Experimental Methods for

Engineers (MENG203)

Basic Concepts (Chapter 2)

By
Marzieh Rezaei
 Basic Concepts: Definitions

• Readability (R): indicates the closeness with which the

scale of the instrument may be read. an instrument with
• a 12-in scale would have a higher readability than an
instrument with a 6-in scale and
• the same range.
37º 37.5º

Readability < Readability

• Least count (LC): indicates the smallest difference
between two indications that can be detected on the
instrument scale.

37.7 37.8 LC = 0.1

 Basic Concepts: Definitions

- Both the “readability” and the “least count” depend on:

scale length, spacing graduation, and size of pointer.
- These two definitions have no meaning with Digital
instruments.

• Sensitivity (S): the ratio of the linear movement of the

pointer on an analog instrument to the change in the
measured variable causing this motion. For example, a 1-
mV recorder might have a 25-cm scale length. Its
sensitivity would be 25 cm/mV.

For a digital instrument readout the term “sensitivity” does not have the same meaning
 Definitions-continue

• Hysteresis Error (HE): related to the difference in

readings depending whether the value of the measured
quantity is approached from above or below.

- H.E. may the result of: friction, magnetic field, elastic

deformation, thermal effects,…
 Dimensions and units
• All physical quantities have a fundamental dimension
that is independent of the units of measurement.
• Fundamental dimensions:
- L = length
- M = mass
- F = Force
-  = time
- T = temperature
• All other physical quantities used may be expressed in
terms of these fundamental dimensions.
- Force N (Newton = kg× m/s2)
 Dimensions and units
Quantity Unit Symbol Basic and
supplement
Basic units
SI units
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
(amount of light ) See table 2.6
Supplemental units for derived SI
units
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr
 The generalized measurement
system
- Most measurement systems may be divided into
three parts:
1. A detector-transducer stage: detects the physical
variable and perform either a mechanical or electrical
transformation to convert the signal into a more
usable form.
2. Intermediate stage: modifies the direct signal by
amplification, filtering, or other means so that
desirable output is available.
3. Final or terminating stage: indicate, record, or
control the measured variable.
Generalized Measurement
System
Generalized Measurement
System
 The generalized measurement system;
Burdon-tube pressure gage
Gearing mechanism

Indicator
stage

Detector- Modifying
transducer stage
stage
 Definitions-continue

• Accuracy (A): “the closeness of the agreement between the

result of a measurement and a true value of the measured.” It
indicates the deviation of a reading from a known point.

- Usually expressed as a percentage of a full scale.

- Precision (P): indicates the ability of an instrument to

reproduce a certain reading with a given accuracy.
Experimental results may be described in terms
of precision and accuracy.

Precise but not accurate

Accuracy:
Refers to how close
a measurement is to
the true or accepted
value.

Relatively low determinate error.

Close to a ‘true’ value.
Accurate and precise
Fundamental Methods of
Measurements
 There are two basic methods of measurement:
 Direct comparison: with a primary or secondary
standard
 Indirect comparison: conversion of measurand input
into an analogous form which can be processed and
presented as known function of input
 - A transducer is required to convert the
 measureand into another form
Reliability of Measurements
 A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar
results under consistent
 Measurements must be reliable to be useful
 Incorrect information is more damaging than no information
 There is no perfect measurement
 Accuracy of measurements
 Precision of measurements
 Uncertainty of measurements
 Do not accept data without questioning the source and
uncertainty of the measurements
 A procedure is said to be reliable if it
may be completed with a high degree
of accuracy and precision.
 Definitions-continue

