UNIT-1

Measurement:-
Definition:
The word measurement is used to tell us the length, the weight, the temperature, the colour or a change
in one of these physical entities of a material. Measurement provides us with means for describing the
various physical and chemical parameters of materials in quantitative terms. For example 10 cm length of
and object implies that the object is 10 times as large as 1 cm; the unit employed in expressing length.

These are two requirements which are to be satisfied to get good result from the measurement.
1. The standard must be accurately known and internationally accepted.
2. The apparatus and experimental procedure adopted for comparison must be provable.

Instrumentation:- Definition:
The human senses cannot provide exact quantitative information about the knowledge of events occurring
in our environments. The stringent requirements of precise and accurate measurements in the
technological fields have, therefore, led to the development of mechanical aids called instruments.
Or
Definition: the technology of using instruments to measure and control physical and chemical properties
of materials is called instrumentation. In the measuring and controlling instruments are combined so that
measurements provide impulses for remote automatic action, the result is called control system.
Uses:
-> study the function of different components and determine the cause of all functioning of the
system, to formulate certain empirical relations.
-> to test a product on materials for quality control.
-> to discover effective components.
-> to develop new theories.
-> monitor a data in the interest of health and safety.
Ex:- fore casting weather it predicting in the earth case.

Methods of measurement:-
1. Direct and indirect measurement.
2. Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement.
3. Contact and non-contact type of measurement.

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 1. Direct and indirect measurement:
Measurement is a process of comparison of the physical quantity with a standard depending upon
requirement and based upon the standard employed, these are the two basic methods of measurement.

Direct measurement:
The value of the physical parameter is determined by comparing it directly with different
standards. The physical standards like mass, length and time are measured by direct measurement.
Indirect measurement:
The value of the physical parameter is more generally determined by indirect
comparison with the secondary standards through calibration. The measurement is convert into an
analogous signal which subsequently process and fed to the end device at present the result of
measurement.

2. Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement:

The complexity of an instrument system depending upon measurement being made and upon
the accuracy level to which the measurement is needed. Based upon the complexity of the measurement
systems, the measurement are generally grouped into three categories.
• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary.
In the primary mode, the sought value of physical parameter is determined by comparing it
directly with reference standards the required information is obtained to sense of side and touch.
Examples are:
a) Matching of two lengths is determining the length of a object with ruler.
b) Estimation the temperature difference between the components of the container by inserting fingers.
c) Use of bean balance measure masses.
d) Measurement of time by counting a number of strokes of a block.
Secondary and tertiary measurement are the indirect measurements involving one
transmission are called secondary measurements and those involving two convergent are called
tertiary measurements.
EX:

 The convergent of pressure into displacement by means of be allows and the convergent
of force into displacement.
 Pressure measurement by manometer and the temperature measurement by mercury in
glass tube thermometer.
 The measurement of static pressure by boundary tube pressure gauge is a typical example
of tertiary measurement.

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 3. Contact and non-contact type of measurements:
Contact type:Where the sensing element of measuring device as a contact with medium whose
characteristics are being measured.
Non-contact type: Where the sense doesn't communicate physically with the medium.
Ex: The optical, radioactive and some of the electrical/electronic measurement belong
to this category.

Objectives of instrumentation:-
1. The major objective of instrumentation is to measure and control the field parameters to increase
safety and efficiency of the process.
2. To achieve good quality.
3. To achieve auto machine and automatic control of process there by reducing human.
4. To maintain the operation of the plan within the design exportations and to achieve good quantity
product.

Generalised measurement system and its functional elements:-

1) Primary sensing element.

2)Variable conversion (or) Transducer element.
3)Manipulation of element.
4)Data transmission element.
5)Data processing element.
6)Data presentation element.

The principal functions of an instrument is the acquisition of information by Sensing and perception, the
process of that information and its final presentation to a Human observer. For the purpose of analysis and
synthesis, the instrument s are considered as systems (or) assembly of inter connected components
organised to perform a specified function. The different components are called elements.

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1) PIMARY SENSING ELEMENT:
An element that is sensitive to the measured variable .The sensing element sense the condition ,
state (or) value of the process variable by extracting a small part of energy from the measurement and
produces an output which is proportional to the input. Because of the energy expansion, the measured
quantity is always disturb. Good instruments are designed to minimise this loading effect.

2) Variable conversion (or) transducer element:

An element that converts the signal from one physical for to Another without changing the
information content of the signal.
Example:
 Bourdon tube and bellows which transfer pressure into displacement.
 Proving ring and other elastic members which converts force into displacement.
 Rack and Pinion: It converts rotary to linear and vice versa.
 Thermo couple which converts information about temperature difference to information in the
form of E.M.F.

3) MANIPULATION ELEMENT:
It modifies the direct signal by amplification, filtering etc., so that a desired output is produced.
[input]× constant = Output

4) DATA TRANSMISSION ELEMENT:

An element that transmits the signal from one location to another without changing the
information content. Data may by transmitted over long distances (from one location to another) or short
distances (from a test centre to a nearby computer).

5) DATA PROCESSING ELEMENT:

An element that modifies data before it is displayed or finally recorded. Data processing may be
used for such purposes as:
 Corrections to the measured physical variables to compensate for scaling, non-linearity, zero
offset, temperature error etc.
 Covert the data into useful form, e.g., calculation of engine efficiency from speed, power input and
torque developed.
 Collect information regarding average, statistical and logarithmic values.

6) DATA PRESANTION ELEMENT:

An element that provides record or indication of the output from the data processing element. Ina
measuring system using electrical instrumentation, an exciter and an amplifier are also incorporated into
the circuit.
The display unit may be required to serve the following functions

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  transmitting
 Signalling
 Registering
 Indicating
 recording

The generalised measurement system is classified into 3 stages:

a) Input Stage
b) Intermediate Stage
• Signal Amplifications
• Signal Filtration
• Signal Modification
• Data Transmission
c) Output Stage

a) Input Stage:
Input stage (Detector-transducer) which is acted upon by the input signal (a variable to be measured)
such as length, pressure, temperature, angle etc. and which transforms this signal in some other physical
form. When the dimensional units for the input and output signals are same, this functional element/stage
is referred to as the transformer.

b) Intermediate Stage:
i. signal amplification to increase the power or amplitude of the signal without affecting its
waveform. The output from the detector-transducer element' is generally too small to
operate an indicator or a recorder and its amplification is necessary. Depending upon the
type of transducer signal, the amplification device may be of mechanical,
hydraulic/pneumatic, optical and electrical type.

ii. Signal filtration to extract the desired information from extraneous data. Signal filtration
removes the unwanted noise signals that tend to obscure the transducer signal. Depending
upon nature of the signal and situation, one may use mechanical, pneumatic or electrical
filters.
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 iii. Signal modification to provide a digital signal from an analog signal or vice versa, or change
the form of output from voltage to frequency or from voltage to current.
Iv. Data transmission to telemeter the data for remote reading and recording.

c)Output Stage:
which constitutes the data display record or control. The data presentation stage collects the output
from the signal-conditioning element and presents the same to be read or seen and noted by the
experimenter for analysis. This element may be of:-
 visual display type such as the height of liquid in a manometer or the position of pointer on a scale
 numerical readout on an electrical instrument
 Graphic record on some kind of paper chart or a magnetic tape. Example: Dial indicator

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS:-

1) Automatic and Manual instruments:

2) Self generating and power operated
3) Self contact and remote indicating instruments
4) Deflection and null type
5) Analog and digital types
6) Contact and no-contact type

1) Automatic and manual instruments:

The manual instruments require the services of an operator while the automatic types donot. For
example, the temperature measurement by mercury-in-glass thermometer is automatic as the instrument
indicates the temperature without requiring any manual assistance. However, the measurement of
temperature by a resistance thermometer incorporating; Wheatstone brigde in its circuit is manual in
operation as it needs an operator for obtaining the null position.

2) Self generating and power operated

Self-generated instruments are the output is supplied entirely by the input signal. The instrument does
not require any out side power in performing its function

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Example: mercury in glass thermometer, bourdon pressure gauge, pitot tube for measuring velocity So
instruments require same auxillary source of power such as compound air, electricity, hydraulic
supply for these operations and hence are called externally powered instruments (or) passive instruments.
Example:
 L.V.D.T(Linear Variable Differential Transducer)
 Strain gauge load cell
 Resistance thermometer and the mister.
 Self contained remote indicator.

3) Self contact and remote indicating instruments:

The different elements of a self-contained instrument are contained in one physical assembly. In a
remote indicating instrument, the primary sensing element may be located at a sufficiently long distance
from the secondary indicating element. In the modern instrumentation technology, there is a trend to
install remote indicating instruments where the important indications can be displayed in the central
control rooms.
4)Deflection and null output instruments:
In null-type instruments, the physical effect caused by the quantity being measured is nullified
(deflection maintained at zero) by generating an equivalent opposing effect. The equivalent null causing
effect then provides a measure of the unknown quantity. A deflection type instrument is that in which the
physical effect generated by the measuring quantity (measurand) is noted and correlated to the
measurand.

5)Analog and digital instruments:

The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion and can take on infinite number of values
in a given range. Wrist watch speedometer of an automobile, fuel gauge, ammeters and voltmeters are
examples of analog instruments.
Instruments basically perform two functions:
(i) Collection of data and
(ii) control of plant and process
Accordingly based upon the service rendered, the instruments may also be classified as indicating
instruments, recording instruments and controlling instruments.

INPUT, OUTPUT CONFIGURATION OF A MEASURING INSTRUMENT:-

An instrument performs an operation on an input quantity (measurement/designed variable) to provide

an output called the measurements. The input is denoted by “i” and the output is denoted by “o”.
According to the performance of the instrument can be stated in terms of an operational transfer
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function(G).The input and output relationship is characterised by the operation ‘G’ such that
o=G i

The various inputs to a measurement system can be classified into-three categories:

i) Desired input:
A quantity that the instrument is specifically intended to measure. The desired input 𝑖𝐷 produces an
output component according to an input-output relation symbolised by 𝐺𝐷; here 𝐺𝐷 represents the
mathematical operation necessary to obtain the output from the input.

ii) Interfering input:

A quantity to which the instrument is unintentionally sensitive. The interfering input 𝑖𝑙 would produce
an output component according to input-output relation symbolised by 𝐺𝑙

iii) Modifying input:

A quantity that modifies the input-6utput relationship for both the desired and interfering inputs.
The modifying input 𝑖𝑀 would cause a change in 𝐺𝐷 and/or 𝐺𝑙. The specific manner in which 𝑖𝑀 affects 𝐺𝐷
and G, is represented by the symbols 𝐺𝑀𝐷 and 𝐺𝑀𝑙, respectively.
A block diagram of these various aspects has been illustrated in Fig.

Example:
Consider a deferential manometer which consists of an u-tube filled with mercury and with its ends
connected to the two points between which the pressure differentia is to be measured .The pressure
differential 𝑝1-𝑝2 is worked out from the hydro static (Equilibrium) equation:
(𝑝1-𝑝2)=g h ( 𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌𝑓 )
𝜌𝑚 and 𝜌𝑓 are the mass densities of mercury and fluid respectively, and h is the scale reading. lf the fluid
flowing in the pipeline is a gas, then 𝜌𝑓 << 𝜌𝑚 accordingly the above identity can be re-written as
(𝑝1-𝑝2)=g h 𝜌𝑚
Here differential pressure is 𝑝1- 𝑝2 is the desired input; Scale reading ‘h’ is the output and 𝜌𝑚 is the
parameter which relates the output and the input.

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 The manometer is placed on a wheel which is subjected to acceleration and scale indicates a reading
even through the pressures 𝑝1& 𝑝2 at the two ends are equal.
The acceleration that constitutes the interference input. The manometer has an angular tilt i.e., is not
properly align with the direction of the gravitational force.
An output will result even when there is no pressure difference. Here the angular tilt acts as the
interfering input.
Here scale factor establishes the input - output relation and this gets modified due to
i) Temperature variation which change the value of density of mercury.
ii)Change in gravitational force due to change in location of a manometer. So, these 2 are modifying
quantities.

Performance characteristics of a measuring instrument:-

1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic characteristics
The performance characteristics of an instrument system is conclusion by low accurately the system
measures the requires input and how absolutely it reject the undesirable inputs.
Error = measured value (𝑉𝑚) – true value ((𝑉𝑡) Correction = (𝑉𝑡-𝑉𝑚).

1. Static characteristics:
a) Range and span,
b) Accuracy, error, correction,
c) Calibration,
d) Repeatability,
e) Reproducibility
f) Precision,
g) Sensitivity,
h) Threshold,
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 i) Resolution,
j) Drift,
k) Hysteresis,
l)dead zone.

a) Range and span

The region between the limits with in which as instrument is designed to operate for measuring,
indicating (or) recording a physical quantity is called the range of instrument. The range is expressed by
standing the lower and upper values. Span represents the algebraic difference between the upper and
lower range values of the instruments.
Ex: -
Range - 10 Co to 80 Co Span=90oc
Range 5 bar to 100 bar Span=100-5=95 bar
Range 0 v to 75v Span=75volts

b) Accuracy, error, correction:

No instrument gives an exact value of what is being measured, there is always some uncertainty
in the measured values. This uncertainty express in terms of accuracy and error.
Accuracy of an indicated value (measured) may be defined as closeness to an accepted standard
value (true value). The difference between measured value (𝑉𝑚) and true value (𝑉𝑡) of the quantity is
expressed as instrument error.
𝐸𝑠 =𝑉𝑚- 𝑉𝑡
Static correction is defined as 𝑉𝑡-𝑉𝑚
𝐶𝑠=𝑉𝑡-𝑉𝑚

c) Calibration:
The magnitude of the error and consequently the correction to be applied is determined by making
a periodic comparison of the instrument with standards which are known to be constant. The entire
measurement system conform to an Accepted standard is called the calibration. The graphical
representation of the calibration record is called calibration curve and this curve relates standard values
of input or measurand to actual values of output throughout the operating range of the instrument. A
comparison of the instrument reading may be made with

(i) a primary standard,

(ii) a secondary standard of accuracy greater than the

instrument to be calibrated,

(iii) a known input source.

The following points and observations need consideration while calibrating an instrument:-

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(a) Calibration of the instrument is out with the instrument in the same (upright, horizontal etc.) and
subjected same temperature and other environmental conditions under which it is to operate while in
service.

(b) The instrument is calibrated with values of the measuring impressed both in the increasing and in the
decreasing order. The results are then expressed graphically, typically the output is plotted as the ordinate
and the input or measuring as the abscissa.

(c) Output readings for a series of impressed values going up the scale may not agree with the output
readings for the same input values when going down.

(d) Lines or curves plotted in the graphs may not close to form a loop.

d) Repeatability:
Repeatability describes the closeness of the output readings, when the same input is applied
repeatability over a short period of time with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and
observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

e) Reproductability:
Reproductability describes the closeness of output readings for the same input. When are changes
in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time of

f) Precision:
The instrument ability to reproduce a certain group of the readings with a given accuracy is known
as precision i.e., if a no of measurements are made on the same true value then the degree of closeness
of these measurements is called precision.
It refers to the ability of an instrument to give its readings again and again in the same manner for
constant input signals.

g) Sensitivity:
Sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of magnitude of response (output signal) to the magnitude
of the quantity being measured (input signal) i.e.,
change of output signal ∆𝜃0
Static sensitivity = change of input signal = ∆𝜃1

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h) Threshold:
Threshold defines the minimum value of input which is necessary to cause detectable change from
zero output.
When the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, then the input must reach to a
certain minimum value, so that the change in the output can be detected. The minimum value of input
refers to threshold.

i) Resolution:
It is defines as the increment in the input of the instrument for which input remains constant i.e.,
when the input given to the instrument is slowly increased for which the output remains same until the
increment exceeds a different value.

j) Drift:
The slow variation of the output signal of a measuring instrument is known as draft. The variation
of the output signal is not due to any changes in the input quantity, but to the changes in the working
conditions of the components inside the measuring instruments.

k) Hysteresis:
Hysteresis is the maximum difference for the same measuring quantity (input signal) between the
up scale and down scale reading during a full range measure in each direction.

