Unit 1

Concept of Measurement
 Syllabus

General concept – Generalized

measurement system-Units and standards-
measuring instruments- sensitivity, readability,
range of accuracy, precision-static and dynamic
response repeatability- systematic and random
errors-correction, calibration, interchangeability
 Definition
• Metrology is the name given to the science of
pure measurement.
• Engineering Metrology is restricted to
measurements of length & angle
• Measurement is defined as the process of
numerical evaluation of a dimension or the
process of comparison with standard
measuring instruments
 Why measure things?
• Check quality?
• Check tolerances?
• Allow statistical process control (SPC)?
 Need of Measurement
• Establish standard
• Interchange ability
• Customer Satisfaction
• Validate the design
• Physical parameter into meaningful number
• True dimension
• Evaluate the Performance
 Methods of Measurement
• Direct method
• Indirect method
• Comparative method
• Coincidence method
• Contact method
• Deflection method
• Complementary method
 Direct method
• Measurements are directly obtained
–  Ex: Vernier Caliper, Scales
 Indirect method
• Obtained by measuring other quantities
– Ex : Weight = Length x Breadth x Height x Density
 Comparative Method
• It’s compared with other known value
–  Ex: Comparators
Coincidence method
• Measurements coincide with certain lines and
signals
Fundamental method
• Measuring a quantity directly in related with
the definition of that quantity
Contact method
• Sensor/Measuring tip touch the surface area
Complementary method
• The value of quantity to be measured is
combined with known value of the same
quantity
– Ex:Volume determination by liquid displacement
 Deflection method
• The value to be measured is directly indicated
by a deflection of pointer
– Ex: Pressure Measurement
GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM
 Common elements of system
• Primary sensing element
• Variable conversion element
• Variable manipulation element
• Data transmission element
• Data processing element
• Data presentation element
Primary sensing Variable conversion
element element

Variable
manipulation element

Temperature

Data transmission
element

Observer

Data presentation Data processing

element element
Units and standards
 SI: fundamental Units
Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol

length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
 SI: Derived Units
Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol

area square meter m2

volume cubic meter m3
meter per
speed m/s
second
meter per
acceleration m/s2
second squared
weight, force newton N
pressure pascal Pa
energy, work joule J
 Supplementary units

Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol

Plane angle Radian rad

Solid angle Steradian sr

 Standards

• International standards

• Primary standards

• Secondary standards

• Working standards
International
International Organization of Legal Metrology, Paris
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres,
France
India
National Physical Laboratory
Dr. K.S. Krishnan Marg
New Delhi - 110012
India
Phone: 91-11-45609212
Fax: 91-11-45609310
Email: root@nplindia.org or root@nplindia.ernet.in
 Measuring Instruments
• Deflection and null type instruments
• Analog and digital instruments
• Active and passive instruments
• Automatic and manually operated
instruments
• Contacting and non contacting instruments
• Absolute and secondary instruments
• Intelligent instruments.
 DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE
• Physical effect generated by the measuring
quantity
• Equivalent opposing effect to nullify the physical
effect caused by the quantity
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
INSTRUMENTS
• Physical variables of interest in the form of
continuous or stepless variations
• Physical variables are represented by digital
quantities
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS
• Instruments are those that require some source
of auxiliary power
• The energy requirements of the instruments are
met entirely from the input signal
Automatic and manually operated
• Manually operated – requires the service of
human operator
• Automated – doesn't requires human
operator
Contacting And Non Contacting Instruments

• A contacting with measuring medium

• Measure the desired input even though they
are not in close contact with the measuring
medium
Absolute and Secondary Instruments
• These instruments give the value of the electrical
quantity in terms of absolute quantities
• Deflection of the instruments can read directly
 Intelligent instruments
• Microprocessors are incorporated with
measuring instruments
 Help topics
• http://www.tresnainstrument.com/
education.html
 Characteristics of Measuring Instrument