• Error: the deviation of an instrument reading from a known

value.
• Calibration: a comparison of a particular instrument with
another higher accuracy instrument, or with a known input
source.
• Uncertainty: “a parameter, associated with the result of a
measurement, that characterizes the dispersion of values that
could reasonably be attributed to the measured.” Or: the
range of instrument readings where the known value is not
available.
ERROR DEFINITIONS
 Error – The deviation of a measured result
from the correct or accepted value of the
quantity being measured.
 There are two basic types of errors, systematic and
random.
Errors in measurements are
due to:
 1) Systematic Errors:
 Procedural errors made by the experimenter.
They cause the measured value to deviate
from the "accepted" value in the same
direction i.e. always higher or always lower.
Examples of causes include miscalibration of
instruments and parallax errors. These errors
can be detected and corrected. Systematic
errors are calculated as Percent Error.
Systematic Errors – cause the measured result to
deviate by a fixed amount in one direction from the
correct value. The distribution of multiple
measurements with systematic error contributions will
be centered some fixed value away from the correct
value.

Some examples:
Mis-calibrated instrument
unaccounted cable loss
2) Random Errors
 These errors arise due to uncertainties in the
measuring instruments. They result in measured
values that are either too high or too low. They are
found commonly in mass, volume and temperature
readings. These errors cannot be determined and
eliminated, however, they can be treated with
statistics. The effect of these errors can be
minimized by taking multiple measurements of the
same thing so that the random errors cancel out.
They are always written +/-. Random errors are
calculated as Uncertainty.
Random Errors – cause the measured result to deviate randomly
from the correct value. The distribution of multiple measurements
with only random error contributions will be centered around the
correct value.

Some Examples:
• Noise (random noise)
• Careless measurements
• Low resolution instruments
• Dropped digits
Measurements typically contain some combination of random and
systematic errors.
Precision is an indication of the level of random error.
Accuracy is an indication of the level of systematic error.
Accuracy and precision are typically qualitative terms.
EXAMPLE: The boiling point of water is measured using:
A Hg thermometer TBP = 99.5 C (+/-0.5)
A data probe TBP = 98.15 (+/-0.05)

The Hg thermometer yields an answer that is more

accurate because it is closer to the right answer of 100 C.
The data probe is more precise because the
measurement contains more significant figures. Because
the fluctuation is always in the last decimal place,
uncertainty in the hundredths place (+/-0.05) is less than
uncertainty in the tenths place (+/-0.5).
Calibration
 Calibration involves the determination of the
relationship between the input and output of a
measurement system
 Eliminate Bias (systematic) error
 The proving of a measurement system’s capability to
quantify the input accurately
 Calibration is accomplished by applying known
magnitudes of the input and observing the
measurement system output
 The indirect measuring system must be calibrated.
 Calibration is the process of comparing a reading on
one piece of equipment or system, with another
piece of equipment that has been calibrated and
referenced to a known set of parameters. The
equipment used as a reference should itself be
directly traceable to equipment that is calibrated to a
National Standard.
 Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the
particular instrument with either
 (1) a primary standard, (2) a secondary standard
with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be
calibrated, or (3) a known input source.
 For example, a flowmeter might be calibrated by
 (1) comparing it with a standard flow-measurement facility of
the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST),
 (2) comparing it with another flowmeter of known accuracy
 (3) directly calibrating with a primary measurement such as
weighing a certain amount of water in a tank and recording the
time elapsed for this quantity to flow through the meter.
 calibration of thermocouple
Experiment
A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples consist
of two wire legs made from different metals. The wires legs are welded together
at one end, creating a junction. This junction is where the temperature is
measured. When the junction experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is
created.
What is Uncertainty?
 Uncertainty is essentially lack of information to
formulate a decision.
 Uncertainty may result in making poor or bad
decisions.
 As living creatures, we are accustomed to dealing
with uncertainty – that’s how we survive.
 Dealing with uncertainty requires reasoning under
uncertainty along with possessing a lot of common
sense.
Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation
of Uncertainty

 When the plus or minus notation is used to designate

the uncertainty, the person making this designation is
stating the degree of accuracy with which he or she
believes the measurement has been made.

 p = 100 kPa ± 1 kPa

How to Calculate Uncertainty
 State uncertainty in its proper form.
 Let's say you're measuring a stick that falls near 4.2
cm, give or take one millimeter. This means that you
know the stick falls almost on 4.2 cm, but that it
could actually be just a bit smaller or larger than that
measurement, with the error of one millimeter.
 • State the uncertainty like this: 4.2 cm ± 0.1 cm.
You can also rewrite this as 4.2 cm ± 1 mm, since 0.1
cm = 1 mm.
 Always round the experimental measurement to
the same decimal place as the uncertainty.

