistor such that the bridge become
rebalanced.
4) Then subject the thermistor to a temperature of say 500 C. with increase in temperature,
55
 the resistance of thermistor decreases due to which the bridge becomes unbalanced again.
Now readjust the resistance of thermistor to make the bridge balanced.
5) With this the thermistor is calibrated between 00 C to 500 C and it can measure any
temperature ranging 00 C to 500C.

DISTIGUISH BETWEEN RTD &THERMISTOR

RTD THERMISTOR
1) Thermistors are made up of ceramic or plymer
1. RTD are made of pure metals
materials.
2. It has +ve tep. Coefficient
2) It has –ve temp.coefficient
3. Rtd has low accuraccuracy
3) Thermistors have good accuracy
4. Used for greater temp range upto 6000 C
4) Used for lower temp range upto 1300C
5. RTD allow smaller cable lengths
5) It allows larger cablelength
6. Slow output response
6) Fast outputresponse
7. Used in industrial installation application
7) Used in homeappliances
8. Good stability
8) Less stable thanRTD
9. These areexpensive
9) These are inexpensive
10. Low amount ofheating
10) High amount of selfheating
11. It possesses good linearcharacteristics
11) It possesses non-linearcharacteristics

2.7.2c) THERMOCOUPLE:
Basis for thermocouple:
In 1821 I.J. Seebeck discovered that an electromotive force exists across a junction formed of
two unlike materials. Later it was shown that the potential actually come from two different
sources
i) that (e.m.f) resulting from contacts of the two dissimilar metals and junction temperature.
This is called Peltier effect.
ii) and that due to temperature gradients along the conductors in the circuit. This is called
Thomson effect.
In most cases Thomson emf is quite small relative to the peltier emf and with proper
selection of materials may be disregarded. These effects form the basis for temperature
measuring element, the thermocouple.

ELEMENTARY THERMOCOUPLE CIRCUIT:

If a circuit is formed including thermocouple as shown in figure. A minimum of two conductors
will be necessary resulting in two junctions P,Q.

56
 If we disregard the Thomson effect, the net emf will be result of the difference between the two
Peltier e.m.f‘s accuring at the two junctions.
If the temperatures T1 and T2 are equal he two emf‘s will be equal but opposed and no current
will flow. However if the temperatures are different, the emf will not balance and a current will
flow. The net emf is a function of the two materials used to form the circuit and the temperatures
of the two junctions. Note that two junctions are always required Hot or measuring juncti The
junction which senses the desired or unknown temperature.Cold junction or reference junction:
The junction which is usually maintained at a known fixed temperature.

APPLICATION OF LAWS OF THERMOCOUPLES:

In a addition to the Seebeck effect, here are certain laws by which thermo-electric circuits abide
are as follows.
i) Laws of Intermediate metals
ii) Laws of Intermediate temperature
i) Laws of Intermediate metals: Insertion of an intermediate metals into a thermocouple circuit
will not affect the net emf, provided the two junctions introduced by the third metal are at
identical temperature. As shown in fig(a), if the third metal ‗C‘ is introduced and if the new
junctions ‗r‘ and ‗s‘ are both held at temperature T3, the net potential for the circuit will remain
unchanged. This of course permits insertion of a measuring device or circuit without upsetting
the temperature function of the thermocouple circuit.

As shown in fig(b), if the third metal ‗C‘ may be introduced at either a measuring or reference
junction, so long as couples P1 and P2 are maintained at the same temperature T1. This makes
possible the use of joining metals, such as soft or hard solder in fabricating the thermocouples.

57
ii) LAW OF INTERMEDIATETEMPARATURES:

If a simple thermocouple circuit develops an emf e1 when its junctions are at temperatures T1
and T2, and an emf e2 when its junctions are temperatures T2 andT3. It will develop an emf ( e1 +
e2), when its junctions are at temperaturs T1 andT3.
THERMOCOUPLE PRINCIPLE & THEORY:

When two metals which are made up of two different materials are joined together to form two
junctions. One junction senses the desired or unknown temperature, this junction is called hot or
measuring junction. The second junction will be usually be maintained at a known or fixed temperature
and is called cold or reference junction. When the measuring junction is heated up with respect to other
junction, the emf developed at the junction is proportional to the applied temperature and the junction
temperature is known as thermocouple.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES MATERIALS USED TO CONSTRUCT

THERMOCOUPLES:
1) Chromel–constantan = 200 0 C to 8500 C
2) Iron– Constantan (type-J ) = - 200 0 C to 8500 C
3) Copper – constantan(type-I) = - 250 0 C to 4000 C
4) Chromel–Alumel (type-K) = - 200 0 C to 11000 C
5) Rhenium– Tungsten =0 0 C to 26000 C

58
 CONSTRUCTION & WORKING OFTHERMOCOUPLE

The thermocouple hot junction will be exposed to the process or media where the temperature
has to be measured. The thermocouple since the two junctions are at different temperatures a
voltage is setup at the free ends and since the free ends are connected to a milli voltmeter the emf
setup will establish a flow of current which can be measured directly by using the milli volmeter.
Since the reference junction is kept at 0 0 C the emf measured is a function of the temperature of
the hot junction. The milli voltmeter is calibrated to indicate the readings in terms of
temperature.

The emf developed in a thermocouple depends upon the difference in temperature between the
hot junction and cold junction. cold junction will be maintained at a constant reference
temperature. The temperature of the cold junction is purposefully kept at 0 0 C, to avoid errors
which may be introduced on account of change in room temperature. Two dissimilar metals used
for thermocouples may be twisted, screwed, clamped or melted together. Thermocouple do not
used bare conductors except in applications, where atmospheric conditions permits their use.
Usually protective sealing is used to surround the junction and a portion of the external leads.
The leads and junction are in turn insulated from the sheath using various oxiides.