• Sensitivity

• Readability

• Range of accuracy

• Precision
 Definition
• Sensitivity- Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of response (output signal) to the
magnitude of the quantity being measured (input
signal)

• Readability- Readability is defined as the closeness with

which the scale of the analog instrument can be read
 Definition
• Range of accuracy- Accuracy of a measuring
system is defined as the closeness of the
instrument output to the true value of the
measured quantity
• Precision- Precision is defined as the ability of the
instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings
within a given accuracy
 Sensitivity
• If the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity
of the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve.
• If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the
sensitivity varies with the input.
Sensitivity
This is the relationship between a change in the
output reading for a given change of the input.
(This relationship may be linear or non-linear.)

Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or

instrument magnification and an instrument with a
large sensitivity (scale factor) will indicate a large
movement of the indicator for a small input
change.
 Force, F Output, Vo (V)

Slope = 5 V/kN
Load Cell Output, Vo

Input, Fi (kN)
Block Diagram:

Input, F (kN) Output, Vo (V)

K

Sensitivity, K = 5 V/kN
 Example
(1) A 0.01 /A meter with 5 A fsd,
Rm = /A x A
= 0.01 x 5 = 0.05 
Vmax across the Meter will be
= 5 A x 0.05 
= 0.25 V for fsd.
(2) A 0.1 /A meter with 5 A fsd,will drop 2.5 V
(i.e., it is 10 times less sensitive), which may bias
the results
Readability

• Readability is defined as the ease with which

readings may be taken with an instrument.

• Readability difficulties may often occur due to

parallax errors when an observer is noting the

position of a pointer on a calibrated scale

 Readability
What is the value ?

What is the value ?

What is the value ?

 Accuracy
• Accuracy = the extent to which a measured
value agrees with a true value
• The difference between the measured value &
the true value is known as ‘Error of
measurement’
• Accuracy is the quality of conformity
 Example: Accuracy

• Who is more accurate when measuring a book that

has a true length of 17.0 cm?
A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
 Precision
• The precision of a measurement depends on the
instrument used to measure it.
• For example, how long is this block?
How big is the beetle?

Measure between the head

and the tail!

Between 1.5 and 1.6 in

Measured length: 1.54 in

The 1 and 5 are known with

certainty

The last digit (4) is estimated

between the two nearest fine
division marks.
 Example: Precision

Who is more precise when measuring the same 17.0

cm book?

A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
 Accuracy vs. Precision

High Accuracy High Precision

High Precision Low Accuracy
 The person hit the bull's-eye?

Three targets
with three
arrows each to
shoot.

Both Precise but Neither

How do they not
accurate accurate
compare? accurate
and precise nor precise

Can you define accuracy vs. precision?

 Uncertainty

• The word uncertainty casts a doubt about the

exactness of the measurement results

• True value = Estimated value + Uncertainty

 Why Is There Uncertainty?

• Measurements are performed with instruments,

and no instrument can read to an infinite number of
decimal places
•Which of the instruments below has the greatest
uncertainty in measurement?
 Reading a Meterstick

. l2. . . . I . . . . I3 . . . .I . . . . I4. . cm

First digit (known) = 2 2.?? cm

Second digit (known) = 0.7 2.7? cm
Third digit (estimated) between 0.05- 0.08 cm
Length reported = 2.77 cm
or 2.76 cm
or 2.78 cm
 Known + Estimated Digits

In 2.77 cm…
• Known digits 2 and 7 are 100% certain

• The third digit 7 is estimated (uncertain)

• In the reported length, all three digits

(2.77 cm) are significant including the
estimated one
 Performance of Instruments
• All instrumentation systems are characterized
by the system characteristics or system
response
• There are two basic characteristics of
Measuring instruments, they are
– Static character
– Dynamic character
 Static Characteristics

• The instruments, which are used to measure

the quantities which are slowly varying with

time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with

time, is called ‘static characteristics’.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENTS
• Accuracy • Dead zone

• Precision • Backlash

• Sensitivity • True value

• Resolution • Hysteresis

• Threshold • Linearity

• Drift • Range or Span

• Error • Bias

• Repeatability • Tolerance

• Reproducibility • Stability
Resolution
This is defined as the smallest input increment
change that gives some small but definite
numerical change in the output.
Threshold
This minimum value of input below which no
output can be appeared is known as threshold
of the instrument.