I) Dead zone:
Dead zone is the largest range through which an input signal can be varied without initiating any r

2. Dynamic characteristics:
a) Speed of response and measuring lag,
b) Fidelity and dynamic error,
c) Over shoot,
d) Dead time and dead zone,
e) Frequency response.

a) Speed of response and measuring lag:

In a measuring instrument the speed of response (or) responsiveness is defined as the rapidity with
which an instrument responds to a change in the value of the quantity being measured.
Measuring lag refers to delay in the responds of an instrument to a change in the input signal. The
lag is caused by conditions such as inertia, or resistance.

b) Fidelity and dynamic errors:

Fidelity of an instrumentation system is defined as the degree of closeness with which the system
indicates (or) records the signal which is upon its. It refers to the ability of the system to reproduce the
output in the same form as the input. If the input is a sine wave then for 100% fidelity the output should
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also be a sine wave.
The difference between the indicated quantity and the true value of the time quantity is the dynamic
error. Here the static error of instrument is assumed to be zero.

c) Over shoot:
Because of maximum and inertia. A moving part i.e., the pointer of the instrument does not
immediately came to reset in the find deflected position. The pointer goes find deflected position. The
pointer goes beyond the steady state i.e., it over shoots.
The over shoot is defined as the maximum amount by which the pointer moves beyond the steady
state.

d) dead time and dead zone:

Dead time is defined as the time required for an instrument to begin to respond to a change in the
measured quantity it represent the time before the instrument begins to respond after the measured
quantity has been altered.
Dead zone define the largest change of the measured to which the instrument does not respond.
Dead zone is the result as friction backlash in the instrument.

e) Frequency response:
(The dynamic performance of both measuring and control system is determine by applying some
known and predetermined input signal to its primary sensing element and them)
Maximum frequency of the measured variable that an instrument is capable of following with error.
The usual requirement is that the frequencies of the measured should not exceed 60% of the natural
frequency measuring instrument.

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Standard test inputs:
The dynamic performance of both measuring and control system is determined by applying some
known and predetermined input signal to its primary sensing element and then studying the behaviour
of the output signals.

The most common standard inputs used for dynamic analysis

• Step functions
• Linear (or) ramp functions

i. Step function:
Which is a sudden change from one steady value to another the step input is mathematically
represented by

Where 𝜃0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃𝑖.

ii. Ramp (or) linear function:

The input varies linearly with time. The ramp input is mathematical represented as

𝜃𝑖 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 < 0
𝜃𝑖 = Ω 𝑡 𝑎𝑡 ≥ 0
Where Ω slope of the input versus time relationship.

iii. Sinusoidal (or) sine wave function:

Here the input has a cycle variation, the input varies sinusoidal with a constant amplitude
mathematically it may be represented as

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15
First Order Systems:
The behaviour of a first order system is represented by a first order differential equation of the form.

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Sources of error:

1. Calibration of Instrument
2. Instrument reproducibility
3. Measuring arrangement
4. Work piece
5. Environmental condition
6. Observes skill

1. Calibration of Instrument:
For any instrument calibration` is necessary before starting the process of measurement. When the
instrument is load frequently for long time, the calibration of instrument is used frequently for long time,
the calibration of instrument may get disturbed. The instrument which is gone out of b ration cannot give
actual value of the measured. Therefore the output produced by such an instrument have error. The error
due to improper calibration of instrument is known as systematic instrumental error, and it occurs
regularly. Therefore this error can be eliminated by, properly calibrating the instrument at frequent
intervals.

2. Instrument reproducibility:
Though an instrument is calibrated perfectly under group of conditions, the output produced by
that instrument contains error. This occurs if the instrument is used under those set of conditions which
are not identical to the conditions existing during calibration. i.e., the instrument should be used under
those set of conditions at which -.the instrument is calibrated. This type of error may occur systematically
or accidentally.

3. Measuring arrangement:
The process of measurement itself acts as a source of error if the arrangement of different
components of a measuring instrument is not proper.
Example:
While measuring length, the comparator law of Abbe should be followed. According to this, actual
value of length is obtained when measuring instrument and scale axes are collinear, and any
misalignment of these will give error value. Hence this type of error can be eliminated by having proper
arrangement of measuring instrument.

4. Work piece:
The physical nature of object (work piece) i.e., roughness, softness and hardness of the object acts
as a source of error. Many optomechanical and mechanical type of instruments contact the. Object under
certain fixed pressure conditions. Since the response of soft and hard objects under these fixed conditions
is different the output of measurement will be in error.

5. Environmental condition:
Changes in the environmental conditions is also a major source of error. The environmental
conditions such as temperature, humidity, pressure, magnetic or electrostatic field surrounding the
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instrument may affect the instrumental characteristics. Due to this the result produced by the
measurement may contain error.
There errors are undesirable and can be reduced by the following ways,

(a) Arrangement must be made to keep the conditions approximately constant.

(b) Employing hermetically sealing to certain components in the instrument, which eliminate
the effects of the humidity, dust, etc.

(c) Magnetic and electrostatic shields must be provided.

6. Observes skill:
It is a well-known fact that the output of measurement of a physical quantity is different from
operator to operator and sometimes even for the same operator the result may vary with sentimental
and physical states. One of the examples of error produced by the operator is parallax error in reading a
meter scale. To minimize parallax errors modern electrical instruments have digital display of output.

Classification of errors and elimination of errors:

No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy but it is important to find out what accuracy is
and how different errors have entered into the measurement. A steady of errors is a first step in finding
ways to reduce them. Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as under.

1. Gross errors
2. Systematic (or) instrumental errors
3. Random (or) environmental errors

1. gross errors:
This cause of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and calculating
measurement result. The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the experimental.
Ex: The temperature is 31.50c, but it will write as 21.50c its an error how ever they can be avoided by
adopting two means
1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2. Two, three (or) even more readings should be taken for quantity under measurement

2. systematic errors:
These type of errors are divided into three categories.
a. Instrumentation errors:
These errors occurs due to three main reasons.
a. Due to inherent short comings of the instrument
b. Due to misuse of instruments
c. Due to loading effects of instruments.

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b. Environmental errors:
These errors are caused due to changes in the environmental conditions in the area surrounding the
instrument, that may affect the instrument characteristics, such as the affects of changes in temperature,
humidity, barometric pressure or if magnetic field or electrostatic field.
These undesirable errors can be reduced by the following ways.

(i) Arrangement must be made to keep the conditions approximately constant.

(ii) Employing hermetically sealing to certain components in the instrument, which eliminate
the effects of the humidity dust, etc.

(iii) Magnetic or electrostatic shields must be provided.

c. Observational errors:
These errors are produced by the experiment. Enter. The most frequent error is the parallax error
introduced in reading a meter scale.
These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers To minimize parallax errors modern
electrical instruments have digital display of output.

3. Random (or) accidental errors:

The causes of such errors is unknown (or) not determinable in the ordinary process making
measurements. Such errors are normally small and follow the law of chance. Random errors they may be
treated mathematically according to the law of probability.

a. Certain human errors:

These errors occur due to inconsistency in estimating successive readings from the instrument by
an experimenter. To reduce these errors it is necessary to exercise extreme care with mature and
considered judgement in recording the observations.

b. Errors caused due to the disturbances to the equipment:

Precision errors in the instrument may arise from the outside disturbances to the measuring system.
These disturbances may be variations or mechanical vibrations. Poorly controlled processes also lead to
random errors.

c. Errors caused by fluctuating experimental conditions:

These errors are caused due to some uncontrolled, disturbances which influence the instrument
output. Line voltage fluctuations, vibrations of the instrument supports, etc., are common examples of
this type.

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 Measurement of displacement

Generally, displacement is thought of in terms of motion of a few millimeters (mm) or less. The
measurement of displacement is made frequently to relate to some other measurement and hence
displacement transducers are fundamental components of any instrumentation system Displacement is
closely associated with motion (from one point to another) and position (i.e. a change from one position
to the next). Displacement can be measured by both mechanical and electrical methods, but only electrical
methods which are common in industrial use will be described here.

Definition of a Transducer:
Strain gauge is a positive-type resistance transducer which converts a mechanical displacement
into a change of resistance. It is the most commonly used transducer for the measurement of
displacement. The resistance gauge is essentially a fine wire which changes its resistance, when
mechanically strained.
Due to physical effects. Its length and cross-sectional area vary and a change of electrical resistivity
also occurs. A transducer perform the following functions:
i. detects or senses the present and changes in physical quantity being measured.
ii. Provided a proportional output signal.
The strain Range is mounted to the measured surface so that it elongates or contracts with that surface.
This deformation of the sensing materials causes it to undergo a change in resistance.

(A)Classification of transducers:-
Transducers are broadly classified into two groups as follows:
1. Active transducers (self-generating type)
2. Passive transducers (Externally powered)

1. Active transducers (self-generating type):

Active transducers are self-generating type. They do not required electric energy. They work on the
principle of conservation of energy. The energy required for production of an output signal is obtained
from the input or physical phenomenon being measured.
Examples: Thermo couples, Thermoelectric and Piezo-electric devices….etc.

2. Passive transducers (Externally powered):

Passive transducers are externally powered type. Passive transducers are based on principle of energy
controlling and they required a secondary electrical source for operation.
Examples: LVDT (Linear variable differential transformer), Thermistors, resistance thermometers, strain
gauge devices.

(B) Classification based on the type of output:

1. Analog Transducer
2. Digital Transducer

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 1. Analog Transducer:
These transducers convert the input physical phenomenon into an analog output (analog form)
which is continuous function of time.
Examples: Thermistor, Thermocouple, strain gauge, LVDT.

2. Digital Transducer:
These transducers convert the input physical phenomenon into an electrical output (digital form)
which may be in the form of pulses.
Examples: Turbine flow meter.

(C)Classification based on the electrical principle involved:

1. Variable resistance type

(a) Strain and pressure gauge
(b) Thermistors, resistance thermo meters
(c) Photo conductive cell

2. Variable inductance type

(a) LVDT
(b) Reluctance pickup
(c) Eddy current type

3. Variable capacitance type

(a) Capacitor micro phase
(b) Pressure gauge
(c) Di electric gauge

4. Voltage generating type

(a) Thermo couple
(b) Photo voltaic cell
(c) Rotational motion tachometer
(d) Piezo- electric pickup

5. Voltage divider type

(a) Potentiometer position sensor
(b) Pressure actuated voltage divider

(D)According to the principle of operation, transducer for the measurement of displacement:

1. Variable resistance transducer

2. Variable inductance transducer

22
 3. Variable capacitance transducer
4. Piezo electric transducer
5. Photo electric or light detecting transducer
(a) Photo conductive
(b) Photo voltaic
(c) Photo emissive
6. Ionization transducers.

Advantages of electrical transducers over other transducers:

1. Mass and inertia effects are minimized

2. Amplification or attenuation is minimized
3. Effect of friction is minimized
4. They are compact in size
5. Remote indication is possible
6. Power consumption is less and loading errors are minimized.

Limitations:-

1. They need external power supply,

2. High cost
3. Instrument electrical properties may change the actual reading of the variable which is to be
measured.

Piezo Electric transducers:-

Piezo electricity represents the property of a number of crystalline materials that cause the crystal
to develop an electric charge or potential difference when subjected to mechanical forces or stresses
along specific planes. Conversely,the crystal would undergo change in thickness (and thus produce
mechanical forces) when charged electrically by a potential difference applied to its proper axis. Elements
exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are sometimes known as electro restrictive elements.

A typical mode of operation of a piezo electric device for

measuring varying force applied to a simple plate is shown in
Fig. Metal electrodes are attached to the selected faces of a
crystal in order to detect the electrical charge developed The
magnitude and Polarity of the induced charge on the crystal
surface is proportional to the magnitude and direction of the
applied force and is given by :
Q=KF

Where Q is the charge in coulomb,

F is the impressed force in newtons and
K is the crystal sensitivity in C/N; it is constant for particular crystals and the manner in which they are cut.
23
The relationship between the force F and the change 𝛿t in the crystal thickness t is given by the stress-
strain relationship.

There are two main groups of piezo-electric crystals:

(i) natural crystals such as quartz and tourmaline,
(ii) synthetic crystals such as Rochelle salts, lithium sulphate (LS), ammonia hydrogen phosphate
(ADP), ethylene diamine tartrate (EDT), potassium tartrate (DKT) etc. The advantages vary from
crystal to crystal and one is chosen on the basis of a particular application. Tourmaline `is the least
active chemically while tartaric acid is most active electrically.

* Natural crystals have a very low electrical leakage when used with very high input impedance
amplifiers and permit the measurement of a slowly varying parameter. They are, therefore, capable of
withstanding higher temperatures; operating at low frequencies and sustaining shocks.
* Synthetic crystals exhibit a much high output for an applied stress and are about thousand times
more sensitive than natural crystals. However, they are usually unable to withstand high mechanical
strain without fracture. Further, the synthetic crystals have an accelerated rate of deterioration over the
natural ones.
The major advantages of piezoelectric transducers are:
* High frequency response,
* High output,
* Rugged construction
* Negligible phase shift, and
* Small size. The small size of the transducer is especially useful for accelerometers
where added mass will mechanically load a system.
Applications: Piezo-electric transducers are most often used for accelerometers, pressure cells and force
cells in that order.
24
Resistance Transducers:-

Variable resistance transducers:-

In terms of physical quantities, the equation for electrical resistance of a metal conductor is
𝑙
𝑅 = 𝜌
𝐴
where R is the resistance, (ro) is the conductor resistivity or a specific resistance, L is the physical length
and A is the uniform cross-sectional area of the resistor. Any method of wearing one of these quantities can be the
design basis of an electrical transducer. In the variable resistance transducer and indication of measure the physical
quantity is given by the change in the resistance.

Further with some devices resistance changes with light intensity while with others the resistance changes
on exposure to make magnetic field the variable resistance transducers are active and they rely on an external
excitation voltage for the operation. However they are straight forward in design, simple and easy to use.

Linear and angular motion potentiometer : this potentiometers convert the linear motion into changes in
resistance. Basically a resistive potentiometer is a variable resistor whose resistance is read by the moment of a
slider over a resistance element. Translatory devices have strokes from 2 mm to 50 cm while rotational ones have a
full scale ranging from 10 degrees to as much as 60 full turns.

The resistance elements in common use are wire wound because that give sufficiently high resistance value
in small space. The characteristics of the resistance wires are:

-Precision drawn wire with a diameter of about 25 to 50 microns and wound over a cylindrical or a flat
mandrel of ceramic, glass, anodized aluminium
-resistivity of wire ranges from 0.4 to 1.3 (micro ohm metres) and temperature question where is from
0.002% per degree Celsius to 0.001% per degree Celsius with these values the device operates with
appreciable constant sensitivity over a wide temperature range
-the wire is strong, ductile and protected from surface corrosion by enamelling oxidation. The materials
commonly employed are the alloys of copper-Nickel, Nickel-chromium and silver Palladium.
25
Variable inductance transducers:-
1. LVDT (Linear variable differential Transducer)
2. RVDT (Rotary variable differential Transducer)
3. Synchros
4. Resolvers
5.
1. LVDT (Linear variable differential Transducer):
The linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT) is the most widely used inductive transducer to
translate linear motion into electrical signal.
Construction: A differential transformer consists of a primary winding and two secondary windings. The
windings are arranged concentrically and next to each other. They are wound over a hollow bobbin which
is usually of a non-magnetic and insulating material, as shown in Fig.

Working: Any physical displacement of the core causes the voltage of one secondary winding to increase
while simultaneously, reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding. The difference of the two
voltages appears across the output terminals of the transducer and gives a measure of the physical
position of the core and hence the displacement.
When the core is in the neutral or zero position, voltages induced in the secondary windings are
equal and opposite and the net output is negligible. As the core is moved in one direction from the null
position, the differential voltage, i.e. the difference of the secondary voltages, will increase while
maintaining an in-phase relationship with the voltage from the input source. In the other direction from
the null position, the differential voltage will again increase, but will be 180' out of phase with the voltage
from the input source. By comparing the magnitude and phase of the output (differential) voltage with
the input source. The amount and direction of movement of the core and hence of displacement may be
determined. Variation of output voltage with core position is shown in Fig.
Following are the advantages of LVDT:
(i) The output voltage of these transducer is practically linear for displacements upto 5 mm.
(ii) They have infinite resolution.
(iii) These transducers possess a high sensitivity.
(iv) These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of shock and vibration without any
adverse effects.
(v) They are simple, light in weight, and easy to align and maintain.
26
Following are the disadvantages of LVDT:
(i) Rela6vely large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
(ii) They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is possible.
(iii) They are inherently low in power output.

2. RVDT (Rotary variable differential Transducer):

A RVDT is used to convert rectangular displacement into electrical signal. The construction and
working of RVDT is same as that of LVDT except that is employs a cam shaped core. This core rotates
between the primary and two secondary windings with the help of shaft.