The thermocouples are usually installed inside the protective walls so that they can be easily
removed or replaced without interruption to the plant.Since the two junctions are at different
temperatures a voltage is setup at the free ends and since the free ends are connected to a milli
voltmeter the emf setup will establish a flow of current which can be measured directly by using
the milli voltmeter. Since the reference junction is kept at 0 0 C the emf measured is a function of

59
the temperature of the hot junction. The milil voltmeter is calibrated to indicate the readings in
terms of temperature. The emf developed in a thermocouple depends upon the difference in
temperature between the hot junction and cold junction.

ADVANTAGES OF THERMOCOUPLE:
1) Can measure fast changes in the temperature.
2) Produces electrical outputs.
3) It is an active transducer ie no need of any excitation to operate.
4) Can be used to measure wide ranges of temp from 0 0 C to 1400 0C
5) The temperature of a particular point can be measured.

DISADVANTAGES:
1) Produces low output voltage in terms of milivolts
2) Accuracy of measurement is low
3) The output voltage is affected by stray magnetic field.
4) The extension wires should be made of those materials which are used in the construction of
thermocouple.

APPLICATIONS OF THERMOCOUPLE

• used to measure thermal conductivity

• Can be used in the measurement of pressure, level, and flow of liquids and to know the
composition of gases.
• Can be applied to measure vacuum.
• Applied in the measurement of voltage and currents.

WHAT IS A MBIENT TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION IN THERMOCOUPLE

SET UP:
The thermocouple consists of one hot junction and another reference junction or the cold
junction at ambient temperature. The instrument which is under process deals with both hot
junction and cold junction temperature. Thermocouples computes this temperature difference
between the hot and cold junctions. But the measuring instrument has a tendency to vary
because of variations in ambient temperature. For this reason, the ambient temperature
compensation is required which is called cold junction compensation. This can be achieved by
using electromechanical or electronic devices.

60
 COMMON FORMS OF THERMOCOUPLE CONSTRUCTION:

COMMON METHODS FOR SEPARATING THERMOCOUPLE WIRES

Prob: let us assume an arrangement as shown in fig using type –T (copper-constant)

thermocouple, a reference temperature of 20oc, determined as described above and a
potentiometer reading of 2.877 mv. Find the temperature sensed by the measuring couple.
Soln: because our readout is reffered to 20 0 C and thermocouple tables are referred to 0 0 C .
We must use the law of intermediate temperatures to convert our emf value as follows.
Ex o = Ex 20 + E2o 0
0
Where Ex o = emf corresponding to the unknown temperature referred to 0 C
Ex 20 = emf corresponding to the unknown temperature referred to 20 0 C E2o 0
0 0
= emf corresponding to 20 C temperature referred to 0 C
Table: values of thermal emf in milli volts
For type-T thermocouple and at reference temp 0 0C

0 50 C 100 C 150C 200 C

00C 0 0.195 0.391 0.589 0.789
0
75 C 3.131 3.357 mv 3.584 3.813 4.044
61
 Given Ex o =2.877mv

From table E2o 0 = 0.789 mv Using above

table, Ex o = Ex 20 + E2o0
= 2.877 + 0.789 = 3.666 mv
Temperature corresponding to 3.666 mv from the above table = 85 + 1.55 = 86.55 0 C
WORK_OUT: For 3.584 ----------------- > 85 0 C
( 3.666 – 3.584) = 0.102 =
Voltage difference for 15 and 10 0 C = 3.813- 3.584 = 0.329
That is for o.329 mv  5 0 C
For 0.102 mv  0.102* 5/0.329 = 1.55mv

2.7.3 PHYROMETRY:

From the Greek words phyros means fire. Metron means measure, The term phyrometry means
temperature measurment.Phyrometry is concerned with primarily of various forms of thermal
radiation measurements.

PHYROMETRY THEORY: all bodies above absolute zero temperature radiate energy. Not
only they radiate or emit energy , but also receive and absorb it from other source. We all know
that when a piece of steel is heated to about 550 0 C, it begins to glow ie visible light being
radiated from its surface. As the temp is raised, the light becomes brighter or more intensive. In
addition there is a change in colour, it changes from dull red, through orange to yellow and
finally approaches to an almost white light at the melting temperature 1430 0 C to 1540 0 C. The
energy of which is transmitted as electromagnetic waves travelling at the speed of light. It is
known that all the substances emit and absorb radiant energy at a rate depending on the absolute
temperature and physical properties of the substance.

CLASSIFICATION OF PYROMETERS:

1. Total radiation pyrometers

2. Infrared pyrometers
3. Optical pyrometers ( Disappearing filament type of pyrometers )

2.7.3a).TOTAL RADIATIONPYROMETERS
W = O * e *T4

where W = Radiant energy BTU/sq. feet /hour

O= Stefan constant = 1.71 * 10 BTU/ Sft /hour

62
 e = emissivity of the surface, dimensionless number between 0 to 1 (0.90 for steel)
T= absolute temperature

Operating Principle: of this pyrometer is that , the total radiation of a hot body is made to fall
on the devices which receives the radiation such as thermocouple, thermopile etc., and the emf
developed by these devices give the temperature of the hot subject.

TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER (MIRROR TYPE) :construction & working:

The total radiation pyrometer consists of a radiation receiving element and a measuring device to
indicate temperature directly. Here diaphragm unit along with a mirror is used to focus the
radiation on a radiant energy sensing transducer. The lens to transducer (a vacuum thermo
couple or thermopile) distance is adjustable for proper focus.