Measurements that involve a calculation of uncertainty

are typically rounded to one or two significant digits. The
most important point is that you should round your
experimental measurement to the same decimal place as
the uncertainty to keep your measurements consistent.
• If your experimental measurement is 60 cm, then
your uncertainty calculation should be rounded to a
whole number as well. For example, the uncertainty for
this measurement can be 60 cm ± 2 cm, but not 60 cm ±
2.2 cm.
 If your experimental measurement is 60 cm, then
your uncertainty calculation should be rounded to a
whole number as well. For example, the uncertainty
for this measurement can be 60 cm ± 2 cm, but not
60 cm ± 2.2 cm.
 • If your experimental measurement is 3.4 cm,
then your uncertainty calculation should be rounded
to 0.1 cm. For example, the uncertainty for this
measurement can be 3.4 cm ± 0.1 cm, but not
 3.4 cm ± 1 cm.
Calculate uncertainty from a
single measurement.
 Let's say you're measuring the diameter of a round
ball with a ruler. This is tricky because it'll be difficult
to say exactly where the outer edges of the ball line
up with the ruler since they are curved, not straight.
Let's say the ruler can find the measurement to the
nearest .1 cm -- this does not mean that you can
measure the diameter to this level of precision.
 Study the edges of the ball and the ruler to get a
sense of how reliably you can measure its diameter.
In a standard ruler, the markings at .5 cm show up
clearly -- but let's say you can get a little bit closer
than that. If it looks like you can get about within .3
cm of an accurate measurement, then your
uncertainty is .3 cm.
 Now, measure the diameter of the ball. Let's say you
get about 7.6 cm. Just state the estimated
measurement along with the uncertainty. The
diameter of the ball is 7.6 cm ± .3 cm
Calculate uncertainty of a single
measurement of multiple objects.

 Let's say you're measuring a stack of 10 CD cases

that are all the same length. Let's say you want to
find the measurement of the thickness of just one CD
case. This measurement will be so small that your
percentage of uncertainty will be a bit high. But when
you measure 10 CD cases stacked together, you can
just divide the result and its uncertainty by the
number of CD cases to find the thickness of one CD
case.
• Let's say that you can't get much closer than to
.2 cm of measurements by using a ruler. So, your
uncertainty is ± .2 cm.
• Let's say you measured that all of the CD cases
stacked together are of a thickness of 22 cm.
• Now, just divide the measurement and
uncertainty by 10, the number of CD cases. 22 cm/10 =
2.2 cm and .2 cm/10 = .02 cm. This means that the
thickness of one CD case is 2.20 cm ± .02 cm.
Take your measurements
multiple times.
 To increase the certainty of your measurements,
whether you're measuring the length of an object or
the amount of time it takes for an object to cross a
certain distance, you'll be increasing your chances of
getting an accurate measurement if you take several
measurements. Finding the average of your multiple
measurements will help you get a more accurate
picture of the measurement while calculating the
uncertainty.
Calculate the Uncertainty of Multiple
Measurements (Method 2)
 Step 1
 Take several measurements. Let's say you want
to calculate how long it takes a ball to drop to the
floor from the height of a table. To get the best
results, you'll have to measure the ball falling off the
table top at least a few times -- let's say five. Then,
you'll have to find the average of the five measured
times and then add or subtract the standard
deviation from that number to get the best results.
 • Let's say you measured the five following times:
0.43 s, 0.52 s, 0.35 s, 0.29 s, and 0.49 s.
 Step 2
 Find the average of the measurements. Now, find the
average by adding up the five different
measurements and dividing the result by 5.
 The amount of measurements. 0.43 s + 0.52 s +
0.35 s + 0.29 s + 0.49 s = 2.08 s. Now, divide 2.08
by 5. 2.08/5 = 0.42 s. The average time is 0.42 s.
 Step 3
 Find the variance of these measurements. To do this,
first, find the difference between each of the five
measurements and the average. To do this, just
subtract the measurement from 0.42 s. Here are the
five differences:
 • 0.43 s - .42 s = 0.01 s
 • 0.52 s - 0.42 s = 0.1 s
 • 0.35 s - 0.42 s = -0.07 s
 • 0.29 s - 0.42 s = -0.13 s
 • 0.49 s - 0.42 s = 0.07 s
 • Now, add up the squares of these differences:
(0.01 s)2 + (0.1 s)2 + (-0.07 s)2 + (-0.13 s)2 + (0.07
s)2 = 0.037 s.
 • Find the average of these added squares by
dividing the result by 5. 0.037 s/5 = 0.0074 s.
 Step 4
 Find the standard deviation:
 To find the standard deviation, simply find the square
root of the variance. The square root of 0.0074 s =
0.09 s, so the standard deviation is 0.09 s.
 Step 5