3. Synchros:
The devices by which the angular position of shaft is converted into electrical signal are known as
synchros. The synchros are electromagnetic transducers. The construction of synchro is same as a three
phase alternator. It has a stator and a rotor. The stator consists of 3 identical stationary windings which
are separated by 120° in space. These stationary windings are connected in star (Y) configuration.
The rotor is dumb-bell shaped rotor to which an AC excitation voltage is applied through slip rings. The
rotor acts as primary winding of single phase transformer where as the stationary windings act as
secondary winding of single phase & transformer. There are two basic parts m a synchro system namely
synchro transmitter and synchro receiver.

4. Resolvers:
It is an electromagnetic device which consists of two stator windings and two rotor windings.
Resolving is nothing but converting from one co-ordinate system to another coordinate system. The
resolvers converts the shafts angular position into Cartesian coordinates i.e., the angular rotor position is
converted into those signals which are proportional to the sine and cosine of the rotor position and this is
carried out with respect to the position of the stators.

Photo-electric Transducers:-

These transducers operate on the principle that when light strikes special
combination of materials, a voltage may be generated, a resistance change
may take place, or electrons may flow. Photoelectric cells are used for a
wide variety of purposes in control engineering for precision measuring
devices, in exposure meters used in photography. They are also used in
solar batteries as sources of electrical power for rockets and satellites used
in space research.
Based on the principle of rotation photo electric transducers are classified
into the 3 types. They are,

(i) Photo-emissive cell: These transducers operate on the photo-emissive effect, i.e., when certain
types of materials are exposed to light, electrons readmitted and a current flow is produced. Light
sensitive photo-cathode may consist of a very thin film of cesium deposited by isotonic onto an oxidised
27
silver base. Light strikes the cathode, causing the emission electrons which are attracted towards the
anode. This phenomenon produces flow of it current in the external circuit; the current being a function
of radiant energy striking the cathode.
Light information ------------------ current information

(ii) Photo-conductive cell: These are the variable resistance transducers. They on the principle of photo
conductive effect, i.e., some special type of semiconductor oils change their resistance when exposed
to light.
Light information ------------------ resistance information
Figure shows schematically the construction and electrical circuit of a photoconductive cell. The
sensitive material usually employed is cadmium selenide, germanium etc in the form of thin coating
between the two electrodes on a glass. Further, the cells are used in the circuit as a variable
resistance and are put in .series an ammeter and a voltage source. When the light strikes the
semiconductor material, is a decrease in the cell resistance thereby producing an increase in the
current indicated the ammeter.

(iii) Photo-voltaic cell: These transducers operate on the photo-valtaic effect, i.e., when light's trikes a
junction of certain dissimilar metals, a potential difference is built up.
Light information ------------------ emf information
The cell consists of a metal base plate, a non-metal semiconductor and a thin transparent metallic
layer. Typical examples of the layers are the copper oxide on copper and iron oxide on iron
combination. The transparent layer may be in the form of a sprayed conducting lacquer. Light strikes
the coating and generates an electric potential. The output is, however, low and is non-linear
function of the light intensity. In contrasted photo-tube and photo-conductive cells, the photo-
voltaic unit is self-gene, rated and requires no voltage source to operate it.

28
Capacitive Transducers:-

29
30
 UNIT-2
Measurement of temperature:-
Temperature is probably, most widely measured and frequently controlled variable encountered in
industrial processing of all kinds measurement of temperature is involved in thermo dynamics, heat transfer
and many chemical operations. Basically all the properties of matter such as size, colour, electrical and
magnetic characteristics and the physical states (solid, liquid, gas) change with changing temperature.

Definition: Temperature may be defined as the degree of hotness and coldness of a body are an
environmental measured on a definite scale.
The temperature of a substance is a measure of the hotness, or coldness, of that substance. It is the
thermal site of a body or a substance which determines whether it will give heat to, or receive heat from,
other bodies. If two bodies are placed in contact then heat tends to flow from a body at a higher
temperature to a body at a lower temperature, just as water flows from higher to lower levels.
The terms, heat and temperature, are closely related Temperature may be defined as "degree of
heat" but heat is usually taken to mean "quantity of heat” Temperature and heat flow are related
quantitatively by the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat flows. Of its own accord, from
a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. It is therefore important to remember
that in temperature measurement, two bodies in intimate contact are at the same temperature only if
there is no heat flow between them.

Temperature scales:
Temperature scales are based upon some recognized fixed points. At least two fixed points are
required which are constant in temperature and can be easily reproduced as:

(i) Centrigrade and fahren heat scales: On both these scales the freezing point and boiling point of
water are used as fixed point. The freezing point. The centigrade scale abbreviated as 0c, assigns
0 0c to the ice point and 1000c to the steam point and the intervals between these points is divided
into 100 equal points. The corresponding values of the Fahrenheit scale deviated 0F are 32 0F and
2120F with the interval divided into 180 equal parts.
(ii) kelvin and rankine absolute scales:- On the kelvin and rankine scales the absloute and
hypothetically placed at -273.2°𝑐 and -459.7°𝐹.
(iii) Thermo dynamic scale:-The efficiency of an ideal engine operating up on the control cycle
between any two temperatures is given by.
𝑇1−𝑇2 = 𝑄1−𝑄2
𝑇1 𝑄1
This can be written as 𝑇1/𝑇2 = 𝑄1/𝑄2
(iv) International temperature scale:- This scale has been established and adopted provide an
experimental basis for the calibration of specific thermometers to indicate temperatures as close
as possible to the Kelvin thermodynamic scale. The International temperature scale covers the
range from the boiling point of oxygen to the highest temperatures of incandescent bodies and
names. The main features of this scale, adopted in 1948 at the Ninth General Conference on
Weights and Measures are:

31
 (1) Temperatures are to be designated as of and denoted by the symbol t. The name
Celsius was officially adopted to replace the name Centigrade.
(2) The scale is based upon a number of fixed and reproducible equilibrium
temperatures to which numerical values are assigned.

Fundamental fixed points and their numerical values (at standard atmospheric pressure of 1013250
dynes/𝒄𝒎𝟐)
FIXED POINT TEMPARATURE℃
1.Temparature of equilibrium between liquid -182.97
oxygen and it’s vapour (oxygen point)
2 .Temperature of equilibrium between ice and 0
(saturated) water (ice point) fundamental fixed
point.
3. Temperature of equilibrium between liquid, 100
water and it’s vapour (steam point)-
fundamental fixed point.
4. Temperature of equilibrium between liquid, 444.60
sulphur and it’s vapour (sulphur point)
5.Temparature of equilibrium between solid and 960.8
liqud silver(silver point)
6. Temperature of equilibrium between the solid 1063
and liquid gold (gold point)

Classification:-
The instruments for measuring temperature have been classified in the first place according to the nature
of change produced in the testing body by the change of temperature. The following four broad categories
have been proposed.
1. Expansion thermometers.
2. Change of state thermometer.
3. Electrical methods of measuring temperature.
4. Radiation and optical pyrometer.

1. EXPANSION THERMO METERS:-

(a) Expansion of solids
(i) Bimetaliic thermometer
(ii) Solid rod thermometer
(b) Expansion of liquids
(i) liquid in glass thermometer
(ii) liquid in metal thermometer
(C) Expansion of gases-gas thermometer
2. Change of state thermometers:-
32
 Liquid in metal thermometers (or) vapour pressure thermometers.
3. Electrical methods of measuring temperature:-
(a) Electrical resistances bulbs.
(b) Thermistors.
(c) Thermo couples and thermopiles.
4. Radiation and optical pyrometers:-
Optical pyrometers (total radiation pyrometer).

Ranges:-

Type Range℃ Accuracy℃

1.Glass thermometers
(a) mercury filled -39 to 400 0.3 to 1.0
(b) 𝐻𝑔+𝑁2 -39 TO 540 0.3 TO5.5
(C) Alcohol filled -70 to 65 0.5 to 1.0
2.Pressure gauge thermometer.
(a) vapour pressure type 11 to 200 1 to 5.5
(b) liquid (or) gas type filled -150 to 600 1 to 5.5
3.Bimetallic thermometer -74 to 540 0.3 to 14.0
4.Resistance thermometer -240 to 980 0.003 to 3.0
5.Thermo couples
(a) base metals -185 to 1150 0.3 to 11.0
(b) Percious metals -185 to 1150 0.3 to 11.0
6.Thermistors -100 to 260 Depends up on ageing
7.pyrometers
(a) optical 760 and above 11 for black body
(b) radiation 540 and above 11-16 for black body
8.fusion 590 to 3600 As low as 20-30 under optimum
conditions.

Bimetallic thermometer:- (or) solid expansion:-

33
Construction:- A bimetallic strip consists of two pieces of different materials firmly bonded together by
bending. For a bi-metal in the form of a straight cantilever beam temp changes cause the free end to deflect
because of the different expansion rates of the components. This deflection can be correlated
quantitatively to the temp change.

Normally the two expansion material is invar and the high expansion material is brass. The respective
coefficient of expansion for invar and brass.

When bimetallic strip in the form of cantilever is assumed to bend to a circular are than

Bimetallic elements can be arranged in the flat spiral the single helix and the multiple helix configuration.
Characteristics:-
1. Low cost.
2. Simple and compact

34
 Applications:-
1. Control of gas flow
2. electric iron boxes
3. Domestic ovaus.

Liquid in glass thermometers:-

The liquid in gas thermometers is one of the most common types of temp measuring devices. The
unit consists of glass envelope, responsive liquid and indicating scale.
Liquid range℃

Mercury -3.5 to 510

Alcohol -80 to 70

Toluene -80 to 100

Peutane -200 to 30

Creosote -5 to 200

The choice in the type 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 of economics influenced by the range of the
thermometer. Higher the range, higher the cost. For temperature up to 450 ℃normal glass used.at high
temp up to 550℃. Above this temp quartz thermometers have been used.
Salient features/characteristics:-
1. Low cost and simplicity of use
2. Portable
3. Ease of checking for physical damage
4. Absence of need for auxiliary instruments.
5. No need of additional indicating instruments
6. Range limited to about 600℃.
Calibration of liquid in glass thermometer:-
1. Complete immersion
2. Total immersion
3. Partial immersion
Correction factor 𝑐𝑆= 0.00018N(T1-T2)
Where 𝐶𝑠=Stem Correction In Degrees To Be Added algebrically To The Indicated Temp
N= Numberof degrees of exposed
T1= Reading of the primary thermometer and
T2= Average temperature of exposed stem.

Liquid in metal thermometers:-

The two distinct disadvantages of liquid in glass thermometers are
1. The glass is very fragile and hence care should be taken in handling these thermometers.
2. The position of the thermometer for accurate temp measurement is not always the best
position for reading the scale of the thermometer
35
 Both of these disadvantages are overcome in mercury in steel
thermometer. The principle of operation is again the differential
expansion of liquid which is used.

(i) a temperature sensitive element (bulb) filled with expanding

fluid
(ii) a flexible capillary tube
(iii) a pressure or volume sensitive device such as Bourdon tube,
bellows or diaphragms, and
(iv) a device for indicating or recording a signal related to the
measured temperature.

Advantages and limitations :

* Simple and inexpensive design of the system

* Quite rugged construction, minimum possibility of, damage or failure in shipment, installation and
use
* Fairly good response, accuracy and sensitivity
* Remote indication upto about 100 m possible with capillary lines.

Gas Thermometer:-
This system is defined as "a thermal system with a gas and operating on the principle of pressure
change with temperature change". The expansion, of a gas is governed by the ideal gas law:
PV = RT; P = (RT/V)
Gas: Nitrogen gas Range: -130°to 540°
The volume of gas required in the bulb is determined by the
gas expansion and by the temperature range of the
instrument.
𝑇 −𝑇
V = R ( 2 1)
(𝑃2− 𝑃2)

Where subscripts 1, 2 refer to the conditions at the lowest and

highest points of the scale.

Electrical Methods:-
In electrical methods of measuring temperature, the temperature signal is converted into electrical
signal either through a change in resistance or voltage development of emf.
1. Resistance Thermometers
2. Thermistors
3. Thermo couples

36
1. Resistance Thermometers:

The thermometer comprises a resistance element or bulb, suitable electrical leads and an indicating -
recording or resistance measuring instrument. The resistance element is, usually in the form of a coil of
very fine platinum, nickel or copper wound non -conductively. Onto an insulating ceramic former which is
protected externally by a metal sheath. A laboratory type of resistance thermometer is often wound on a
crossed mica former and enclosed in a pyrex tube. The tube may be evacuated or filled with an inert gas
to protect the metal wire. Care is to be taken to ensure that the resistance wire is free from m mechanical
stresses. A metal which has been strained will suffer a change in the resistance characteristics; the metal
is therefore usually annealed at a temperature higher than that at which it is so operate.

37
Platinum is preferred because,
1. Physically stable (i.e., relatively indifferent to its environment, resists corrosion and chemical
attack and is not readily oxidised) and has high electrical resistance characteristics.
2. Accuracy attainable with a platinum resistance thermometer is of the order of ± 0.01 of upto 500°
𝐶 and within ± 0. 1°𝐶 of upto 1200 °𝐶.

Advantages:-
* Simplicity and accuracy of operation
* Possibility of easy installation and replacement of sensitive bulb
* Easy check on the accuracy of the measuring circuit 'by substituting a standard resistance for the
resistance element.

2. Thermistors:

Thermistors is a contraction of term Thermal Resistor. They are

essentially semi-conductors which behave as resistors with a high
negative temperature coefficient. As -the temperature increases, the
resistance goes down, and as the temperature decreases, the
resistance goes up. This is just opposite to the effect of temperature
changes on metals.
Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic
oxides such as manganese. Nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium.
These metallic oxides are milled, mixed in appropriate proportions,
are pressed into the desired shape with appropriate binders and
finally sintered the electrical terminals are either embedded before sintering or baked afterwards. The
electrical characteristics of thermistors are controlled by varying the type of oxide used and physical size
and configuration of the thermistor.
Thermistors may be shaped in the form of beads, disks, washers, rods and `these standard forms
are shown in Fig.

38
 The mathematical expression for the relation- ship between the resistance of a thermistor and absolute
temperature of thermistor is

3. Thermo couples:
The basic principle of temperature measurement by thermo-electricity was discovered by Seebeck
in 1821 and is illustrated in Fig. 10.20. When two conductors of dissimilar metals M1 and M2 are joined
together to form a loop (a thermocouple) and two unequal temperatures Tl1 and T2 are imposed at the
two interface connections, an electric current we through the loop.
Experimentally it has been found that -the magnitude of the current is directly related to the two
materials M1 and M2, and the temperature difference (T1 – T2 ). In the practical application of the effect,
a suitable device is incorporated in the circuit to indicate any electromotive force or Bower current. For
convenience of measurement and standardization, one of the two junctions is usually maintained at some
constant known temperature. The output voltage of the circuit then indicates the temperature difference
relative to the reference temperature. Most tabulations set the reference value to the triple point of
water (O°𝐶).

Thermo-electric effects arise in two ways:

 a potential difference always exists between two dissimilar metals in contact with each other
(Peltier effect)
 a potential gradient exists even in a single conductor having & temperature gradient (Thomson
effect)
In commercial instruments, the thermocouple materials are so chosen that the Peltier and Thomson emfs
act in such a manner that the combined value is maximum and that varies directly with temperature.

39
4
 Measurement of pressure
Pressure definition:-
The action of force against some opposite force.
OR
A force in the nature of thrust distributed over a surface.
OR
The force acting against a surface within a closed container.
Units:-
Some of the commonly used pressure units are:
1bar = 105N/𝑚 2= 1.0197 kgf/𝑐𝑚2 = 750.06 mm of Hg. 1 micron = 1M = 10−3 mm of Hg.
1 torr = 1 mm of Hg. 1 𝜇 bar = 1 dyne/ 𝑐𝑚2 Pa = N/𝑚 2.