Output

input
Drift
Drift or Zero drift is variation in the output of
an instrument which is not caused by any
change in the input; it is commonly caused by
internal temperature changes and component
instability.

Sensitivity drift defines the amount by which

instrument’s sensitivity varies as ambient
conditions change.
 Output Output

sensitivity drift
zero
drift

input input

sensitivity drift
Output

zero
drift

input
• Error – The deviation of the true value from the desired
value is called Error
• Repeatability – It is the closeness value of same output
for same input under same operating condition
• Reproducibility - It is the closeness value of same output
for same input under same operating condition over a
period of time
 Range

• The ‘Range’ is the total range of values which

an instrument is capable of measuring.
 Hysteresis
This is the algebraic difference between the average
errors at corresponding points of measurement
when approached from opposite directions, i.e.
increasing as opposed to decreasing values of the
input.
Measured
Value
Hysteresis is
Ideal caused by
energy
storage/
dissipation in
Actual/ Input the system.
Value
Zero stability

The ability of the instrument to return to

zero reading after the measured has returned to

zero
Dead band

This is the range of different input values over

which there is no change in output value.
Linearity- The ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically and linearly
• Backlash – Lost motion or free play of
mechanical elements are known as backlash
• True value – The errorless value of measured
variable is known as true value
• Bias – The Constant Error

• Tolerance- Maximum Allowable error in

Measurement
 Dynamic Characteristics

• The set of criteria defined for the

instruments, which are changes rapidly with

time, is called ‘dynamic characteristics’.

 Dynamic Characteristics
• Steady state periodic

• Transient

• Speed of response

• Measuring lag

• Fidelity

• Dynamic error
• Steady state periodic – Magnitude has a definite

repeating time cycle

• Transient – Magnitude whose output does not

have definite repeating time cycle

• Speed of response- System responds to changes

in the measured quantity

• Measuring lag
– Retardation type :Begins immediately after the
change in measured quantity
– Time delay lag : Begins after a dead time after the
application of the input
• Fidelity- The degree to which a measurement
system indicates changes in the measured
quantity without error
• Dynamic error- Difference between the true
value of the quantity changing with time & the
value indicated by the measurement system
 Errors in Instruments

• Error = True value – Measured value

or

• Error = Measured value - True value

 Types of Errors

• Error of Measurement

• Instrumental error

• Error of observation

• Based on nature of errors

• Based on control
 Error of Measurement

• Systematic error -Predictable way in

accordance due to conditions change
• Random error - Unpredictable manner

• Parasitic error - Incorrect execution of

measurement
 Instrumental error

• Error of a physical measure

• Error of a measuring mechanism

• Error of indication of a measuring instrument

• Error due to temperature

• Error due to friction

• Error due to inertia

 Error of observation

• Reading error

• Parallax error

• Interpolation error
 Nature of Errors

• Systematic error

• Random error
 Based on control
• Controllable errors
– Calibration errors
– Environmental (Ambient /Atmospheric Condition)
Errors
– Stylus pressure errors
– Avoidable errors
• Non - Controllable errors
 Correction
• Correction is defined as a value which is added
algebraically to the uncorrected result of the
measurement to compensate to an assumed
systematic error.
• Ex : Vernier Caliper, Micrometer
 Calibration
• Calibration is the process of determining and
adjusting an instruments accuracy to make
sure its accuracy is with in manufacturing
specifications.
 Interchangeability
• A part which can be substituted for the
component manufactured to the small shape
and dimensions is known a interchangeable
part.
• The operation of substituting the part for
similar manufactured components of the
shape and dimensions is known as
interchangeability.
Compiled by
D.Vasanth Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dr N.G.P Institute of Technology