 State the final measurement:

 To do this, simply state the average of the
measurements along with the added and subtracted
standard deviation. Since the average of the
measurements is .42 s and the standard deviation is
.09 s, the final measurement is :
 0.42 s ± .09 s.
 Perform Arithmetic Operations with
Uncertain Measurements

1. Add uncertain measurements:

To add uncertain measurements, simply add the

measurements and add their uncertainties:
• (5 cm ± .2 cm) + (3 cm ± .1 cm) =
• (5 cm + 3 cm) ± (.2 cm +. 1 cm) =
• 8 cm ± .3 cm
Perform Arithmetic Operations
with Uncertain Measurements
2. Subtract uncertain measurements:

To subtract uncertain measurements, simply subtract

the measurements while still adding their uncertainties:
• (10 cm ± .4 cm) - (3 cm ± .2 cm) =
• (10 cm - 3 cm) ± (.4 cm +. 2 cm) =
• 7 cm ± .6 cm
Perform Arithmetic Operations
with Uncertain Measurements
3. Multiply uncertain measurements:

To multiply uncertain measurements, simply multiply

the measurements while adding their RELATIVE
uncertainties (as a percentage).
Calculating uncertainties with multiplication does not
work with absolute values (like we had in addition and
subtraction), but with relative ones. You get the relative
uncertainty by dividing the absolute uncertainty with a
measured value and multiplying by 100 to get
percentage
Perform Arithmetic Operations
with Uncertain Measurements
For example: (6 cm ± .2 cm) x (4 cm ± .3 cm) =??
Relative uncertainty of (6 cm ± .2 cm) = (.2 / 6) x 100
and add a % sign. That is 3.3 %
Relative uncertainty of (4 cm ± .3 cm) =(.3/4) x 100
and add a % sign. That is 7.5 %
Therefore:
(6 cm ± .2 cm) x (4 cm ± .3 cm) = (6 cm ± 3.3% ) x (4
cm ± 7.5%)
(6 cm x 4 cm) ± (3.3 + 7.5) =
24 cm ± 10.8 % = 24 cm ± 2.6 cm
Perform Arithmetic Operations
with Uncertain Measurements
4. Divide uncertain measurements:
To divide uncertain measurements, simply divide the
measurements while adding their RELATIVE
uncertainties: The process is the same as in
multiplication!
(10 cm ± .6 cm) ÷ (5 cm ± .2 cm) = (10 cm ± 6%) ÷ (5
cm ± 4%)
(10 cm ÷ 5 cm) ± (6% + 4%) =
2 cm ± 10% = 2 cm ± 0.2 cm
Perform Arithmetic Operations
with Uncertain Measurements
5. Increase an uncertain measurement
exponentially:
To increase an uncertain measurement exponentially,
simply raise the measurement to the designated power,
and then multiply the relative uncertainty by that
power:
• (2.0 cm ± 1.0 cm)3 =
• (2.0 cm)3 ± (50%) x 3 =
• 8.0 cm3 ± 150 % or 8.0 cm3 ±12 cm3
UNCERTAINTY IN PLANING