Terminology:-
Following terms are generally associated with pressure and its measurement.
Atmospheric pressure (𝑷𝒂𝒕):-
This is the pressure exerted by the envelope of air surrounding the earth surface. Atmospheric
pressure is usually determined by a mercury column barometer shown in fig. A long clean thick glass tube
closed at one end is filled with pure mercury. The tube diameter is such that capillary effects are
minimum. The open end is stoppered and the tube is inserted into a mercury container; the stoppered
end kept well beneath the mercury surface. When the stopper is removed, mercury runs out of the tube
into the container and eventually mercury level in the tube settles at height h above mercury level in the
container. Atmospheric pressure 𝑷𝒂𝒕 acts at the mercury surface in the container, and the mercury
vapour pressure 𝑷𝒗𝒑 exits at the top of mercury column in the tube. From hydrostatic equation,
𝑝𝑎𝑡 − 𝑝𝑣𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ ............................. (i)

Mercury has a low vapour pressure (≈1.6 × 10−6bar at 20 °C) and thus for all intents and purposes it can
be neglected in comparison to 𝑝𝑎𝑡 which is about 1.0 bar at mean sea level. Then
𝑝𝑎𝑡 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ ............................ (ii)
Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude, because the air nearer the earth’s surface is compressed by air
above. At sea level, value of atmospheric pressure is close to 1.01325 bar or 760 mm of Hg column (=
10.33 m of water column).

41
Absolute pressure (𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔):-
It is defined as the force per unit area due to the interaction of fluid particles amongst themselves.
A zero pressure intensity will occur when molecular momentum is zero. Such a situation can occur only
when there is a perfect vacuum, i.e., a vanishingly small population of gas molecules or of molecular
velocity. Pressure intensity measured from this state of vacuum or zero pressure is called absolute
pressure.

GAUGE PRESSURE (𝑷𝒈) AND VACUUM PRESSURE (𝑷𝒗𝒂𝒄):-

Instruments and gauges used to measure fluid pressure generally measures the difference between
the unknown pressure ‘P’ and the existing atmospheric pressure ‘𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚’. When the unknown pressure is
more than the atmospheric pressure the pressure is recorded by the instrument is called gauge pressure
(𝑃𝑔). A pressure reading below the atmospheric pressure is known as vacuum pressure or negative
pressure. Actual absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure indication and the atmospheric pressure.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑷𝒈+ 𝑷𝒂𝒕
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕- 𝑷𝒗𝒂𝒄

42
STATIC PRESSURE (𝑷𝒔) AND TOTAL PRESSURE (𝑷𝒕):-
Static pressure is defined as the force per unit area acting on a wall by a fluid at rest or flowing
parallel to the wall in a pipe line.

Static pressure of a moving fluid is measured with an instrument which is at rest relative to the
fluid. The instrument should theoretically move with same speed as that of the fluid particle itself. As it is
not possible to move a pressure transducer along in a flowing fluid; static pressure is measured by
inserting a tube into the pipe line at right angles to the flow path. Care is taken to ensure that the tube
does not protrude into the pipe line and cause errors due to impact and eddy formation. When the tube
protrudes into the stream, there would be local speeding up of the flow due to its deflection around the
tube; hence an erroneous reading of the static pressure would be observed.
Velocity pressure = total pressure – static pressure.
𝑉2
= (𝑝𝑡− 𝑝𝑠 )
2𝑔

Pressure measurement groups:-

A. Instruments for measuring low pressure (below 1 mm of Hg): - manometers and low pressure
gauges.
B. Instruments for medium and low pressures (below 1 mm of Hg to 1000 atmospheres):- Bourdon
tube and diaphragm gauges.
C. Instruments for measuring low vacuum and ultra high vacuum (760 torr to 10 −9 torr and beyond):-
McLeod thermal conductivity and ionization gauges.
D. Instruments for measuring very high pressure (1000 atmospheres and above):- bourdon tube,
diaphragm and electrical resistance pressure gauges.
E. Instruments for measuring varying pressure:- engine Indicator and CRO ( cathode ray oscilloscope).

43
Classification of pressure measuring devices:-
1. Gravitational transducer.
a. A dead weight tester.
b. Manometer.
2. Electrical transducers.
a. Bourdon tube pressure gauges.
b. Elastic diaphragm pressure.
c. Bellows gauges.
3. Strain gauge pressure cells.
a. Pinched tubes.
b. Cylindrical tube pressure cell.
4. McLeod gauge.
5. Thermal conductivity gauges.
a. Thermocouple gauge
b. Pirani gauge
6. Ionization gauge.
7. Electrical resistance pressure gauge.

VARIOUS PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT:-

1. Pressure can be measured by balancing a column of liquid against the pressure which has to be
measured. The height of the column which is balanced becomes a measure of the applied pressure
when calibrated.
Ex: - manometer.

2. When the pressure is applied to the elastic elements the shape of the elastic element changes which
intern the pointer moves with respect to the scale. The pointer readings become a measure of applied
pressure.
Ex: - bourdon tube pressure gauge, diaphragm, bellows.

3. When electric current flows through a conducting wire it gets heated. Depending up on the
conductivity of the surrounding media the heat is dissipated from the wire. The rate of change in the
temperature of the wire becomes a measure of the pressure.
Ex:- Pirani gauge, ionization gauge, thermal conductivity gauges.

DEAD WEIGHT PISTON GAUGE:-

4
 The dead weight tester is a primary standard for pressure measurement, and it offers a good
calibration facility over a wide pressure range (700 N/𝑚 2 to 70 MN/𝑚 2 gauge in steps as small as 0.01%
of range with a calibration uncertainly of 0.01-0.05% of the reading).
A typical gauge is schematically shown in Fig. It consists of an accurately machined, bored and
finished piston which is inserted into a close fitting cylinder; both of known cross- section areas.
A platform is attached to the top of the piston and it serves to hold standard weights of known
accuracy. The chamber and the cylinder are filled with a clean oil; the oil being supplied from an oil
reservoir provide with a check valve at its bottom. The oil withdrawn from the reservoir when the pump
plunger executes an outward stroke and forced into the space below the piston during inward motion of
the pump plunger. For calibrating a gauge, an appropriate amount of weight is placed on the platform and
the fluid pressure is applied until enough upward force is developed to lift the piston-weight combination.
When this occurs, the piston-weight combination begins to float freely within the cylinder.
Under the equilibrium condition the pressure force is balanced against the gravity force on the mass
‘m’ of the calibrated masses, plus the piston and flat form and a frictional force. If ‘A’ is the equivalent
area of the piston cylinder combination then:
PA = mg + frictional drag. P = (mg + frictional drag)/A
The effective or equivalent area depends on such factors as piston cylinder clearance, pressure level,
temperature, and is normally taken as the mean of the cylinder and piston areas.

Manometers:-
Manometers measure pressure by balancing a column of liquid against the pressure to measured.
Height of column so balanced is noted and then converted to the desired units. Manometers may be
vertical, inclined, open, differential or compound. Choice of any type depends on its sensitivity of
measurement, ease of operation and the magnitude of pressure being measured. Manometers can be
used to measure gauge, differential, atmospheric, and absolute pressure.
i. Piezo meter
ii. U- tube manometer
iii. Single column manometer

i. Piezo meter:
lt is a vertical transparent glass tube, the upper end of which is open
to atmosphere and the lower end is in communication with the gauge point
; a point in the fluid container at which pressure is to be measured. Rise of
fluid in the tube above a certain gauge point is a measure of the pressure at
that point.
Fluid pressure at gauge point A = atmospheric pressure pu at the free
surface + pressure due to a liquid column of height ℎ1
𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑤ℎ1
Where, w is the specific weight of the liquid.

Similarly for the gauge

point(B) 𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑤ℎ2
45
ii. U- tube manometer:
This simplest and useful pressure measuring consists of a transparent tube bent in the form of letter
U and filled with a particular liquid whose density is known. The choice of a particular manometric liquid
upon the pressure range and nature of the fluid whose pressure is sought. For high mercury (specific
gravity 13.6) is the manometric/balancing liquid. For low pressure liquids like carbon tetrachloride
(specific gravity 1.59) or acetylene tetrabromide (specific gravity 2.59) are employed. Quite often, some
colours are added to the balancing so as to get clear readings.

(a) Measurement of pressure greater than atmospheric pressure:

Due to greater pressure 𝑝𝑥 in the container, the manometric liquid is forced downward the left limb of
the U-tube and there is a corresponding rise of manometric liquid in the right limb.
Let, ℎ1 = height of the light liquid above the datum line
ℎ2 = height of the heavy liquid above the datum line For the right limb the gauge pressure at
point 2 is
𝑝2 = atmospheric pressure, i.e., zero gauge pressure at the free surface+ pressure due to
head ℎ2 of manometric liquid of specific weight 𝑤2= 0 + 𝑤2 ℎ2

For the left limb, the gauge pressure at point 1 is

𝑝1 = gauge pressure 𝑝𝑥 + pressure due to height ℎ1 of the liquid of specific weight 𝑤1= 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑤1 ℎ1

Points 1 and 2 are at the same horizontal plane; 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 and therefore,

𝑝𝑥 + 𝑤1 ℎ1 = 𝑤2 ℎ2
Gauge pressure in the container, 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑤2 ℎ2 - 𝑤1 ℎ1

(b) Measurement of pressure less than atmospheric pressure:

Due to negative pressure 𝑝𝑥 in the container, the manometric liquid is sucked upwards in the left
limb of the U-tube and there is a corresponding fall of manometric liquid in the right limb.
Pressure in the two legs at the same level 1 and 2 are equal; 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 and therefore, Gauge pressure in the
container, 𝑝𝑥 = −( 𝑤1 ℎ1 = 𝑤2 ℎ2)
4
iii. Single column manometer:
Single column manometer is modified form of manometer in which a reservoir having a large cross
sectional area as compared to the area of the tube, is connected to one of the limbs (say left limb) of the
reservoir. The other limb may be vertical or inclined. There are two types of single column manometers.
• Vertical single column manometer
• Inclined single column manometer

1. Vertical single column manometer:

To start with, let both limbs of the manometer be exposed to atmospheric pressure. Then the liquid level
in the wider limb (also called reservoir well basin) and narrow limbs will correspond to position 0-0.
ℎ1 = height of center of pipe above 0-0
ℎ2 = rise of heavy liquid in right limb
For the left limb, gauge pressure at point 1 is: 𝑝1= 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑤1 ℎ1 + 𝑤1𝛿 h
For the right limb, the gauge pressure at point 2 is: 𝑝2= 0 + 𝑤2 ℎ2 + 𝑤2 𝛿 h
Points 1 and 2 are at the same horizontal plane: 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 and therefore
Gauge pressure 𝑝𝑥 in the container is: 𝑝𝑥 = (𝑤2 ℎ2 - 𝑤1 ℎ1) + 𝛿 h (𝑤2 - 𝑤1)

2. Inclined single column manometer:

This manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclination the distance moved by heavy liquid in the right
limb will be more.

47
 Let, l= length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from 0-0
𝜃 = Inclination of right limb with horizontal.
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑤2𝑙 (sin𝜃 + 𝑎/𝐴)

Advantages and limitations of manometers:

- Relatively inexpensive and easy to fabricate

- good accuracy and sensitivity
- requires little maintenance; are not affected by vibrations
- particularly suitable to low pressures and low differential pressures
- sensitivity can be altered easily by affecting a change in the quantity of manometric liquid in the
manometer
- generally large and bulky, fragile and gets easily broken
- not suitable for recording e
- measured medium has to be compatible with the manometric fluid used
- readings are affected by changes in gravity, temperature and altitude
- surface tension of manometric fluid creates a capillary affect and possible hysteresis
- meniscus height, has to be determined by accurate means to ensure improved accuracy.

Mechanical Gauges: - Elastic Pressure Transducer:-

For measuring pressures in excess of two atmosphere elastic mechanical type transducers are used.
The actions of these gauges are based on the deflection of the hollow tube, diaphragm and bellows caused
by the applied pressure difference. The resulting deflection made directly accurate a pointer. Scale read
out through suitable linkages and gears are the motion may be transmitted through and electrical signal.
Bellows and diaphragm gauges are generally suitable up to 28 to 56 bars. Where as bourdon tubes are
very high pressure gauges.

Bellow gauges:
The bellows is a longitudinally expansible and collapsible member consisting of several
convolutions or folds. The general acceptable methods of fabrication are:
(i) turning from a solid stock of metal,
(ii) soldering or welding stamped annular rings,
(iii) rolling a tubing, and
(iv) hydraulically forming a drawn tube.
Material selection is generally based on considerations like strength or the pressure range, hysteresis
and fatigue.
In the differential pressure arrangement (Fig) two bellows are connected to the ends of an equal
arm lever. If equal pressures are applied to the two bellows, they would extend by the same amount.
The connecting lever would then rotate but no movement would result in the movement sector. Under
a differential pressure, the deflections of the bellow would be unequal and the differential displacement
of the connecting levers would be indicated by the movement of the pointer on a scale.

4
8
Advantages:
1. Simple in construction.
2. Good for low to moderate pressures.
3. Available for gauge, differential and absolute pressure measurements.
4. Moderate cost.

Limitations:
1. Zero shift problems.
2. Needs spring for accurate characterization.
3. Requires compensation for temperature ambient changes.

BOURDON GAUGE:-

4
9
The pressure responsive element of a bourdon gauge consists essentially of metal tube (called bourdon
tube or spring), oval in cross section and bent to from a circular segment of, approximately 200 to 300
degrees. The tube is fixed but open at one end and it is through this fixed end that the pressure to be
measured is applied. The other end is closed but free to allow displacement under deforming action of
the pressure difference across the tube walls. When a pressure (greater than atmosphere) is applied to
the inside of the tube, its cross-section tends to become circular. This makes the tube straighten itself out
with a consequent increase in its radius of curvature, i. e., the free end would collapse and curve.

Type travel:

The motion of the free end commonly called tip travel is a function of tube length wall thickness, cross
sectional geometry and modulus of the tube material. For a bourdon tube a deflection ∆a of the elemental
tip can be expressed as
𝑎𝑃 𝑟 0.2 𝑥 0.03 𝑥 3.0
∆a = 0.05 ( ) ( ) ( )
𝐸 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡
Where ‘a’ is the total angle subtended by the tube before pressurization, P is the applied pressure
difference and ‘E’ is the modulus of elasticity of the tube material.

Errors and their rectification: in general 3 types of error are found in bourdon gauges:

(i) Zero error or constant error which remains constant over the
entire pressure range.

(ii) Multiplication error where in the gauge may tend to give

progressively a higher or low reading.

(iii) Angularity error: quite often it is seen that a one– to–one

correspondence does not occur.

50
 Bourdon tube shapes and configurations:
The C-type bourdon tube has a small tip travel and this necessitates amplification by a lever, quadrant,
pinion and pointer arrangement. Increased sensitivity can be obtained by using a very long length of
tubing in the form of a helix, and a flat spiral as indicated in Fig.

Materials:
1. Pressure 100 to 700 KN/m2(tubes are made of phosphor bronze)
2. For high pressure P=7000 to 63000 KN/m2 (tubes are made of alloy steel or k-monel)
Advantages:
1. Low cost and simple in construction.
2. Capability to measure gauge absolute and differential pressure.
3. Availability in several ranges. Limitations:
1. So response.
2. Susceptibility to sharp and vibration.
3. Mutually required geared movement for application.

DIAPHRAGM GAUGES:-

In its elementary form, a diaphragm is a thin plate of circular shape clamped firmly around its edges. The
diaphragm gets deflected in accordance with the pressure differential across the side; deflection being
towards the low pressure side. The pressure to be measured is applied to diaphragm causing it to deflect
the deflection being proportional to applied pressure. The movement of diaphragm depends on its
thickness and diameter. The pressure deflection relation
51
for a flat diaphragm with adjustable clamped is
given by

Where, P=pressure difference across the diaphragm,

E=modulus of elasticity,
t= diaphragm thickness
M= Poisson’s ratio,
R=diaphragm radium,
Y=deflection at center of diaphragm.
There are two basic types of diaphragm element design:
(i) Metallic diaphragm which depends upon its own resilience for its operation.
(ii) Non-metallic or slack diaphragm which employs a soft, flexible material with no elastic
characteristic.

Diaphragm types: The diaphragms can be in the form of flat, corrugated or dished plates; the choice
depending on the strength and amount of deflection desired. Most common types of diaphragms are
shown in Fig.

Diaphragm material, pressure ranges and applications: Metallic diaphragms are generally fabricated
form a full hard, cold-rolled nickel, chromium or iron alloy which can have an elastic limit up to 560
MN/ml. Typical pressure ranges are 0 - 50 mm water gauge, 0-2800 kN/𝑚2 pressure and 0 - 50 mm water
gauge vacuum.
Typical applications are low pressure absolute pressure gauges, draft gauges, liquid level gauges
and many types of recorders and controllers operating in the low range of direct or differential pressures.
Non-metallic slack diaphragms are made a variety of materials such as gold beaters, skill , animal
membranes, impregnated silk clothes and synthetic materials like Teflon, neoprene, polythene …Etc.