The mirror type of radiation receiver shown in fig is so arranged that the image of the front
diaphragm is focused on the thermocouple by mirror. Therefore the temperature measurements
are independent of distance of the target.
Presence of any absorbing media present between target and the transducer reduces the radiation
received and therefore the pyrometer reads low. Substances like smoke, dust and gases absorb
radiation and causes – ve static errors. On the other hand presence of heat sources like hot gases,
high temp particles and flame causes the meter to read high.

MERITS OF TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER:

1. These can be used to measure high range of temperatures
2. These can measure temperatures of those objects which are fixed at some place and objects
which are moving.

3. These are non-contact type of pyrometers.

4. It produces fast response

DEMERITS OF TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER:

1. It shows decreased performance if any dust particles or gas are present between the hot
63
 object and the receiving mirror.

2. Some times it requires some cooling arrangement to remove the over heating of the
instrument.

3. There is a problem in focusing the total radiation on to the thermocouple if the mirror is not
placed properly

4. It cannot be used to measure low temperatures.

5. It is expensive.

APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER

1. it is used to measure temperatures in bright annealing furnace.

2. It is used to measure temperature of hot objects with in a furnace.
3. It is used in conditions where thermocouples fail to operate.

2..7.3b) INFRARED PYROMETER

fig: infrared pyrometer

Infrared pyrometers are also known as selective or partial radiation pyrometers. These
pyrometers utilize infrared radiations emitted by a heated source. As temperature of the
source increases the emission of infrared radiation from the source increases
proportionally. ( if the temp of source is beyond 5500 C , then the source emits both
visible light and also infrared energy). This phenomenon of proportional increase of
infrared radiation makes this pyrometry possible by including some electronic circuitry,
an indicating and controlling unit and a suitable detector. The infrared radiation from the
temperature source is made to fall on the photo voltaic cell through radiant energy
receiver.(set of diaphragms). The passage of this radiation to the cell depends on the area
of the first diaphragm.

64
 To prevent the cell from overheating a filter is used ahead of it which allows ( the
radiations of 10000 C to 12000 C to fall on the cell in order to prevent the cell from
overheating.To prevent this filter from physical damage a protecting window is used. The
source whose temp is to be measured is not in direct contact with the detector When the
infrared radiations falls on the cell, it generate an emf which becomes the measure of

temp of source. This emf can be read from the output meter or digital display.

2.7.3c). OPTICAL PYROMETER (Disappearing Filament type of pyrometer).

Operating principle : of optical pyrometer is based on the comparison of image‘s

brightness generated by hot object with reference temperature lamp.

WORKING: The radiation emitted by hot body whose temperature is to be measured is

made to focus on the reference temperature lam filament through an objective lens. By
properly adjusting the eye piece a sharp focus can be obtained.

A dark image figure 2(i) of the filament is obtained by controlling the current flowing
through the lamp. Abrightimageshowninfig-2(ii) of the filament is obtained if the temp of
the filament is low or cool when compared with the temp of hot object. No image will be
appeared in case the filament is very hot compared with hot object, that means the image
of the filament disappears as shown in figure-(iii). Therefore it is also called as
disappearing type of pyrometer.

65
APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PYROMETER (Disappearing Filament type of
pyrometer)
1.These are applied to measure temperature of furnaces.

2.Applied in the measurement of temperatures of heated materials and also molten materials

MERITS OF OPTICAL PYROMETERS

i) operation is simple
ii) This instrument measures temperature with out contacting the hot object. Therefore it is a
non-contact type.
iii) High accuracy is obtained.

DEMERITS:
i) Can not be used in the continuous measurement of temperature..
ii) Exhibits less sensitivity at low temperatures
iii) Requires cooling arrangement

2.8 MEASUREMENT OF FPRESSURE:

Pressure: is the average force exerted by a medium usually a fluid on a unit area.
Pressure is usually expressed as the force per unit area

Pressure = force/area , the force exerted in direction perpendicular to the surface of unit area

• It differs from normal stress only in the mode of application

• Commonly expressed in terms of Pascal (Pa)

or mm of Hg column or mm of water column.

• Pascal (Pa ) is equal to Newton per square meter

PRESSURE MEASUREMENTTERMS:
i) Atmospheric pressure (Pat ) : this is the pressure exerted by the envelope of air
surrounding the earth surface.

Pat - Pvp = gh

Pvp = mercury vapour pressure

66
 h= mercury level

Pat = Atmospheric pressure

𝔭= density of mercury

Since mercury has a low vapor pressure Pvp = 0 Pat = gh

ii) Absolute Pressure ( Pab ) : It is defined as the algebraic sum of atmospheric pressure and
gauge pressure.

Pabs = Patm +Pgauge ( for positive gauge

pressure) Pabs = Patm + (- Pgauge)
=Patm -Pgauge ( for negative gauge pressure)

3) Gauge Pressure (Pgauge ): The pressure above atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure.

When the unknown pressure is more than atmospheric pressure, the pressure recorded by the
instrument is called gauge pressure

2.8.1 PRINCIPLES USED TO MEASURE PRESSURE:

Pressure-1: Pressure can be measured by balancing a column of liquid against the pressure
which has to be measured. The height of the column which is balanced becomes a measure of the
applied pressure when calibrated.

Example: Manometer

67
Principle-2: When the pressure is applied on the elastic element, the shape of the elastic element
changes which intern moves the pointer with respect to scale. The pointer reading becomes a
measure of the applied pressure when calibrated.

Example : Bourdon tube

Example-3: When electrical current flows through a conducting wire, it gets heated. Depending
up on the conductivity of the surrounding media, the heat is dissipated from the wire. The rate of
change in the temperature of the wire becomes a measure of the aplied pressure.