 During the design of the experiment

 Identify all possible sources of error:
 Experiment set up: facility effects, environmental
effects, human , …..
 Measurement system: velocity, temperature,...
 Estimate possible severity of each source
 Discuss with advisor.
UNCERTAINTY IN PLANING
 For those that are considered “important”, identify
strategies.
 Experimental design and/or test protocols (e.g.
repeat tests)
 Plan for quantitative analysis of reduced data
 Quantitative analysis relies on math model of the
system
 Often good for measurement systems: pitot probe,
strain gauge,...
UNCERTAINTY STAGES
 During the experiment
 Execute experiment with replications
 Record notes in lab notebook
 Check for mistakes and Bias errors
 During data reduction
 Calculate error bars for measurements
 Check for outlier points
 During data interpretation/reporting
 Consider errors when interpreting data 1st order &Nth order
 Assure findings are beyond uncertainty of experiment
 Display error bars in way that aids in understanding findings
Propagation of Uncertainty
 When a measurement model is used to estimate the
value of the measurand, the uncertainty of the
output estimate is usually obtained by mathematically
combining the uncertainties of the input estimates
 The mathematical operation of combining the
uncertainties is called propagation of uncertainty
Standard Uncertainty

 Before propagating uncertainties of input

estimates, you must express them in
comparable forms
 The commonly used approach is to express
each uncertainty in the form of an estimated
standard deviation, called a standard
uncertainty
 The standard uncertainty of an input estimate
xi is denoted by u(xi)
Combined Standard
Uncertainty
 The standard uncertainty of an output
estimate obtained by uncertainty
propagation is called the combined
standard uncertainty

 The combined standard uncertainty of

the output estimate y is denoted by
uc(y)
Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation
of Uncertainty
 Suppose a set of measurements is made and the
uncertainty in each measurement may be expressed
with the same odds. These measurements are then
used to calculate some desired result of the
experiments. We wish to estimate the uncertainty in
the calculated result on the basis of the uncertainties
in the primary measurements. The result R is a given
function of the independent variables x1, x2, x3, . . . ,
xn. Thus,
Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation
of Uncertainty
 The result R is a given function of the independent
variables x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn. Thus,

 R = R(x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn) (1)

 Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation
of Uncertainty
 Let wR be the uncertainty in the result and w1,w2, . . .
, wn be the uncertainties in the independent
variables. If the uncertainties in the independent
variables are all given with the same odds, then the
uncertainty in the result having these odds is given
in:

(2)

All the uncertainties in the mentioned equation should be

expressed with the same odds.
Example
 The resistance of a certain size of copper wire is
given as:

 R = R0[1 + α(T − 20)]

 where R0 = 6 Ω ± 0.3 percent is the resistance at
20◦C, α = 0.004◦C−1 ± 1 percent is the temperature
coefficient of resistance, and the temperature of the
wire is T = 30±1◦C. Calculate the resistance of the
wire and its uncertainty.
1
(2)
1
 Uncertainties for Product
Functions
2

(1.a)

1.a

(2.a)

1.a
Uncertainties for Additive
Functions

(1.b)
2

(2.b)

2.a 2.b
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Statistical Analysis of
Experimental Data

 The deviation di for each reading is defined by:


 di = xi − xm

 We may note that the average of the deviations of all

the readings is zero since
 The average of the absolute values of the deviations is
given by
 The standard deviation or root-mean-square
deviation is defined by

and the square of the standard deviation σ2 is

called the variance. This is sometimes called the
population or biased standard deviation because it
strictly applies only when a large number of
samples is taken to describe the population.
Example
 CALCULATION OF POPULATION VARIABLES.
 The following readings are taken of a certain physical
length. Compute the mean reading, standard
deviation, variance, and average of the absolute
value of the deviation, using the “biased” basis:
Solution