Advantages:
1. Relatively small size and moderate cost.
2. Capability to with stand high over pressures and maintain good linearity over a wide range.
3. Availability of gauge for absolute and differential pressure measurement.
4. Minimum of hysteresis and no permanent zero shift. Limitations:-
1. Needs protection from shocks and vibrations.
2. Cannot be used to measure high pressure.
3. Difficult to repair.

52
LOW PRESSURE GAUGES: -Below 1 mm of mercury (Hg) is known as low pressure gauges.
Pressure ranges:Low vacuum =760 torr to 25 torr,
Medium vacuum =25 torr to 10^-3 torr,
High vacuum =10 −3 torr to 10 −6 torr,
Very high vacuum =10 −6 torr to 10 −9torr,
Ultra high vacuum =10 −9 torr and beyond.

Low pressure gauges are grouped into two types. They are
(i) Direct measurement: wherein displacement deflection caused by the pressure is measured
and is correlated to the applied pressure. This principle is incorporated in bellows, diaphragm,
bourdon tube, manometer.

(ii) Indirect type measurements: wherein the low pressure is detected through measurement
of a pressure controlled property such as volume, thermal conductivity etc. the inferential gauges
include Thermal conductivity gauges, Ionization gauge, McLeod gauge.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY GAUGES: -

These gauges measure pressure through a change in the thermal conductivity of the gas. Their
operation is based on the thermodynamic principle that “at low pressures there is a relationship between
the pressure and thermal conductivity i.e., the heat conductivity decreases with decrease in pressure”.
There are two types of thermal gauges.
1. Thermocouple gauge.
2. Pirani gauge.

1. Thermocouple gauge:
The schematic diagram of a thermocouple type conductivity gauge is shown in figure (1). The
pressure to be measured admitted to a chamber. A constant current is passed through the thin metal
strip in the chamber.

Due to this current, the metal strip gets heated and acts as hot surface. The temperature of this
53
hot surface is sensed by a thermocouple which is attached to the metal strip. The glass tube acts as the
cold surface. Whose temperature is nearly equal room temperature. The conductivity of the metal strip
changes due to the applied pressure. This change in conductivity causes a change in the temperature,
which is sensed by the thermocouple. The thermocouple produces current corresponding to the
thermocouple output which is then indicated by a mm. This indicated current becomes a measure of the
applied pressure when calibrated.

2. Pirani gauge:
The construction of a pirani gauge is shown in fig.

It consists of two identical tubes, platinum/tungsten Wire and a compensating element. A

constant current is passed through the platinum wire which is mounted along the axis of the glass tube.
The wire gets heated due to this current and its resistance is measured using a resistance bridge. The gas
whose pressure to be measured is admitted to the glass tube. The conductivity of the Wire changes due
to this applied pressure. This change in conductivity causes a change in temperature of the wire which
in turn causes, a change in the resistance of the wire. This change in resistance is measured using the
resistance bridge. The other tube present in the gauge is evaluated to a very low pressure and it acts as
a compensating element to minimize the variations caused by ambient temperature changes.

IONIZATION GAUGE:-
The hot filament ionization gauge consists of a heated filament (cathode) to furnish electrons, a
grid, and an anode plate. These elements are housed in an
envelop which communicates with the vacuum system
under test. The grid is maintained at a positive potential
of 100-350 V while the anode plate is maintained at
negative potential of about 3-50 V with respect to
cathode. The cathode is thus a positive ion collector and
the anode plate is an electron collector.
The rate of ion production is proportional to the number
of electrons available to ionize the gas and the amount of gas present. Thus the ratio of + ve ions, i. e.,
the anode current 𝐼1 to -ve ions and electrons, ie., grid current 𝐼2 is a measure of the gas pressure P. The
following approximate relation holds: 54
 𝑃 = 1 𝐼1
𝑆 𝐼2
Where the proportionality constant S is called the sensitivity of the gauge. Sensitivity is a function
of the tube geometry, nature of the gas, and the operating voltages. Its value is determined by calibration
of the particular gauge.
Advantages:-
• Wide pressure range 10−3 torr to 10−11 torr.
• Constant sensitivity.
• Possibility of process control and remote indication.
• Fast response to pressure changes.
• High cost and complex electrical circuit.
• Calibration varies with gases.
• Filament burns out if exposed to air by hot.
• Decomposition of some gases by the hot filament.
• Contamination of gas due to heat.

MCLEOD GAUGE:-
The unit comprises the system of glass tubes in which a known volume of gas at unknown pressure
is trapped and then isothermally compressed by a rising mercury column. Its operation involves the
following steps:
(i) Plunger is withdrawn and the mercury level is lowered to the cut off position, there by
admitting gas at unknown pressure ‘𝑝0’ in to the system. let ‘𝑉0′ be the volume of the gas admitted
into the measuring capillary, the bulb and into the tube down to the cutoff points.
(ii) The plunger is push in and the mercury level goes up. The plunger motion is continued until
the mercury level in the reference capillary reaches the zero mark. Let height ‘h’ is the measure of
the compressed gas volume sealed into the measuring capillary. This height also represents rise in
gas pressure in terms of height of mercury column.
If ‘a’ denotes the area of the measuring capillary then the final volume
‘𝑉𝑓′=a.h and the final monomeric pressure 𝑃𝑓 =𝑝0+h. the unknown
pressure is then calculated using boil’s law as follows:
PV=constant
PoVo = PfVf
PoVo=(Po+h)(ah)
Po(Vo-ah)=ah2
Po=(Po+h)(ah)/Vo
Po(1-ah/Vo)=ah2/Vo
Po= ah2/Vo x Vo/( Vo-ah)
Po= ah2/(Vo-ah)
If ah<<Vo ,as is usually the case,then Po= ah2/Vo
This an one type of manometer. This is used for calibration of pirani and thermocouple gauges.

55
 UNIT – 3
Measurement of Level and Flow

Measurement of Liquid Level:-

Liquid level refers to the position or height of a liquid surface above a datum line. Level measurements
are made to a certain quantity of the liquid held with in a container. Level offers both the pressure and
rate of flow in and out of the container and as such its measurement and control is an important function
in a variety of processes. The task of liquid level measurement may be accomplished by direct methods
and indirect methods.
(1) Direct methods (2) Indirect methods

(1) Direct methods:-

This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level. In this method, the level of liquid is measured
directly by means of the following level indicators:
(i) Hook-type Level Indicator
(ii) Sight Glass
(iii)Float-type
(iv) Float and shaft liquid level gauge.

(i) Hook-type Level Indicator:

When the level of liquid in an open tank is measured directly on a scale (the scale may be in the
liquid or outside it), it is sometimes difficult to read the level accurately because of parallax error. In this
case a hook type of level indicator is used.

Construction:
Hook-type level indicator consists of a wire of corrosion
resisting alloy (such as stainless steel) about ¼ in (0.063 mm)
diameter. Bent into U-Shane with one arm longer than the
other as shown in Fig. The shorter arm is pointed with a °60
tater. While the longer one is attached to a slider having a
Vernier scale. Which moves over the main scale and indicates
the level.

Working:
In hook-type level indicator, the hook is pushed below the surface of liquid whose level is to be
measured and gradually raised until the point is just about to break through the surface. It is then
clamped, and the level is read on the scale. This principle is further utilized in the measuring point
manometer in which the measuring point consists of a steel point fixed with the point upwards
underneath the water surface.

(ii) Sight Glass:

A sight glass (also called a gauge glass) is another method of liquid level measurement. It is used
for the continuous indication of liquid level within, tank or vessel.
56
 Construction and working:
A sight glass instrument consists of a
graduated tube of toughened glass which is
connected to the interior of the tank at the
bottom in which the water level is required.
Figure shows a simple sight glass for an open
tank in which the liquid level in the sight glass
matches the level of liquid in the tank, As the
Ievel of liquid in the tank rises and falls, the level
in the sight glass also rises and falls accordingly. Thus, by measuring the level in the sight glass, the
level of liquid in the tank is measured. In sight glass, it is not necessary to use the same liquid as in
the tank. Any other desired liquid also can be used.

(iii) Float-type:
FIoat-Type Level Indicator moat operated level
indicator is used to measure liquid levels in a tank in which
a float rests on the surface of liquid and follows the
changing level of liquid. The movement of the float is
transmitted to a pointer through a suitable mechanism
which indicates the level on a calibrated scale. Various
types of floats are used such as hollow mewl spheres,
cylindrical-shaped floats and disc- shaped floats.
Figure shows the simplest form of float operated
mechanism for the continuous liquid level measurement.
In this case, the movement of the float is transmitted to the
pointer by stainless steel or phosphor-bronze flexible cable
wound around a pulley, and the pointer indicates liquid level in the tank. The float is made of corrosion
resisting material (such as stainless steel) and rests on liquid level surface between two grids to avoid
error due to turbulence, With this type of instrument, liquid level from ½ ft. (152 mm) to 60, ft. (1.52 m)
can be easily measured.

(2) INDIRECT METHODS:

Indirect methods liquid level measurements converts the changes in liquid level into some other
form such as resistive, capacitive or inductive beyond force, hydrostatic pressure … Etc. and measures
them. Thus the change occurred in these parameters gives the measures of liquid level.

(i) CAPACITIVE LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR: The principle of operation of capacitance level indicator is based
upon the familiar capacitance equation of a parallel plate capacitor given by:

𝐴
𝑐 = 𝐾
𝐷

57
 where, C = Capacitance, in farad
K = Dielectric constant
A = area of plate, in 𝑚2
D= Distance between two plates. in m

Therefore, it is seen from the above elation that if A and D are constant, then the capacitance of a
capacitor is directly proportional to the dielectric constant, and this principle is utilized in the capacitance
level indicator.
Figure shows a capacitance type Liquid level indicator. It consists of an insulated capacitance probe
(which is a metal electrode) firmly fixed near and parallel to the maul wall of the tank If liquid in the tank
is non-inductive, the capacitance probe and the tank wall form the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and
liquid in between them acts as the dielectric. If liquid is conductive, the capacitance probe and liquid form
the plates of the capacitor and the insulation of the probe acts as the dielectric. A capacitance measuring
device is connected with the probe and the tank wall, which is calibrated in terms of the level of liquid in
the tank.

(ii) Ultrasonic method:

Ultrasonic liquid level works on the principle of reflection of the sound wave from the surface of
the liquid. The schematic arrangement of liquid level measurement by ultrasonic liquid level gauge is
illustrated above.

58
The transmitter ‘T’ sends the ultrasonic wave towards the free surface of the liquid. The wave gets
reflected from the surface. The reflected waves received by the receiver ‘R’. The time taken by the
transmitted wave to travel to the surface of the liquid and then back to the receives gives the level of the
liquid. As the level of the liquid reaches the time taken to reach the surface of the liquid and then back to
receiver also changes. Thus the change in the level of the liquid are determined accurately.
Advantages:-
1. Operating principle is very simple.
2. It can be used for various types of liquids and solid substances.
Disadvantages:-
1. Very expensive.
2. Very experienced and skilled operator is required for measurement.

(iii) MAGNETIC TYPE LEVEL INDICATORS:

These are used for measuring the toxic and corrosive liquids. It is used to measure the level of liquids
which contain corrosive and toxic materials.

It contains a float in which a magnet is arranged and is placed in the chamber, whose liquid level is to
be determined. The float moves up and down with the increase and decrease in the level of liquid
respectively. A magnetic shielding device and an indicator containing small wafers arranged in series and
attached to the sealed chamber. These wafers are coated with luminous paint and rotate 180*. As the
level changes the float moves (along with the magnet) up and down. Due to this movement of magnet,
wafers rotate and present a black coloured surface for the movement of float in opposite direction.

(iv) Cryogenic fuel level indicator:

A gas which changes its state (gaseous state
into liquid state). When cooled to very low
temperatures is known as cryogenic fluid. A
cryogenic fluid exists in liquid state at very low
temperatures, which are usually less than the
temperature levels at which a superconductor
exhibits zero resistance characteristic.

59
(v) Bubbler level indicator:
The Bubbler type level indicator is also known as purge type of liquid level meter.

In this technique of level measurement, the air pressure in the pneumatic pipeline is adjusted and
maintained slightly greater than the hydrostatic pressure at the lower end of the bubbler tube. The
bubbler tube is dipped in the tank such that its lower end is at zero level i.e., reference level, and the
other end is attached to a pressure regulator and a pressure gauge. Now the supply of air through the
bubbler tube is adjusted so that the air pressure is slightly higher than the pressure exerted by the liquid
column in the vessel or tank. This is accomplished by adjusting the air pressure regulator until a slow
discharge of air takes place i.e., bubbles are seen leaving the lower end of the bubbler tube. (In some
cases a small air flow meter is arranged to control an excessive air flow if any). When there is a small flow
of air and the fluid has uniform density, the pressure indicated by the pressure gauge is directly
proportional to the height of the level in the tank provided the gauge is calibrated properly in unit of
liquid level.

FLOW MEASUREMENT:-

Introduction: Measurement of fluid velocity, flow rate and flow quantity with varying degree of accuracy
or a fundamental necessity in almost all the flow situations of engineering. Studying ocean or air currents,
monitoring gas input into a vacuum chamber, measuring blood movement in a vein. The scientist or
engineer is faced with choosing a method to measure flow. For experiment procedures, it may be
necessary to measure the rates of flow either into or out of the engines. “Pumps, compressors and
turbines”. In industrial organizations flow measurement is needed for providing the basis for controlling
processes and operations. That is for determining the proportions of materials entering or leaving, a
continuous manufacturing process. Flow measurements are also made for the purpose of cost accounting
in distribution of water and gas to domestic consumers, and in the gasoline pumping stations.

TYPES OF FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:-

1. Quantity meters.
2. Flow meters.
6
0
 1. Quantity meters:-
In this class of instruments actual flow rate is measured. Flow rate measurement devices
frequently required accurate. Pressure and temperature measurements in order to calculate the
output of the instrument. The overall accuracy of the instrument depends upon the accuracy of
pressure and temperature measurements.
Quantity meters are used for the calibration of flow meters:
1. Quantity meters.
a. Weight or volume tanks.
b. Positive displacement or semi-positive displacement meters.
2. Flow meters.
a. Obstruction meters.
• Orifice
• Nozzle
• Venture
• Variable-area meters.
b. Velocity probes.
• Static pressure probes.
• Total pressure probes.
c. Special methods.
i. Turbine type meters.
ii. Magnetic flow meters.
iii. Sonic flow meter.
iv. Hot wire anemometer.
v. Mass flow meters.
vi. Vortex shielding phenomenon.
d. Flow visualization methods.
i. Shadow grapy.
ii. Schlieren photography.
iii. Interferometry.
ROTAMETER:- The rotameter is the most extensively used form of the variable area flow meter. It
consists of a vertical tapered tube with a float which is free to move up or down within the tube as shown
in Fig. The tube is made tapered so that there is a linear
relationship between the flow rate and position in the float
within the tube. The free area between float and inside wall of
the tube forms an annular orifice. The tube is mounted
vertically with the small end at the bottom. The fluid to be
measured enters the tube from the boom and passes upward
around the float and exit at the top. When there is no flow
through the rotameter, the float rests at the bottom of the
metering tube where the maximum diameter of the float is
approximately the same as the bore of the tube. When fluid
enters the metering tube, the float moves up, and the flow
area of the annular orifice increases. The pressure differential
61
across the annular orifice is paranormal to the square of its flow area and to the square of the flow rate.
The float is pushed upward until the `limns force produced by the pressure differential across its upper
and lower surface is equal to the weight of the float If the flow rate rises, the pressure differential and
hence the lining force increases temporarily, and the float then rises, widening the annular orifice until
the force cawed by the pressure differential is again equal to the weight of the Boat.
Thus, the pressure differential remains constant and the area of the annular orifice (i.e., free area
between float and inside wall of the tube) to which the float moves. Changes in proportion to the flow
rate. Any decrease in flow rate causes the float to drop to a lower position. Every float position
corresponds to one particular flow rate for a quid of a given density and viscosity. A calibration scale
printed on the tube or near it. Provides a direct medication of flow rate. The tube materials of rotameter
may be of glass or metal.