Example: Pirani gauge

2.8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

1. Gravitational transducers:
a) A dead weight tester/gauge
b) Manometers

b.1) well type manometer

b.2) U type manometer (differential manometer)
b.3) Barometer
b.4) Inclined manometer
b.5) Micro manometer.
2. Elastic transducers :
2.1) Bourdon pressure gauge

2.2) Elastic diaphragm gauge

- Flat type diaphragm gauge
- Corrugated type diaphragm gauge
2.3) Bellow gauges

3. Strain gauge Pressure cell:

- Pinehead tube
- Cylindrical tube pressure cell
- Flattened tube pressure cell

4. Mcleodgauge

5. Thermal conductivity gauges:

- Thermocouple gauge
- Pirani gauge
6. Ionization gauges:

7. Electrical resistance pressure gauge:

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 1a). DEAD-WEIGHT TYPE TESTER or GAUGE ( Pistongauge):

Working: a dead weight or piston gauge is commonly used as source of standard pressure for
calibration purposes. It is basically a pressure producing and pressure measuring device.

It consists of a accurately machined bored and finished piston which is inserted into a close
fitting cylinder. The cross-section area of the both the piston and cylinder are known.

At the top of the piston is provided a platform on which standard weights of known accuracy can
be placed. An oil reservoir with a check valve at its bottom is also provided.

The oil from the reservoir can be sucked by a displacement pump on its upward stroke and
forced into the system on the downward stroke of the displacement pump.
For calibration purposes first a known calculated ) weight is placed on th platform and
the fluid pressure is applied to the other end of the piston until enough force is developed to lift
the piston-weight combination and the piston floats freely.

fluid pressure= P=

thus the pressure caused due to the weigh placed on the platform is calculated by using the
above equation. To achieve high accurate results, frictional force between the cylinder and piston
must be reduced which is generally accomplished by rotating the piston while the reading is
taken.

69
 MERITS OF DEAD-WEIGHT TYPE TESTER / GAUGE:
1. Its construction is simple and is very easy to operate.
2. It is used as standard for calibration of wide range of pressure measuring devices.
3. Fluid pressure can be varied easily either by adding piston or by changing the piston
cylinder.

DEMERITS:
1. Friction between the piston and cylinder effects the accuracy of the gauge.
2. Gravitational force also effects the accuracy of the gauge.

APPLICATIONs:
1. It is used to measure pressure.
2. Used to calibrate all kinds of pressure gauges

1b) DIFFERENT TYPES OF MANOMETERS:

b. 1) well type manometer
b. 2) U type manometer (differential manometer
b .3) Barometer
b.4) Inclined manometer
b.5) Micro manometer.

1b.1) WELL TYPEMANOMETER:

it consists of a well and a tube . The area of the well is much
larger than the area of the tube. So when pressure Pa is
applied on well, and pressure Pbis applied in a monometer.
The pressure difference will be indicated by the height of the
liquid column in thetube.
Pressure difference = Pd= Pa - Pb= ƿ h g Ƿ=
density of fluid
h= net column height
g = local gravity acceleration
The height becomes a measure of he applied pressure
when calibrated.
The accuracy of the instrument is low.

70
BAROMETER: Fig: BAROMETER:
A barometer is a single leg instrument in which one end of the
liquid column is kept at zero absolutepressure.

Pat - Pvp= ƿ gh

Pvp= mercury vapour pressure, Pat = atmospheric pressure

H= height of liquid column

g = local gravity acceleration

Mercury has a low vapour pressure and thus can be

neglected in comparison to Pat

Pat - 0 = ƿ gh => Pat = ƿ gh

Then the height of the liquid column is a measure of the

absolute pressure.

To achieve high accuracy, the zero level of the well is set at the
zero level of the scale before taking each reading.

INCLINED MANOMETER: In this type, the tube is tilted with respect to gravity. This
increases the sensitivity of the manometer as a grater motion of liquid is possible along the tube
for a given change in vertical height .( as the inclined tube will have more graduations per unit
vertical height. The inclination of tube is arround 10degrees.

71
U-TUBE MANOMETER ( DIFFERENTIALMANOMETER)

U tube manometer is the most simple and most

commonly used manometer for measurement
differential pressure between two points.
1A U-tube manometer consists of two vertical
columns as shown in figure. The manometer
tube is filled with a liquid (usually mercury)

Before application of pressure the liquid in the

two columns is at same level, because both the
columns are subjected to atmospheric
pressure at ideal state.

WORKING OF U-TUBE MANOMETER ( DIFFERENTIALMANOMETER)

• when pressure is to be measured, one of the columns is subjected to the pressure to be

measured and the other column is subjected to atmospheric pressure (reference pressure)
• Due to the difference in the pressures in both the columns, the liquid levels in the
columns will be different. In this way , the liquid in the column is balanced against the
unknown pressure.
• The difference in the liquid levels Δh between the two columns is taken as a measure of
the difference between the pressures in the two columns. Pat - Pvp= ƿ gh
where P = un known pressure
P = unknown pressure Patm = atmospheric pre
Δh = difference in liquidlevel
Ƿ = mass density ofliquid
g = gravitationalconstant Δh = ( P - Patm )/ (ƿg)
P - Patm = ƿg Δh => P = Patm + ƿgΔh
The U tube can be used to measure gauge Pressure and differential pressure. It is given as
Gauge pressure
Gauge pressure = Pg = P - Patm = ƿgΔh
Differential pressure= Pdif = P1 - P2 = ƿgΔh
If p = P1 and Patm =P2

72
MICROMANOMETER:

Small pressure differences can be accurately measured using a micro manometer. The
construction of a micrometer is as shown in fig.The meniscus of the inclined tube is adjusted at a
reference level as shown in figure, which is given by a fixed hair line by viewing through a
magnifier. This is done for Pa= Pb
The adjustment is done by moving the well up and down by a micrometer. Now the micrometer
is noted..When an unknown pressure difference is applied, meniscus moves away from the hair
line. The well is lowered or raised by micrometer so that the meniscus is restored in its initial
position.The initial and final readings of the micrometer difference gives the height of the liquid.
This height becomes a measure of the applied pressure when calibrated.