Advantages:-
1. Simplicity of operation.
2. Ease of reading and installation.
3. Relatively low cost.
4. Handles wide variety of corrosive fluids.
5. Easily equipped with data transmission, indicating and recording devices.
Disadvantages:-
1. Glass tube subject to breakage.
2. Limited to small pipe sizes and capacities.
3. Less accurate compared to venture and orifice meters.
4. Must be mounted vertically.
5. Subject to oscillations.

TURBINE FLOW METER:-

Principle: - the permanent magnet attached to the body of rotor is polarized at 90° to the axis of rotation.
When the rotor rotates due to the velocity of the fluid (V), the permanent magnet also rotates along with
the rotor. Therefore, a rotating magnetic field will be generated which is then cut by the pickup coil. Due
to this ac-voltage pulses are generated whose frequency is directly proportional to the flow rate
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 𝑓
Q= 𝑘
Where, f= total number of pulse,
V= volume flow rate,
k = flow coefficient
By minimizing the bearing friction and other losses that device can be designed to give linear output.

Advantages:-
1. Good accuracy and repeatability.
2. Easy to install and maintain.
3. Low pressure drop.
4. Electrical output is available.
5. Good transient response.
Disadvantages:-
1. High cost.
2. The bearing of the rotor may subject to corrosion.
3. Wear and tear problems.
Applications:-
1. Used to determine the fluid flow in pipes and tubes.
2. Flow of water in rivers.
3. Used to determine wind velocity in weather situations or conditions

HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER:-

Principle:- When a fluid flows over an electrically heated surface, heat transfer takes place from the
surface or wire to the fluid. Hence, the temperature of the heated wire decreases which causes variations
in the resistance. The change that occurred in the resistance of the wire is related to the flow rate.
The sensor is a 5 micron diameter platinum tungsten wire welded between the two prongs of the
probe and heated electrically as a part of Wheat
stone bridge circuit. When the probe is
introduced into the fluid flowing, it tends to be
cooled by the instantaneous velocity and
consequently there is a tendency for the
electrical resistance to change. The rate of
cooling depends up on the dimensions and
physical properties of the wire. Difference of
the temperature between the wire and fluid,
physical properties of the fluid, string velocity
under measurement.

14
 Depending on the associated electronic equipment, the hot wire may be operated in two modes:
1. Constant current mode: -
Here the voltage across the bridge circuit is kept constant. Initially the circuit is adjusted
such that the galvanometer reads zero, when the heated wire lies in stationary. Air when the air
flows the hot wire cools, the resistance changes and the galvanometer deflects. The galvanometer
deflections are amplified measured in terms of air velocity or liquid velocity or gas velocity.

2. Constant temperature mode: -

Here the resistance of the wire and its temperature is maintained constant in the event of
the tendency of the hot wire to cool by the flowing fluid, the external bridge voltage is applied to
the wire to maintain a constant temperature. The reading on the voltmeter is recorded and
correlated with air velocity.

MAGNETIC FLOWMETER: -
Magnetic flow meter depends up on the faradays law of electromagnetic induction. These meters
utilize the principles of faradays law of electromagnetic induction for making a flow measurement. It
states that whenever a conductor moves through a magnet field of given field strength; a voltage is
induced in the conductor, which is proportional to the relative between the conductor and the magnetic
field. In case of magnetic flow meters electrically conductive flowing liquid works as the conductor the
induced voltage.
e= 𝐵 𝐿 𝑉 × 10−8
15
 Where, e=induced voltage,
B=magnetic flux density in gauss,
L=length of the conductor in cm,
V=velocity of the conductor in m/sec.
The equation of continuity, to convert a velocity measurement to volumetric flow rate is given by
Q=AV
Where, Q=volumetric flow rate,
A=cross sectional area of flow meter,
V=fluid velocity.

Construction and Working:

Fig illustrates the basic operating principle of a magnetic flowmeter in which the flowing liquid acts as the
conductor. The length L of which is the distance
between the electrodes and equals the pipe diameter.
As the liquid passes through the pipe section, it also
passes through the magnetic field set up by the magnet
coils, thus inducing the voltage in the liquid which is
detected by the pair of electrodes mounted in the pipe
wall. The amplitude of the induced voltage is
proportional to the velocity of the flowing liquid. The
magnetic coils may energized either by AC or DC
voltage, but the recent development is the pulsed DC-
type in which the magnetic coils are periodically
energized.

Advantages:-
1. It can handle greasy materials.
2. It can handle corrosive fluids.
3. Accuracy is good.
4. It has very low pressure drop.
Disadvantages:-
1. Cost is more.
2. Heavy and larger in sizes.
3. Explosion proof when installed in hazardous electrical areas.
4. It must be full at all times.
Applications:-
1. Corrosive acids.
2. Cement slurries.
3. Paper bulb.
4. Detergents.
5. Bear … Etc.

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ULTRASONIC FLOW METER:-

The velocity of propagation of ultrasonic sound waves in a fluid is changed when the velocity of
the flow of fluid changes. The arrangement of flow rate measurement using ultrasonic transducer
contains two piezo-electric crystals placed in the fluid whose flow rate is to be measured of these two
crystals one acts as a transmitting transducer and the other acts as a receiving transducer. The
transmitter and receiver are separated by some distance say “L”. Generally the transmitting transducer
is placed in the upstream and it transmits ultrasonic pulses. These ultrasonic pulses are then received by
the receiving transducer placed at the downstream flow. Let the time taken by the ultrasonic pulsed to
travel from the transmitter and received at the receiver is “delta”. If the direction of propagation of the
signal is same as the direction of flow then the transit time can be given by:
∆ 𝑡1 = L
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉

Where L=distance between the transmitter and receiver,

Vs =velocity of sound in the fluid,
V=velocity of flow in the pipe.
If the direction of the signal is opposite with the direction of the flow then the transit time is given by:
∆ 𝑡2= 𝐿
𝑉𝑠 – 𝑉
∆ 𝑡 = ∆ 𝑡2 − ∆ 𝑡1
.
∆𝑡= 2LV
𝑉𝑠2 − 𝑉2
Compared to the velocity of the sound the velocity of the flowing fluid is very very less. So,
2𝐿𝑉
∆𝑡 =
𝑉𝑠2
Therefore the change in time is directly proportional to the velocity of fluid flow
∴∆𝑡 ∝𝑉

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LASER DOPPLER ANEMOMETER (LDA):-

The optical flow visualization methods offer the advantage that they do not disturb the flow
during the measurement process. The LDA is a device that offers the non-disturbance advantages of
optical methods while affording a very precise quantitate measurement of flow velocity. This instrument
is the most recent development in the area of flow measurement, especially measurement of high
frequency turbulence fluctuation. The operating principle of this instrument involves the focusing of laser
beams at a point, where the velocity is to be measured and then sensing with a photo detector. The light
scattered by then particles carried along with the fluid as it passes though the laser focal point. The
velocity of the particles which is assumed to be equal to the fluid velocity causes a Doppler shift of the
frequency of the scattered light and produces a photo detector signal related to the velocity.
2 𝑉 sin(𝜃2)
f=
𝜆
𝜆= wave length of the laser beam in the flow.

MEASUREMENT OF SPEDD, ACCLERATION AND VIBRATION

INTRODUCTION:
Speed is a rate variable defined as the time-rate of motion. Common forms and units of speed
measurement include: linear speed expressed in meters per second (m/s), and the angular speed of a
rotating machine usually expressed in radians per second (rad/s) or revolutions per minute (rpm).
Measurement of rotational speed has acquired prominence compared to the measurement of linear
speed.
Angular measurements are made with a device called tachometer. The dictionary definitions of a
tachometer are:
* “an instrument used to measure angular velocity as of shaft, either by registering the
number of rotations during the period of contact, or by indicating directly the number of rotations
per minutes”
* “an instrument which either continuously indicates the value of rotary speed, or
continuously displays a reading of average speed over rapidly operated short intervals of time”
Tachometers may be broadly classified into two categories:
 Mechanical tachometers and
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  Electrical tachometers.
Mechanical tachometers:
These tachometers employ only mechanical parts and mechanical movements for the measurement
of speed.
1. Revolution counter and timer:
The revolution counter, sometimes called a speed counter, consists of a worm gear which is also
the shaft attachment and is driven by the speed source. The
worm drives the spur gear which in turn actuates the pointer on
a calibrated dial. The pointer indicates the number of
revolutions turned by the input shaft in a certain length of time.
The unit requires a separate timer to measure the time interval.
The revolution counter, thus, gives an average rotational speed
rather than an instantaneous rotational speed. Such speed
counters are limited to low speed engines which permit reading
the counter at definite time intervals. A properly designed and
manufactured revolution counter would give a satisfactory
speed measure upto 2000-3000 rpm.

2. Tachoscope:
The difficulty of starting a counter and a watch at exactly the
same time led to the development of tachoscope, which consists of a
revolution counter incorporating a built-in timing device. The two
components are integrally mounted, and start simultaneously when
the contact point is pressed against the rotating shaft. The instrument
runs until the contact point is disengaged from the shaft. The
rotational speed is computed from the readings of the counter and
timer. Tachoscopes have been used to measure speeds upto 5000
rpm.

3. Hand speed indicator:

The indicator has an integral stop watch and counter with automatic
disconnect. The spindle operates when brought in contact with the shaft, but
the counter does not function until the start and wind button is pressed to start
the watch and engage the automatic clutch. Depressing of the starting button
also serves to wind the starting watch. After a fixed time-interval (usually 3 or
6 seconds), the revolution counter automatically gets disengaged. The
instrument indicates the average speed over the short interval, and the dial is
designed to indicate the rotational speed directly in rpm. These speed
measuring units have an accuracy of about 1% of the full scale and have been
used for speeds within the range 20,000 to 30,000 rpm.

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4. Slipping clutch tachometer:
The rotating shaft drives an indicating shaft
through at slipping clutch. A pointer attached to
the indicator shaft moves over a calibrated scale
against the torque of a spring. The pointer position
gives a measure of the shaft speed.

5. Centrifugal force tachometers:

The device operates on the principle that centrifugal force is
proportional to the speed of rotation. Two flyballs (small
weights) are arranged about a central spindle. Centrifugal force
developed by these rotating balls works to compress the spring
as a function of rotational speed. A grooved collar or sleeve
attached to the free end of the spring then slides on the spindle
and its position can be calibrated in terms of the shaft speed.
Through a series of linkages, the motion of the sleeve is usually
amplified and communicated to the pointer of the instrument
to indicate speed. Certain attachments can be mounted onto
the spindle to use these tachometers for the measurement of
linear speed.

6. Vibrating reed tachometer:

Tachometers of the vibrating reed type utilize the fact that speed and vibration in a body are
interrelated. The instrument consists of a set of vertical reeds, each having its own natural frequency of
vibration. The reeds are lined up in order of their natural frequency and are fastened to a base plate at
one end, with the other end free to vibrate. When the tachometer base plate is placed in mechanical
contact with the frame of a rotating machine, a reed tuned to resonance with the machine vibrations
responds most frequently. The indicated reed vibration frequency can be calibrated to indicate the speed
of the rotating machine.

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Electrical tachometers:
An electrical tachometer depends for its indications upon an electrical' signal generated in
proportion to the rotational speed of the shaft. Depending on the type of the transducer, electrical
tachometers have been constructed in a variety of different designs.

1. Drug cup tachometer:

In an eddy current or drag type tachometer, the test shaft rotates a permanent magnet and this
induces eddy currents in a drag cup or disc held close to the magnet. The eddy currents produce a torque
which rotates the cup against the torque of a spiral
spring. The disc tums in the direction of the rotating
magnetic field until the torque developed equals that
of the spring. A pointer attached to the cup indicates
the rotational speed on a calibrated scale. The
automobile speedometers operate on this principle
and measure the angular speed of the wheels. The
rotational measurement is subsequently converted
into linear measurement by assuming some average
diameter of the wheel, and the scale is directly
calibrated in linear speed units.
Eddy current tachometers are used for measuring rotational speeds upto 12,000 rpm with an
accuracy of ±3%.

2. Commutated capacitor tachometer:

The operation of this tachometer is based on alternately charging and discharging a capacitor.
These operations are controlled by the speed of the machine under test. The instrument essentially
consists of:
(i) Tachometer head containing a reversing switch,
operated by a spindle which reverses twice with each
revolution.
(ii) Indicating unit containing a voltage source, a
capacitor, milliammeter and a calibrating circuit. When the
switch is closed in one direction, the capacitor gets charged
from d-c supply and the current starts flowing through the
ammeter. When the spindle operates the reversing switch to
close it in opposite direction, capacitor discharges through
the ammeter with the current flow direction remaining the
same. The instrument is so designed that the indicator
responds to the average current. Thus, the indications are
proportional to the rate of reversal of contacts, which in turn
are proportional to speed of the shaft. The meter scale is graduated to read in rpm rather than in
milliamperes. The tachometer is used within the range 200 - 10000 rpm.
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3. Tachogenerators: These tachometers employ small magnet type d.c or a.c generators which translate
the rotational speeds into d.c. or a.c voltage signal. The operating principle of such tachometers is
illustrated in Fig. Relative perpendicular motion between a magnetic field and conductor results in
voltage generation in the conductor.

(i) D. C. tachometer generator: This is an accurately made dc. generator with a permanent magnet
of horse-shoe type. With rotation of the shaft, a pulsating dc. Voltage proportional to the shaft speed
is produced, and measured with the help of a moving coil voltmeter having uniform scale and
calibrated directly in terms of speed. The tachometer is sensitive to the direction of rotation and thus
can be used to indicate this direction by the use of an indicator with its zero point at mid-scale. For
greater accuracy, air gap of the magnetic paths must be maintained as uniform as possible. Further,
the instrument requires some form of commutation which presents the problem of brush
maintenance.
(ii) A.C. tachometer generator: The unit embodies a stator surrounding a rotating permanent magnet.
The stator consists of a multiple pole piece (generally four), and the permanent magnet is installed in
the shaft whose speed is being measured. When the magnet rotates, an a.c. voltage is induced in the
stator coil. The output voltage is rectified and measured with a permanent magnet moving coil
instrument. The instrument can also be used to measure a difference in speed of two sources by
differentially connecting the stator coils.
Tachogenerators have been successfully employed for continuous measurement of speeds upto 500 rpm
with an accuracy of ±1%.

4. Contactless electrical tachometers:

Tachometers of this type produce pulse from a rotating shaft without any physical contact
between the speed transducer and the shaft. This aspect has the distinct advantage in that no load is
applied to the machine.
(i) Inductive pick-up tachometer: The unit consists of a small permanent magnet with a coil
round it. This magnetic pick up is placed near a metallic toothed rotor whose speed is to be
measured. As the shaft rotates, the teeth pass in front of the pick-up and produce a change in the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The field expands or collapses and a voltage is induced in the
coil. The frequency of the pulses depends upon the number of teeth on the wheel and its speed of
rotation. Since the number of teeth is known, the speed of rotation can be determined by
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measuring the pulse frequency. To accomplish this task, pulse is amplified and squared, and fed
into a counter of frequency measuring unit.

If the rotor has 60 teeth, and if the counter counts the pulses in one second, then me counter
will directly display the speed in revolutions per minute.
(ii) Capacitive type pick-up tachometer:

The device consists of a vane attached to one end of the rotating machine shaft. When the
shaft rotates between the fixed capacitive plates, there occurs a change in the capacitance. The
capacitor forms a part of an oscillator tank so that number of frequency changes per unit of time
is a measure of the shaft speed. The pulses thus produced are amplified, and squared, and may
then be fed to frequency measuring unit or to a digital counter so as to provide a digital analog of
the shaft rotation.

(iii) Photo-electric tachometer:

These pick-ups utilize a rotating shaft to intercept a beam of light falling on a photo-
electric or photo conductive cell. The shalt has an intermittent reflecting (white) and non-
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 reflecting (black) surface. When a bean) of light hits the reflecting surface on the rotating shaft,
light pulses are obtained and the reflected light is focused onto the photo-electric cell. The
frequency of light pulses is proportional to the shaft speed, and so will be the frequency of
electrical output pulses from the photo-electric cell.

(iv) Stroboscope:

The stroboscope utilises the phenomenon of vision when an object is viewed

intermittently. The human sense of vision is so slow to react to light stimuli that it is unable to
separate two different light impulses reaching the eye within a very short Period of time (less than
0.1second). A succession of impulses following one another at brief intervals are observed by the
eye as a continuous unbroken sequence. A mechanical disk type stroboscope consists essentially
of a whirling disk attached to motor whose speed can be varied and measured. A reference mark
on the rotating shaft on the shaft appears to be stationary. For this condition, the shaft speed
equals that of rotating disk, or some even multiple of this speed and is given by:

Vibration amplitude and acceleration

Vibration refers to the repeated cyclic oscillations of a system; the oscillatory motions may be
simple harmonic (sinusoidal) or complex (non-sinusoidal). The oscillations are caused when acceleration
is applied to the machine alternately in two directions
The excessive vibration level in a machine is an indication of the following troubles it can cause:
 Catastrophic failure as a result of stress caused by induced resonance and fatigue
 Excessive wear because of failure to compensate for vibration to which a product is
subjected or which is created by the product
 Faulty production
 Incorrect operation of precision equipment and machinery because of failure to
compensate for vibration and shock encountered in use
 human discomfort leading to adverse effects such as motion sickness, breathing and
speech disturbance, loss of touch of sensitivity etc.
Characteristics and units of vibrations: Vibration is generally characterized by
(i) The frequency in Hz, or
24
 (ii)The amplitude of the measured parameter which may be displacement, velocity or
acceleration. Further, the units of vibration depend on the vibration parameter as
follows:
(a) Displacement, measured in m,
(b) velocity, measured in m/s and
(c) acceleration, measured in m/𝑠2.

Measurement of acceleration:
There are two types of accelerometers generally used for measurement of acceleration:
(i) Piezo-eletric type, and
(ii) seismic type.

(i)Piezo-electric accelerometer:
The unit is perhaps the simplest and most commonly used transducer employed for
measuring acceleration. The sensor consists of a piezo-electric crystal sandwitched, between two
electrodes and has a mass placed on it. The unit is fastened to the base whose acceleration
characteristics are to be obtained. The can threaded to the base acts as a 'spring and squeezes the
mass against the crystal. Mass exerts a force on the crystal and a certain output voltage is
generated. If the base is now accelerated downward, inertial reaction force on the base acts
upward against the top of the can. This relieves stress on the crystal. From Newton's second law
force = mass × acceleration

25
Advantages and limitations
 Rugged and inexpensive device
 High output impedance ’
 High frequency response from 010 Hz to 50 kHz
 High sensitivity varies from 10 to 100 mv/g where g = 9.807 m/𝑠2
 Capability to measure acceleration from a fraction of g to thousands of g
 Somewhat sensitive to changes in temperature
 Subject to hysteresis errors.

(ii)Displacement sensing (seismic) accelerometer:

In a seismic accelerometer the displacement of a mass resulting from an applied forced is
measured and correlated to the acceleration. Fig shows the schematics of a common spring mass
damper system which accomplishes this task. The mass is supported by a spring and damper is
connected to the housing frame. The frame is rigidly attached to the machine whose acceleration
characteristics are to be determined. When an acceleration is imparted by the machine to the
housing frame, the mass moves relative to the frame, and this relative displacement between the
mass and frame is sensed and indicated by an electrical displacement transducer.

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 Unit-4
MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY, FORCE, TORQUE, AND POWER

Introduction to Humidity or dampness:

The amount of water vapour contained in air or gas is called humidity. It plays a vital role in many
industrial processes such as chemical, textile, paper, food, leather, pharmaceutical Industries as Well as
precision equipment manufacturing.
Importance of humidity control:

1. Humidity should be measured and controlled to prevent the food products to become dry, spoilage of
dried milk, eggs and for successful storage of fruits, meat etc.
2. Humidity should be controlled in order to reduce the affects of surface leakage in electrical
installations.
3. It should be controlled to maintain proper environment conditions for human comforts.
4. Textile and paper industries require high humidity conditions. Any variations in humidity may cause
the nature, behavior, characteristics of paper pulp and synthetic fibers to change.
5. It should be maintained and controlled in the required levels for proper drying process. If the humidity
increases beyond the desired level (upper limit) the dry process may get retarded.
If it decreases below the lower limit the surface of the material becomes over dry.
Hence, the humidity is a very important process variable that should be controlled within the desired
limits.
“Before going into the details of measuring of humidity it is important to known some terms related to
humidity measurement”.
Terminology:

1. Humidity: The amount of Water vapour contained in air or gas is called humidity.
2. Dry Air: When there is no Water vapour contained in the atmosphere, it is called dry air.
3. Moist Air: When their is water vapour contained in the atmosphere, then the air is called moist air.
4. Saturated Air: Saturated air is the moist air where the partial pressure of water - vapour equals the
saturation pressure of steam corresponding to the temperature of air.
5. Humidity Ratio or Specific Humidity or Absolute Humidity or Moisture Content: It is defined as the
ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air in a given volume of the mixture and is denoted
by w
mass of water vapour
Humidity ratio =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟

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6. Relative Humidity: It is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a certain volume of moist
air at a given temperature to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at the same
temperature and is denoted by RH or ∅.
(Water vapour actually present)
Relative humidity = (Water vapour required for saturation) (At a given temperature)
Here a comparison is made between the humidity of air and the humidity of saturated air at the same
temperature and pressure. It is to be noted that if relative humidity is 100 % it is saturated air, i.e., the
air contains all the moisture it can hold.
It should also be noted that the degree of saturation (percentage of relative humidity ) of air keeps on
changing with temperature.
7. Dew Point Temperature: By continuous cooling at constant pressure if the temperature of air is
reduced, the water - vapour in the air will start to condense at; particular temperature. The temperature
at which the water vapour starts condensing is called as dew point temperature.
8. Dry Bulb Temperature: When a thermometer bulb is directly exposed to an air -water vapour mixture,
the temperature indicated by the thermometer is the dry –bull temperature.
This dry- bulb temperate is not affected by the moisture present in the air i.e. the temperature of air is
measured in a normal way by the thermometer.
9. Wet Bulb Temperature: When a thermometer bulb is covered by a wet wick, and if the bulb covered
by the wet wick is exposed to air, water vapour mixture, the temperature indicated by the thermometer
is the wet bulb temperature. When air passed on the wet wick present on the bulb of the thermometer,
the moisture present in the wick starts evaporating and this creates a cooling effect at the bulb. The bulb
now measures the thermodynamic equilibrium temperature reached between then cooling affected by
the evaporation of water and heating by convection.
10. Wet - Bulb Depression: Wet - bulb depression = (Dry - bulb temperature) - (Wet bulb temperature )
Always dry - bulb temperature is higher than the wet bulb temperature.
i.e., (Dry - bulb temperature > Wet bulb temperature)
11. Percentage Humidity: It is defined as ratio of weight of water vapour in a unit weight of air to weight
of water vapour in the same weight of air if the air were completely saturated at the same temperature.
(Weight of water vapour in a unit weight of air)
Percentage humidity Weight of water vapour in the same weight of air if the air were
= completely saturated at the same temperature.

LIST OF INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE HUMIDITY:

The three main instruments used for measuring humidity are….

1. Sling psychrometer
2. Absorption hygrometer.
(a) Mechanical humidity sensing absorption hygrometer.
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(b) Electrical humidity sensing absorption hygrometer.

3. Dew point meter.
1. Sling psychrometer:-

Principle: This instrument is used to measure both the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures at a time with
these temperatures we can measure the humidity content in air.
Description: The main parts of the instrument are
A frame holding two thermometers to measure dry & wet bulb temperatures as shown fig. Two mercury
in glass thermometers, one to measure dry - bulb temperatures and the other to measure Wet-bulb
temperature.
The frame carrying the thermometers is covered by a glass casing. A swivel handle is attached to the
frame - glass casing - thermometer arrangement to ensure that the air at the wet bulb is always in
immediate contact with the wet wick.
Operation: Accurate measurement of wet bulb temperature is obtained only if air moves with a velocity
around the wet wick.
In order to measure wet bulb temperature, the psychrometer frame 4 glass covering thermometer
arrangement is rotated at 5 m/ s to 10 m/ s to get the necessary air motion. The thermometer whose
bulb is bare (Without wick) contacts the air and indicates the dry bulb temperature. At the same time,
the thermometer whose bulb is covered with the wet wick comes in contact with the air and when this
air passes on the wet Wick, the moisture present in the wick starts evaporating and a cooling effect is
produced at the bulb. This temperature is the wet bulb temperature, which will be naturally less than the
dry bulb temperature.
Applications:
- It is used for checking humidity level in air conditioned rooms and installations.
- This is used for setting & checking hair hygrometers.
- It is used in the measurement range of 0 to lO0 % RH and can measure Wet bulb temperatures between
0° C to 180° C.

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- It is used for measuring wet bulb temperatures between 0° C to 180° C.

Limitations:
- Continuous recording of humidity is not possible. The evaporation process at the wet bulb will add
moisture to the air, which will distrub the measured medium. Antomation is not possible with this
instruments.
- If the wick is covered with dirt, the wick will become stiff and its water absorbing capacity will reduce.
2. Absorption hygrometer:

Principle: Humidity changes the physical, chemical and electrical properties of several materials. This
property is used in transducers that are designed and calibrated to read relative humidity directly.
There are two types of absorption hygrometers namely; (a). Mechanical humidity sensing absorption
hygrometer. (b). Electrical humidity sensing absorption hygrometer.
(a) . Mechanical Humidity Sensing Absorption Hygrometer:

Principle:
Hygroscopic materials such as human hair, animal membranes, Wood, paper etc, under go changes in
linear dimensions when they absorb moisture form their surrounding air. This change in linear dimension
is used for the measurement of humidity present in air. A hair hygrometer has been shown in fig.

Description:
The main parts of the mechanical hair hygrometer type are:
(a) Human hair as the humidity sensor. The hair is arranged in parallel beam and they are separated from
one another to expose them to the surrounding air. Number of hairs are placed in parallel to increase
mechanical strength as shown in fig.

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(b) The hair arrangement is subjected to light tension by the use of a tension spring to ensure proper
functioning.
(c) The hair arrangement is connected to an arm and a link arrangement and link in turn is attached to a
pointer, pivoted at one end. The pointer sweeps on a humidity calibrated scale.
Operation: When the humidity of air is to be measured, the hair arrangement is exposed to the air
medium and this absorbs the humidity from the surrounding air and expands or contracts in the linear
direction.
This expansion or contraction of the arrangement moves the arm & link and thus the pointer on the
calibrated scale, indicating the humidity present in the atmosphere. These hygrometers are called
membrance hygrometers when the sensing element is a membrance.
Applications:
- Temperature range of these hygrometers is 0 to 75°C
- RH (Relative humidity) range is 30 to 95 %.
Limitations:
- Response time is slow
- Calibration tends to change if is it used continuously
(b) . Electrical Humidity sensing Absorption Hygrometer:

Principle:
Humidity changes the resistance of some material. This change in resistance is taker as a measure of
humidity
Description:
The main parts of this arrangement are:
(a) The two metal electrodes, which are coated and separated by a humidity sensing hygroscopic salt
(lithium chloride) as shown in fig.
(b) The leads of the electrodes are connected to a null balance Wheatstone bridge

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Operation:
The electrodes coated with lithium chloride are exposed to atmosphere, whose humidity is to be
measured.
Humidity variation causes the resistance of lithium chloride to change. i.e., the chemical absorbs or loses
moisture and causes a change in resistance.
Higher the humidity ( RH) in the atmosphere, more will be the humidity absorbed by lithium chloride and
lower will be the resistance and higher will be the resistance in case of lesser humidity.
The change in resistance is measured using a Wheatstone bridge which becomes a measure of humidity
(RH) present in the atmosphere.
Applications:
-These are used under constant temperature conditions.
-The accuracy of this instrument is ± 25%
-The response is very fast, of the order of few seconds.
Limitations:
This instrument should not be exposed to 100 % humidity as this makes chemical absorb all the humidity
and damage the instrument.
Temperature corrections must be made if they are not used at constant temperature conditions.
3. Dew point meter:-

Principle: At constant pressure if the temperature of air is reduced, the water vapour in the will start to
condense at a particular temperature. This temperature is called dew point temperature.
Description:
The main parts of the arrangement are:
(a) A shiny mirror surface fixed with a thermocouple as shown in fig.
(b) A nozzle to provide a jet of air on the mirror.
(c) A light source focused constantly on the mirror.
(d) A photo cell to detect the amount of light reflected from the mirror.
Operation:
-The mirror is constantly cooled by a cooling medium, which is maintained at a constant temperature.
-A thermocouple is attached to this mirror, whose leads are connected, to a milli voltmeter.
-Constantly a light is made to fall at an angle on the mirror and the amount of reflected light is sensed by
a photo cell as shown in fig.

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-Now an air jet is made to fall on the mirror and the water- vapour (moisture) contained in the air starts
condensing on the mirror and they appear as small drops (dews) or the mirror.
-This moisture formed on the mirror reduces the amount of light reflected, which is detected by the
photocell. When for the first time, there is a change in the amount of transmitted light, it becomes an
indication of dew formation. At this instance i.e., the temperature indicated by the thermocouple
attached to the mirror becomes the dew-point temperature.
-This instrument is used to know the time at which the dew appears for the first time and to know the
dew point temperature.
Applications:
-Cargoes can be protected from condensation damage by this instrument by maintaining the dew point
of air in holds lower than the cargo temperature.
-Used in industries for determining dew point.
Limitations:
-Effective light measurement is not possible.
-Limitations is cooling fluids exists.
Explain one method of measurement of moisture content of gases:

A hygrometer based on the quartz crystal oscillator is used to measure the moisture content of gases
such as ethylene, hydrogen, refrigerants and natural gas.
When a quartz crystal coated with a layer of hygroscopic materials (the materials which exhibit a change
in their dimensions when they absorb moisture) is subjected to gas sample, the weight of the crystal
increases as the hygroscopic materials absorbs the moisture. As the ‘weight of the crystal increases, its
frequency changes. An oscillator employing quart crystal coated with hygroscopic material and used for
the measurement of humidity (or moisture) is shown in figure given below,

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In the above arrangement, two crystals are used. The two crystals are alternately subjected to two
different gases for a period of about 30 seconds, so that their contaminations become same and a stable
frequency output is obtained.

The frequency shifts of the crystal due to the change of its weight fin the presence of moisture of sample
gas are measured electronically and the difference in frequency is determined. This frequency difference
is converted into signal, which is then converted into digital form and displayed. Thus, quartz crystal
hygrometer can measure humidity or moisture content of gases ranging from 1Vppm to 30Vppm.
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE, TORQUE AND POWER:-

An engineer is concerned not only with the generation of power by a prime-mover but is also required to
measure the useful output. That helps the engineer to know how well prime-mover is doing its job in
relation to the energy supplied to it. The terms related to engine output are:
(i) Force: Force represents the mechanical quantity which changes or tends to change the relative motion
or shape of the body on which it acts. Force is vector quantity specified completely by its magnitude,
point of application, line of action and direction.
The relationship between motion and force is provided by the laws of dynamics. Newton’s second low of
motion states that force is proportional to the rate of change of momentum. That is

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(ii) Work: Work represents the product of force and the displacement measured in the direction of force.
Work done = force × displacement; W= F s
The unit of work is joule (J) which is defined as the work done by a constant force of one newton acting
on a body and moving it through a distance of one metre in its direction.
1J=1Nm
(iii) Torque: It represents the amount of twisting effort, and numerically it equals the product of force
and the moment arm or the perpendicular distance from the point of rotation (fulcrum) to the point of
application of force. Consider a wheel rotated by the force F applied at radius r. Torque or twisting
moment is then given by
T=F×r
Thus measurement of torque is intimately related to force measurement.
(iv) Power: Power is the rate of doing work and is obtained by dividing the work done by time. The unit
of power is watt (W), kilowatt (kW) or megawatt (MW). Watt represents a work equivalent of one joule
done per second.

In one rotation 𝜃 =2 𝜋. If the wheel thus N revolutions per minute, then the angular displacement per
second is 2𝜋𝑁/60.

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Force Measurement:

A measure of the unknown force may be accomplished by the methods incorporating following
principles:-
(i) Balancing the force against a known gravitational force on a standard mass (scales balances)
(ii) Translating the force to a fluid pressure and then measuring the resulting pressure and pneumatic load
cells)
(iii) Applying the force to some elastic member and then measuring the resulting (proving ring)
(iv) Applying the force to a known mass and then measuring the resulting acceleration
(v) Balancing the force against a magnetic force developed by interaction of a magnet current carrying
coil.
Scales and balances:

Force or weight is indicated by making a comparison the force due to gravity acting on a standard mass
and the force due to gravity on the unknown mass.