VARIOUS TYPES OF ELASTIC PRESSURE SENSING ELEMENTS USED IN

ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS:
The different types of elastic pressure sensing elements used in electrical transducers are
I. Diaphragms
II. Bellows
III. Bourdon tubes
I. DIAPHRAGMS:
Any thin material whose ends are fixed between two parallel plates is referred to as
diaphragm.It is one of the pressure measuring elements. The operating principle is that the
applied pressure is converted into proportional displacement. The materials used to make
diaphragm are phosphor bronze, nickel, berryllium copper, stainless steel etc. The
73
 diaphragms can be in the form of flat, corrugated, dished plates.

• m

CORRUGATED DIAPHRAGM:
When two corrugated diaphragms are joined together, at their ends a capsule is formed. When
compared to flat diaphragms, corrugated diaphragms produce greater displacement. Since the
capsule is a combination of two diaphragms, it generates more displacement which is twice that
of single corrugated diaphragm. The generated displacement is proportional to applied pressure.

SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS USED WITH DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE PICKUP

a) Use of resistance strain gauge with flat diaphragms:

Principle: a obvious approach is to simply apply gauges directly to a diaphragm surface and
calibrate the measured strain in terms of pressure.
74
In this strain gauges are applied directly to a diaphragm surface either at centre on
diametrically opposite faces as shown in fig. In this set up one gauge is subjected to tension
while the other gauge senses compression. When pressure is applied to the side opposite the
gauges, the central gauge is subjected to tension while the outer gauge senses compression.
The two gauges are used in adjacent bridge arms, thereby adding individual outputs and
simultaneously providing temperature compensation.

b) Use of inductive type transducer with flat diaphragms:

Variable inductance is used as a form of secondary transducer used with a diaphragm. In
inductive type of secondary transducer the flexing of the diaphragm is utilized to change
the relative induction of two coil is placed in the magnetic field.The device consists of two
E-shaped magnetic pieces placed equally around a diaphragm. Two coils are wounded around
these E-shaped pieces

75
 When pressures difference exists across the diaphragm, the flexing of the
diaphragm causes it to move toward one pole piece and away from the other,
thereby altering the relative inductance. The coils used in inductance bridge
circuit is as shown in fig, the output of which is measured by oscilloscope or
electronic voltmeter as well as recorders.
These are available in various ranges from 0 - 1 and 0 - 100PSI

DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE GAUGE:

• The fig. illustrates the principle of operation of a diaphragm pressure gauge.
• Because of pressure differential, the diaphragm deflects.
• The mechanical linkages arrangement shows the deflection of indicator on
the pressure scale and corresponding pressure ismeasured.

ii) BELLOWS:
Bellows, the pressure measuring elements are formed by the series combination of
capsules. The working principle of bellow is same that of diaphragms; ie the
applied displacement is converted into proportionate mechanical displacement.The
materials used to construct bellows are brryllium copper, brass, monel, stainless
steel and nickel.Whenever the pressure to be measured is applied to the sealed end
of bellow, suffers displacement. The generated displacement can be known by
attaching a pointer scale arrangement to the sealed end by transmitting the
displacement to the secondary transducer.

76
 BOURDONTUBES:
The bourdon tubes are available in different shapes such as spiral, helical,
twisted and c shaped. However all the tubes have non-circular cross-section. The
materials used in the construction of bourdon tubes are brass, steel and rubber.

REASONS FOR THE POUPLARITY OF BOURDON TUBE ELEMNT FOR

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
1) it is inexpensive
2) Simplicity and ruggedness
3) It gives accurate results
4) It can be used to measure absolute, differential and gauge pressures
5) It can be used for high pressure measurements
6) It can be easily adapted for designs for obtaining electrical outputs.

77
 BELLOW TYPE GAUGES (BELLOW GAUGES):
The bellow is a longitudinally expandable and collapsible member consisting of
several convolutions or folds. Most common materials chosen for bellows
fabrication are trumpet brass, stainless steel, phosphor bronze and beryllium copper.
These are the elastic pressure sensing elements for measurement of pressure.

THE ARRANGEMENT OF BELLOW TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE

FOR INDICATING GAUGE PRESSURE.:
Pressure is applied to one side of the bellows and the resulting deflection is counter
balanced by a spring. By suitable linkages, the bellows displacement is magnified
and the gauge pressure is indicated by a pointer on the scale. Therefore, the value of
applied pressure is directly read from the calibrated scale

THE ARRANGEMENT OF BELLOW TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE FOR

INDICATING DIFFENENTIAL PRESSURE.

The differential pressure bellow gauge makes use of two bellows. Each bellow has a
sealed end and open end to receive the pressure to be measured. The open ends are
fixed and sealed ends are free to move along the length of the bellow. Thus, when
pressures are applied to the bellows from their open ends, then sealed ends get
deflect (Expand). This deflection of bellow is a function of the pressure applied to
the bellow. The free ends of the bellows are connected to to the ends of the opposite
sides of an equal-arm lever. The centre of the lever is linked to the pointer and scale
assembly through a link-sector- pinion arrangement. The scale is calibrated in terms
78
of pressure in order to obtain a direct indication of the pressure.