An equal-arm beam balance of a beam pivoted on a knife-edge fulcrum the centre. Attached to the centre
of the beam a pointer which points vertically downwards the beam is in equilibrium. The equilibrium exist
when the clockwise rotating equals the anti-clockwise rotating moment i.e., 𝑚1 𝑙1=
𝑚2𝑙2. Since the two arms of the beam equal; the beam would be in equilibrium again 𝑚1= 𝑚2. Further for
a given location, the attraction acts equally on both the masses therefore at the equilibrium conditions
𝑊1= 𝑊2 , i. e., the unknown force or weights equal known force or weights.
PROVING (STRESS) RING:

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The proving (stress) ring is a ring of known physical dimensions and mechanical properties. When an
external compressive or tensile load is applied to the lugs or external bosses, the ring changes in its
diameter; the change being proportional to the applied force. The amount of ring deflection is measured
by means of a micrometer screw and a vibrating reed which are attached to the internal bosses. During
use, the micrometer tip is advanced and its contact with the reed is indicated by considerable damping
of the reed vibration. The difference in the micrometer reading taken before and after the application of
load is the measure of the amount of the elongation or compression of the ring. The proving ring
deflection can also be picked by LVDT, resulting in a proportional voltage change. The device gives precise
results when properly calibrated and corrected for temperature variations.
Instead of deflection, strain in an elastic member may be measured by a strain gauge, and then correlated
to the applied force.
Mechanical load cells: The term load cell is used to describe a variety of force transducers which may
utilize the deflection or strain of elastic member, or the increase in pressure of enclosed fluids. The
resulting fluid pressure is transmitted to some form of pressure sensing device such as a manometer or
a bourdon tube pressure gauge. The gauge reading is identified and calibrated in units of force.
Hydraulic load cell:

In a hydraulic load cell the force variable is impressed upon a diaphragm which deflects and there by
transmits the force to a liquid. The liquid medium, contained in a confined space, has a preload pressure
of the order of 2 bar. Application of force increases the liquid pressure; it equals the force magnitude
divided by the effective area of the diaphragm. The pressure is transmitted to and read on an accurate
pressure gauge calibrated directly in force units. The system has a good dynamic response; the diaphragm
deflection being less than 0.05 mm under full load. This is because the diaphragm has a low modulus and
substantially all the force is transmitted to the liquid. These cells have been to measure loads up to about
2.5 MN with an accuracy of the order of 0. I percent of full scale; resolution is about
0.02 percent.
pneumatic load cell:
A pneumatic load cell operates on the force-balance principle and employs a nozzle-flapper transducer
similar to the conventional relay system. A variable downward force is balanced by an upward force of
air pressure against the effective area of a diaphragm. Application of force causes the flapper to come
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 closer to the nozzle, and the diaphragm to deflect downwards. The nozzle opening is nearly shut-off and

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this results into an increased back pressure in the system. The increased pressure acts on the diaphragm,
produces an effective upward force which tends to return the diaphragm to its preload position.

For any constant applied force, the system attains equilibrium at a specific nozzle opening and a
corresponding pressure is indicated by the height of mercury column in a manometer. Since the
maximum pressure in the system is limited to the air-supply pressure, the range of 'M unit can be
extended only by using a larger diameter diaphragm. The commercially available load cells operating on
this principle can measure loads up to 250 KN with an accuracy of 0.5 percent of full scale. The air
consumption is of the order of 0.17 𝑚3/hr of free air.
Strain gauge load cell:
The strain gauge load cell converts weight or force into electrical outputs which are provided by the strain
gauges; these outputs can be connected to various measuring instruments for indicating, recording and
controlling the weight or force.

A simple load cell consists of a steel cylinder which has four identical strain gauges mounted upon it; the
gauges 𝑅1 and 𝑅4 are along the direction of applied load and the gauges 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are attached
circumferentially at right angles to gauges 𝑅1 and 𝑅4. These four gauges are connected electrically to the
four limbs of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. When there is no load on the cell, all the four gauges have the
same resistance. Evidently then the terminals B and D are at the same potential; the bridge is balanced
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 and the output voltage is zero www.jntuworldupdates.org

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applications such as draw-bar and tool-force dynamometers, crane load monitoring, and road vehicle
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 weighing device etc. www.jntuworldupdates.org

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Problem:

Torques measurement:

The main purpose of torque measurement is to determine the mechanical power required or developed
by a machine. Torque measurement also helps in obtaining load information necessary for stress or strain
analysis. In some cases other variables are determined by measuring torque. For example, in the case of
rotating cylinder viscometer, measurement of torque developed at the fixed end of the stationary
cylinder help in determining the viscosity of the fluid between the movable and stationary cylinder.
Mechanical torsion meter:
Figure shows the schematics of an elastic torsion bar meter wherein angular deflection of a parallel length
of shaft is used to measure torque. The angular twist over fixed length of the bar is observed on a
calibrated disk (attached to the rotating shaft) by using the stroboscope effect of intermittent viewing
and the persistence of vision. The system gives a varying angle of twist between the driving engine and
the driven load as the torque changes.

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Optical torsion meter: The meter uses an optical method to detect the angular twist of a rotating shaft.

The unit comprises two castings A and B which are fitted to the shaft at a known distance apart. These
castings are attached to each other by a tension strip C which transmits torsion but has little resistance
to bending. When the shaft is transmitting a torque, there occurs a relative movement between the
castings which results in partial inclination between the two mirrors attached to the castings. The mirrors
are made to reflect a light beam onto a graduated scale; angular deflection of the light ray is then
proportional to the twist of, and hence the torque in, the shaft. For constant torque measurements from
a steam turbine, the two mirrors are arranged back to back and there occurs a reflection from each mirror
during every half revolution. A second system of mirrors giving four reflections per revolution is desirable
when used with a reciprocating engine whose torque varies during a revolution.
Electrical torsion meter: A system using two magnetic or photoelectric transducers, as shown in Fig,
involves two sets of measurements.
(i) a count of the impulse from either slotted wheel. This count gives the frequency or shaft speed.

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(ii) a measure of the time between pulses from the two wheels. This signal is proportional to the twist 6
of, and hence torque T in the shaft.

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These two signals, T and 𝜔, can be combined to estimate the power being transmitted by the shaft.
Strain- gauge torsion meter: A general configuration of a strain gauge bridge circuit widely employed for
torque measurement from a rotating shaft is shown in Fig.

Four bonded-wire strain gauges are mounted on a 45' helix with the axis of the rotation and are placed
in pairs diametrically opposite, If the gauges are accurately placed and have matched characteristics, the
system is temperature compensated and insensitive to bending and thrust or pull effects. Any .change in
the gauge circuit then results only from torsional deflection. When the shaft is under torsion, gauges I
and 4 will elongate as a result of the tensile component of a pure shear stress on one diagonal axis, while
gauges 2 and 3 will contract owing to compressive component on the other diagonal axis. These tensile
and compressive principal strains can be measured, and the shaft torque can be calculated
A main problem of the system is carrying connections from the strain gauges (mounted on the rotating
shaft) to a bridge circuit which is stationary. For slow shaft rotations, the connecting wires are simply
wrapped around the shaft. For continuous and fast shaft rotations, leads from the four junctions of the
gauges are led along the shaft to the slip rings. Contact with the slip rings is made with the brushes
through which connections can be made to the measuring instrument.
Commercial-strain-gauge torque sensors are available with built-in slip rings and speed sensors. A family
of such devices covers the range 6 Nm to 1000 kNm with full-scale output of about 40 mV.
SHAFT POWER MEASUREMENT (DYNAMOMETERS):-

The dynamometer is a device used to measure the torque being exerted along a rotating shaft so as to
determine the shaft power input or output of power-generating, transmitting, and absorbing machinery.
Dynamometers are generally classified into:
(i) Absorption dynamometers in which the energy is converted into heat by friction whilst being
measured. The heat is dissipated to the surroundings where it generally serves no useful purpose.
Absorption dynamometers are used when the test-machine is a power generator such as an engine,
turbine and an electric motor. The types commonly used include Prony brakes, hydraulic or fluid friction
brakes, fan brakes and eddy current dynamometers.
(ii) Transmission dynamometers in which the energy being transmitted either to or from dynamometer
is not absorbed or dissipated. After measurement, the energy is conveyed to the surroundings in a useful
mechanical or electrical form. A small amount of power ma). However, be lost by friction at the joints of
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the dynamometer. The type includes torsion and belt dynamometers, and strain gauge dynamometers.

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(iii) Driving dynamometer which may be coupled to either power-absorbing or power generating devices
since it may operate either a motor or a generator. These instruments measure power and also supply
energy to operate the tested devices. They are essentially useful in determining performance
characteristics of such machines as pumps and compressors. Electric cradled dynamometer is a typical
example of the driving dynamometer.
Mechanical brakes: The Prony and the rope brakes are the two types of mechanical brakes chiefly
employed for power measurement. The prony brake has two common arrangements in the block type
and the band type. Whereas the block type is employed to high speed shafts with a small pulley, the band
type measures the power of low speed shafts having a relatively large pulley.

The block type prony brake consists of two blocks of wood each of which embraces rather less than one
half of the pulley rim. One block carries a lever arm to the end of which a pull can be applied by means
of a dead weight or spring balance. A second arm projects from the block in the opposite direction and
carries a counter-weight to balance the brake when unloaded. When operating, friction between the
blocks and the pulley tends to rotate the blocks in the direction of the rotation of the shaft. This tendency
is prevented by adding weights at the extremity of the lever arm so that it remains horizontal in a position
of equilibrium.
Let W be the weight in newton, I be the effective length of the lever arm in meter, and N be the
revolutions of the crankshalt per minute. Then:

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Rope brake dynamometers:

A rope brake dynamometers consists of one or more ropes wrapped around the fly wheel of an engine
whose power is to be measured. The ropes are spaced evenly across the width of the rim by means of U-
shaped wooden blocks' located at different points of the rim of the flywheel. The upward ends of the
rope are connected together and attached to a spring balance, and the downward ends are kept in place
by a dead weight. The rotation of flywheel produces frictional force and the rope tightens. Consequently
a force is induced in the spring balance. Generation of heat is enormous and that necessitates a cooling
arrangement for the brake. The rim is made trough shaped internally. Water is run into the trough and
kept in place by the centrifugal force.

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Hydraulic dynamometer:-

A hydraulic dynamometer uses fluid-friction rather than dry friction for dissipating -the input energy. The
unit consists essentially of two elements namely a rotating disk and stationary casing. The rotating disk
is keyed to the driving shaft of the prime-mover and it resolves inside the stationary casing. The casing is
mounted on antifriction (trunnion) bearings and has a brake arm and a balance system attached to it.
Such bearings allow the casing to rotate freely except for the restraint imposed by the brake arm. Further,
the casing is in two-halves; one of which is placed on either side of the rotating disk. Semi-elliptical
recesses in the casing match with the corresponding grooves inside the rotating disk to form chambers
through which a stream of water flow is maintained. When brake is operating, the water follows a helical
path in the chamber. Vortices and eddy-currents are set-up in the water and these tend to turn the
dynamometer casing .in the direction of rotation of the engine shaft. This tendency is resisted by the
brake arm balance system that measure the torque.

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UNIT-5
ELEMENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
 Introduction:

A system is an assemblage of devices and components connected or related by some form of regular
interation or interdependence to form an organised whole and perform specified tasks. The system
produces an output corresponding to a given input.
Ex: The thermometer and the mass-spring damper system can be indentified as systems. He
thermometer has the input x = 𝜃 (temperature) and the output y = l (length of the mercury column in the
capillary).

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 The term control implies to regulate, direct or command. A control system may thus be defined as;
”an assemblage of devices and components connected or related so as to command direct or regulate it
self or another system".
EX:1

1. An electrical switch which serves to control the flow of electricity in a circuit. The input signal
(command) is the flippling of the switch on or off; and the corresponding output (controlled) signal is the
flow or non-flow of electric current.
2. A thermal system where it is desired to maintain the temperature of hot water at a prescribed value.
Before the operator can carry out his task satisfactorily, the following requirements must be met:
(a) The operator must be told what temperature is required for the water. This temperature, called the
set point or desired value, constitutes the input to the system.
(b) The operator must be provided with some means of observing the temperature (sensing element).
For that a thermometer is installed in the hot water pipe and it measures measured temperature

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compares with the desired value. This difference between the desired value and the actual measurement
value is error or actuating signal.
e=r-c
where r refers to the set-point or reference input and c denotes the controlled variable.

(c) The operator must be provided with some means of influencing the temperature (control elemeny
and must be instructed what to do to move the temperature in a desired direction (control function).
3. A driving system of an automobile (accelerator, carburettor and an engine vehicle) where command
signal is the force on the acceleration pedal and the automobile speed is the controlled variable. The
desired change in engine speed can be obtained by controlling pressure on the accelerator pedal.

4. An automobile steering system where the driver is required to keep the automobile in the appropriate
lane of the roadways. The eyes measure the output (heading of the automobile), the brain and hands
react to any error existing between the input (appropriate lane) and the output signals, and act to reduce
the error to zero.

5. A biological control system where a person moves his finger to point towards an object. The command
signal is the position of the object and the output is the actual pointed direction.

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Other well-known examples of control systems are: electric frying pans, water pressure regulators, toilet-
tank water level, electric irons, refrigerators and household furnaces with thermostatic control.

 Classification of control systems:

These are two basic types of control systems, 1. open loop and 2. closed loop systems.
1 Open-loop systems (unmonitored control system). The main features of an open loop system are:

(a) there is no comparison between the actual (controlled) and the desired values of a variable.
(b) for each reference input, there corresponds a fixed operating condition (output) and this output has
no effect on the control action, i. e., the control action is independent of output.
(c) for the given set-input, there may be a big variation of the controlled variable depending upon the
ambient conditions. Since there is no comparision between actual output and the desired value, rapid
changes can occur inthe output if there occurs any change in the external load.

Some examples of open-loop system are :

(i) Trying to guide a car by setting the steering wheel, together with a pattern of subsequent changes of
direction, at the beginning of a journey and making no alternation enroute as and when the car deviates
form the desired path.
(ii) Hitting the golf ball where the player knows his goal to get the ball into a particular hole. To achieve
it, the player hits the ball correctly at the beginning of its flight. Once the moment of impact ispassed, he
loses his control on any further flight ofthe ball.
(iii) The automobile traffic control signals at roadway intersections are the open loop systems. The red
and green light travels (input to the control action) are predetermined by a calibrated timing mechanism

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An open loop system has the following advantages and limitations:

* simple construction and ease of maintenance
* no stability problems
* convenient when the controlled variable is either difficult to measure or it is economically not feasible
* system affected by internal and external disturbances ; the output may differ from the desired value
* needs frequent and careful calibrations for accurate result.

2. Closed-loop systems (monitored control systems). The main features of a closed loop system are:

(a) There is comparison between the actual (controlled) and the desired values of the variable. To
accomplish it, the output signal is fed back and the loop is completed.
(b) The error signal (deviation between the reference input the feedback signals) then actuates the
control element to minimize the error and bring the system output to the desired value.
(c) The system operation is continually correcting any error that may exist. As long as the output does
not coincide with the desired goal, there is likely to be some kind of actuating signal.
The performance of such a system is evaluated with reference to the following desireable characteristics:
* minimum deviation following a disturbance
*minimum time interval before return to set point
* minimum off-set due to change in operating conditions.

Examples of closed loop systems are:

(i) The control of the thermal system is a closed loop, when the operator detects that the output
temperature is different from the desired or reference temperature, he initiates an action to reduce the
discrepency by operating a value that controls the steam supply to water.
(ii) The automobile driving system would become a closed-loop system when the driver makes a visual
observation of the speed indicated by a speedometer and compares this mentally with the desired speed.

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Example of automatic control systems:
(i) In the automatic feed-back control of a thermal system (Fig. 15.9), the human operator has been
replaced by an automatic controller. The actual temperature of the hot water is measured by a
thermometer and is fed to the controller for comparison with the reference temperature whose value
has been specified by appropriate, setting of the thermostat/regulator. Based on the error signal, the
controller generates an output (correcting signal) which is taken to the control valve in order to change
the valve opening for steam supply.

(ii) The level control system depicted in Fig. 15.10 is an automatic control system. Where inflow of water
to the tank is dependent on the water; level in the tank. The automatic controller maintains the liquid
level by comparing the actual level with a desired level and correcting any error by adjusting the opening
of the control valve.

(iii) A pressure control system where the pressure inside the furance is automatically controlled by
affecting a change in the position of the damper (Fig 15.12).

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