The arrangement of bellow type pressure gauge for indicating differential pressure
Let PAand PB be the two pressures whose difference is to be measured. The pressures
PA and PB are applied to the bellows A and B respectively. On application of
pressures, the free end of the bellows expand (deflect) in proportion to the pressure
applied. Due to the expansion of the bellows, the two ends of the lever get displaced
angularly in opposite directions, thereby causing the lever to rotate in clock-wise or
anticlock-wise direction. The resultant displacement of the lever corresponds to the
difference in the deflection of the two bellows. As the deflection of the bellow is a
function of applied pressure, the displacement of the lever is a function of the
difference between the two input pressures. Resultant displacement of the lever is
amplified by

the sector and pinion arrangement and is fed to the pointer. This causes pointer to
deflect over the pressure calibrated scale. The pointer indication on the scale
corresponds to the differential pressure. Pdiff = PA -PB

79
ARRANGEMENT OF BELLOW TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE
FOR GAUGE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
For measuring gauge pressure
no of the bellows (bellow-B) is applied with atmospheric pressure input.
Then the pressure input to bellow-A serves as the absolute pressure.
PA =Pabs
PB = Patm
Pdiff = PA - PB
Pgauge = Pabs -Patm
Example: -100 to +1== pressure calibrated scale is used so
as know whether the gauge pressure is + ve or -Ve

ARRANGEMENT OF BELLOW TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE FOR

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
• For measuring absolute pressure, one of the bellow (bellow-B) is evacuated
(ie PB = 0 ). Therefore, the gauge reading corresponds to the absolute
pressure ( ie PA) , provided absolute pressure (P) is applied to bellow A.

DIAPHRAGM TYPE GAUGES

• ELASTIC DIAPHRAGAM TYPE PRESSUREGAUGE

In this elastic pressure sensing elements are used for measurement of pressure. A
thin circular plate whose ends are fixed between two parallel plates is known as
diaphragm. The diaphragm elements are either flat type, or corrugated type
diaphragm. The figure shows the corrugated type diaphragm. Corrugated diaphragms

80
are frequently used when deflection is measured by using mechanical type of
devices. A boss shown in above arrangement is fixed at the top portion of the
corrugated diaphragm. The connecting link, sector and pinion is attached to a boss of
negligible weight. A pointer scale arrangement is attached to the pinion of the elastic
diaphragm gauge.
The pressure to be measured is applied at the bottom end of the elastic diaphragm
gauge. The applied pressure causes a deflection in the diaphragm. This deflection is
proportional to the applied pressure. Therefore, the applied pressure is directly read
from the calibrated scale.
ADVANTAGES OF DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE GAUGES
1. They have god dynamic response characteristics.
2. They exhibit linear characteristics over a wide range of pressures.
3. They undergo low amount of hysteresis.
4. Diaphragms possess excellent stability and reliability.

LIMITATIONS OF DIAPHRAGM GAUGES

1. Not suitable for measurement of high pressures
2. They are susceptible to vibrations and shocks

APPLICATIONS:
1. Widely used for measurement of moderate pressures and low
pressures including vacuum.
2. Diaphragms are employed in absolute pressure gauges, differential
pressure gauges, draft gauges etc.

81
WORKING OF BOURDON GAUGE:

Bourdon gauge is a primary transducer for the measurement of pressure. It makes

use of bourdon tube ( a pressure sensitive primary device) which gets deflected or
deformed when subjected to pressure. It converts the applied pressure into a
proportional displacement. This displacement is a function of pressure and it can be
measured by a secondary transducer of mechanical or electrical type. It consists of
C-shaped bourdon tube and a mechanical means of measuring the deflection of the
bourdon tube is shown in above figure.

CONSTRUCTION OF BOUDON GAUGE:

The C-shaped bourdon yube is a flat elastic tube having a elliptical/oval cross

section. This tub is bent in such a way so as to form arc of 2500 C - 3000 C . The
tube is sealed at one end and provided with an opening at the other end to receive
the input pressure. The opened end is fixed and the sealed end is suspended freely
so that the bourdon tube deflects at free end when it is subjected to pressure from
fixed

end. The free end of the bourdon tube is connected to a sector and pinion
arrangement through a mechanical link. This mechanism amplifies the deflection
of the tip and converts into angular displacement. A pointer and scale assembly is
attached to the sector and pinion mechanism. A pressure calibrated scale is used to
indicate pressure measured by the gauge.

82
FLATTENED TUBE PRESSURE CELL
(how can a strain gauge be used to measure pressure with the
help of flattened tube pressure cell)
Flattened tube pressure cell is a type of strain gauge pressure cell. A stain gauge
pressure cell works on the principle that any container will undergo strain (change
in its dimensions) , when it is subjected to internal pressure. As strain is
proportional to the applied pressure, the measure of strain provides the measure of
the applied pressure. Pressure cell is shown in figure..

Construction: the flattened tube pressure cell is made up of a flat elastic tube. This
flat tube is pinched at its end. Hence it is also called as ―pinched tube pressure cell‖.
The tube has an opening at one of its ends to receive the pressure and a sealing at the
other end. Two strain gauges are mounted opposite to each other on the flat portion of
the tube.

Operation: when the pressure to be measured is applied to the flattened tube pressure
cell, the pressure tends to change the dimensions of the tube. Due to this the flat
portion of the tube acquires a round shape. The flattened tube cell experiences stain in
proportion to the amount of applied pressure. The change in dimensions of the
pressure cell due to pressure, changes the resistance of the stain gauges. Thus, the
strain produced due to pressure is sensed by strain gauges are measured by
wheatstone bridge. The measure of change in resistance of strain gauge gives the
measure of the strain which in turn pressure.

83
MEASUREMENT OF LOW PRESSURES:
Pressures below atmospheric may be called low pressures or vacuums. A
common units of low pressure is the micron.
One micron = one millionth of a meter (0.001mm) of mercury column.
Very low pressure may be defined as any below 1mm of mercury

Ulra low pressure as less than a milli micron (10-3micron)

MEASUREMENT OF LOW PRESSURES

Direct measurement methods Indirect or inferential methods

(lowest pressure value of about 10mm of (For measurement of pressures below
mercury ) 10 mm of mercury)
- Spiral bourdon tube i) Mecleod gauge
- Flat and corrugated diaphragms ii) Thermal conductivity gauge
- capsules a) Pirani type
- Various foms of manometers b) Thermocouple type
iii)Ionization gauges.

I) MCLEOD GAUGE: This is the device used for measurement of very low pressures.

The operation of the Mcleod gauge is based on Boyles fundamental

relation P1V1 = P2V2
P1 =( P2 V2 )/ V1
Where P1 = Pressure at initial
condition
P2 = pressure at final
condition
V1 = volume of gas at initial
condition
V2 = volume of gas at final
condition
By compressing a known volume of low pressure gas to a higher pressure and
84
 measuring the resultant volume and pressure, one can calculate the initial pressure.
Ie, a known volume of V1 of gas whose pressure P1 is to be determined is
compressed to pressure P2 and volume V2. by measuring th final volume V2 ,
final pressure P2 , the value of P1 can be determined by the relation.
P1 =( P2 V2 ) / V1

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY GAUGE:

The temperatureofagivenwirethroughwhichanelectriccurrentisflowingwill
depends on following
three factors.
i) The magnitude of the current ( I )
ii) The resistivity ( R)
iii) The rate at which the heat is dissipated.
The temperature of the wire can be determined in two ways
a) The Pirani type thermal conductivity gauge.
b) Thermocouple type conductivity gauge.

a) The Pirani -type thermal conductivity gauge:

1) In this the temperature of the wire is determined by measuring the change of resistance
of wire. The pirani gauge employs a single platinum filament enclosed in a chamber.
2) The chamber is subjected to medium whose pressure is to be measured. As the
85
 surrounding pressure changes, the filament temperature and its resistance also changes.
3) A compensating cell is also employed to minimize variations caused by ambient
temperature changes.
4) Platinum filament for compensating cell is exactly identical to one used in measuring
cell.
The resistance change of filament in measuring cell is measured by use of
resistance bridge which is calibrated

MERITS:
5) They are rugged & more accurate
6) They are very sensitive to pressure changes
7) They have linear relationship between pressure and resistance.
8) We can measure from 5*10-3 to10-1 mmHg
9) Remote reading can be possible with piranigauge
LIMITATIONS:
1. Electrical power is required for operation of Pirani gauge.
2. Need frequent calibration for different gases.

IIB) THERMOCOUPLE TYPE CONDUCTIVITY GAUGE:

In this gauge the temperature of the filament is determined by employing

thermocouples. Thermocouples are directly welded the platinum filaments.

PRINCIPLE: the principle of thermocouple gauge is that the conducting ability of

gas in vacuum or low pressure depends on the pressure.

WORKING: the thermocouple and heater elements are placed inside the chamber
whose vaccum is to be measured. When the supply voltage is applied to the circuit
86
 using a battery, some current will flow in the circuit which heats the heater element.
Since the thermocouple is attached to it, the developed heat will be sensed by
thermocouple. Here the presence of vaccum causes changes in temp of element,
which is measured by thermocouple.

IONIZATION GAUGE FOR MEASUREMENT OF VERY LOW PRESSURE

The hot filament ionization gauge consist of a heated filament, grid and anode plate).
These elements are housed in an envelope which communicates with the vacuum
system under test. The grid is maintained at a positive potential of 100-350V. While
anode plate is maintained at a – ve potential about 3—50 v with respect to cathode.

Thus the cathode is a +ve ion collector and anode plate is an electron collector.

When electrons are emitted by the heated cathode, the high +ve charge on the grid
accelerates the stream of electrons away from the cathode. Because of their speed and
relatively wide spacing between the turns of the grid, most of the electrons continue
moving past the grid. These electrons collide with gas molecules thereby causing

87
ionization of gas atoms. Ionization is the process of knocking of f an electron from
the atom and thus producing a free electron and +vely charged ion. Since anode plate
is maintained at –ve potential, the +ve ions in the space between the grid and the
anode migrates towards the anode and a current I1 , is produced in the plate circuit.
The electrons and –ve ions are collected by the grid and a current I2 is produced in
the grid circuit.
The rate of ion production is proportional to the number of electrons available to
ionize the gas and amount of gas present. Thus the ratio +ve ions ie the anode current
I1 , to --ve ions and electrons ie grid current I2 is a measure of gas pressure P
The relation is P = (I1 / I2 )* 1/S where S= sensitivity of the gauge

HIGH PRESSURE MEASUREMENT BY BRIDGMAN GAUGE OR BULK

MODULUS
PRESSURE GAUGE):
Bridgman gauge is a type of electrical resistance pressure
Principle: +The electrical resistance gauge works on the principle that when an
electrical resistance wire is subjected to pressure, the resistance of the wire changes.
This change in resistance is proportional to the applied pressure. The gauge which is
used for measurement of high pressures (usually for pressures above 7000 atm.

The resistance of the wire exhibits linear characteristics with respect to pressure.
The linear relationship between resistance and pressure is given by the following
equation.
R = R ( 1+bP ) where P = applied pressure (atm),
R0 = Resistance of wire at1atm. R= Resistance of wire at Patm b=
Pressure coefficient of resistance, b=2/E
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WORKING OF BRODGMAN GAUGE:
The bridgman gauge consists of a sensing element (ie a resistance coil of fine wire)
which is immersed in a pressure transmitting medium (ie a bellow filled with
kerosene). This bellow is enclosed in a chamber having an opening an opening at
one end of its ends for the inlet of the pressure to be measured. The chamber in turn
is kept in a housing. In order to measure the resistance of the sensing element, one
end of the coil is insulated and is brought out of the housing as an output terminal of
the gauge and the other end of the coil is grounded to the housing. The pressure
sensing element is made up of Manganion ( an alloy of Cu, Ni and Mn ) or an alloy
of Gold-Chrome, because these metal alloys exhibit linear characteristics in response
to pressure . When the high pressure to be measured is applied to bridgman gauge,
the bellow undergoes bulk compression. As a result the fluid in the bellow also
undergoes bulk compression effect. This bulk compression effect produces a biaxial
stress on the sensing element and thus changes its resistance. The change in
resistance is proportional to the applied pressure. Hence a measure of change in
resistance of sensing element by means of a wheatstone bridge gives the measure of
pressure.

DERIVE AN EQUATION FOR DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE BASED ON

THE MOVEMENT OF LIQUID IN THE INCLINED COLUMNONLY:

Inclined Manometer is a well type manometer having an inclined column. It is also

known as draft gauge. In an inclined tube manometer, the limb having a large cross
sectional area is known as well and the limb having small cross sectional area is
known as column. Therefore, it is considered as a single-column manometer. The
column of this manometer is inclined at an angle ϴ with respect to the horizontal.
The tube is filled with manometer liquid. When no pressures are applied or when
equal pressures are applied to the limbs of the manometer, the liquid in both limbs
(well and column) will b same level (ie 0 - 0level). When two different pressures are
applied to the limbs, the liquid level decreases in the well, while the liquid level
increases in the inclined column. This leads to a difference between the liquid levels
of the two limbs.
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 Fig : inclined manometer
In an inclined tube manometer, the limb having a large cross sectional area is known
as well and the limb having small cross sectional area is known as column. The
column of this manometer is inclined at an angle of Ө w.r.to horizontal.
When no pressure s are applied or when equal pressures are applied to the limbs of
the manometer, the liquid in both limbs will be same level (ie 0—0 level)

When two different pressures are applied to the limbs, the liquid level decreases in
the well, while the liquid level increases in the inclined column.
This leads to a difference between the liquid levels of the two limbs.
The difference in the liquid levels is given as Δh= h1 + h2
where h1 = level of liquid from 0—0 level in well
h2= level of liquid from 0—0 level in column

The relationship with (P1 - P2 ) pressure difference & Δh

P1 - P2 = Δh .ƿ.g---- eqn-1
P1 - P2 = (h1 + h2 ) ƿ.g ---------eqn-2
h1 + h2 = (P1 - P2)/ƿ.g ------eqn-3

Where P1 = pressure applied to well P1 = pressure applied to well

P2 = pressure applied to column
due to increase and decrease in liquid level of column and well respectively, the

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displacement in volume of the limbs are equal.
ie V1 = V2
A1 h1 =A2 h2 -------- eqn-4
h1 = = ( A2 / A1 ) h2------ eqn-5
• sinѲ = h2/ l /L -------eqn 6
• h2 = LsinѲ
where L = slant height of the liquid in inclined column A1 = cross sectional area of
well
From the equation-3 , we have P1 - P2 = ƿ.g (h1 + h2 )

ubstituting the value of h2 = lsinѲ , h1 = ( A2 / A1 )h

• P1 - P2 = ƿ.g (h1 +h2 )
• == ƿ.g[ (A2 / A1 )h2 + h2 ) ]= ƿ.g h2 [(A2 / A1 ) + 1]
• we know h2 = L sinӨ
• If A1 >>A2 =0
• P1 - P2 = ƿ.g L sinѲ (0 + 1)
• P1 - P2 = ƿ.g.L sinѲ --- eqn-7
• P1- P2 = ƿ.g h2-----------eqn-8
• The equations 7 and 8 represent the equations for differential pressure based
on thr movement of the liquid in the inclined only.
• That is the differential pressure is determined by measuring h2 or L

ADVNTAGES OF INCILNED TUBE MANOMETER

1. It can measure very small differences in pressure.
2. It can be able to measure pressure variations in low velocity gas flow.
3. Its reading is directly proportional to the differential pressure.
4. It has high sensitivity.

LIMITATIONS:
As the inclination is low, it is difficult to find the exact position of the
meniscus. Therefore probability of taking incorrect reading is high.

SOURCES OF ERRORS ANFD THEIR CORRECTIONS (IN

MANOMETERS)
The sources of errors that affect the performance of manometers are as follows:
1) Effect of Capillary tube: the diameter of the capillary tube should be according
to the type of application in which it is to be used. The increase or decrease in
the free surface of the fluid present inside the tube cause capillary errors.

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 Capillary errors are reduced by:
- using the tubes of large diameters (over10mm)
- applying same fluid to both the tubes or legs of manometer

2) Effect of temperature: if the temperature surrounding the manometer changes

the density of the fluid present inside it decreases due to which the fluid
expands more thereby indicating fault reading.
correction: Therefore, the temperature of the atmosphere in which the
manometer is placed should be maintained constant.

3) Effect of fluid mixture: if the fluid used in the tube contains different types of
gases or liquids, causing increase in specific weight of the mixture.
Correction: These errors can be reduced by using the fluid free from
contamination.

4) Effect of Variable Meniscus: Errors also occur due to the improper reading of
the meniscus. Meniscus is defined as the recent shaped top surface of the liquid
column.

As the mercury has high surface tension and also does not stick to it or wet the walls
of the tube, its meniscus is convex. Ie it is to be seen higher in the center with its two
edges depressed as shown in fig-(a). Similarly , as the water has low surface tension
and sticks or wets the walls of the tube., its meniscus is concave ie it is to be seen
lower at the center with its two edges turned up as shown fig-(b). Therefore the
readings should be taken from the center of the meniscus. Any variation in the shape
of the meniscus is due to dirt contamination), causes errors.

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