Welcome to the Cell Biology Module

This is a level 4 module (10 Credits) delivered over semester 1

between September 2019 and January 2020.

Basic knowledge on cell organisation and function is essential in

biomedical sciences. This module reviews the various compartments
of the cells and highlights similarities and differences between
various cell types. The module provides an overview of biodiversity,
explaining how cell specialisation allows unique tissues, organs and
organisms to be formed.

Teaching Team:
Dr Wayne Roberts (course director) w.roberts@leedsbeckett.ac.uk
Dr Steven Atkinson S.Atkinson@leedsbeckett.ac.uk
 Contact Hours
Activity Number of Hours
Lectures 18
Practical Sessions 6
Minimum Total Contact Hours 24
Guided Independent Study 76
Total Notional Hours 100

Suggested reading
Any textbook on cell biology should be sufficient. If you are unsure,
please ask. You do not have to buy all texts on your recommended
reading lists, the library will stock many of these titles.
Reading list

Essential Cell Biology by Alberts, Bray, et al. Garland Publishing, 2013.

4th edition.
Fundamentals of biomedical science, Cell Structure & Function, Guy
Orchard and Brian Nation, Oxford University Press, 2014
 Date/time Session
Week 7 Module Introduction & Organelles (WR)
Week 8 Membranes and Transport 1 (WR)
Week 9 How to prepare for a lab class (CD)
Week 9 Group A Cell Biology Practical 1
Week 9 Group B Cell Biology Practical 1
Week 10 Microscopy and Staining (SA)
Week 11 Cellular junctions, cell adhesion and the extracellular matrix (SA)
Week 11 GroupB Cell Biology Practical 2
Week 11 GroupA Cell Biology Practical 2
Week 12 Cell communication (WR)
Week 12 Group A Cell Biology Practical 3
Week 12 Group B
Cell Biology Practical 3

Week 13 The Cell Cycle (WR)

Week 14 Revisions session (WR)
Week 15 Cell differentiation and stem cells (SA)
Week 16 Introduction to embryology (SA)
Week 17 Introduction to tissues (WR)
Week 18 Scheduled Revision Session (WR)
CHRISTMAS BREAK
Week 21 No Lecture : Exam week
Week 22 No Lecture : Exam week
 Support
• All lecture notes, study notes, practical schedules
and module information will be uploaded onto
MyBeckett
• The module handbook and course handbook
contains more information
• Lecture presentations will be uploaded before the
weekly lecture
• It is your responsibility to print off the lecture
presentations before the lecture if you wish
• Practical schedules will be provided
Assessment Strategy

• The assessments are designed to allow you to

demonstrate that you have achieved the learning
outcomes of this module. The module is assessed by two
phase tests and a final exam.

• Phase tests 1 &2 are online exams worth 25% of the

module mark each. The final exam is worth 50% of the
overall module mark. These exams will comprise of
multiple-choice and short answer questions.

• The pass mark for the module is 40% and a submission in

each component
Week 11 Group A
Cell Biology Practical 3
First phase
(1/11/18) test in week 12 on lectures from organelles to cell
signalling
Week 11 Group B
Cell Biology Practical 3
(2/11/18)
Week 12 The Cell Cycle (WR)
To go over the practicals and 1st phase
Week 13 Revision session (WR) test
Week 14 Cell differentiation and stem cells (SA)
Week 15 Introduction to embryology (SA)
Week 16 Introduction to tissues (WR)
Week 17
Second phase testScheduled
in weekRevision Sessionon
17, based (WR)
the practical sessions
and their underpinning theory
CHRISTMAS BREAK To go over the module
Week 21 No Lecture : Exam week
Week 22 No Lecture : Exam week

Final exam on ALL taught content

Any questions?
 Organelles
LEARNING OUTCOME
• Describe the structure and function of the cell organelles in
eukaryotic cells
• Explain how their disruption may lead to disease states

Resources
Any section covering
eukaryotic organelles
in an undergraduate
anatomy and
physiology book
A level biology text
book for the basics
 What is a cell?
• Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things.
• Cells are of two types: eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus.
• Eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular.
• Prokaryotes do not contain a nucleus and are single-celled
organisms.

An example of a single cell eukaryote:

Tetrahymena species are a type of Protozoa
(an informal term for single-celled
eukaryotes).
They are common in freshwater ponds.
They are used as model organisms in
biomedical research (T. thermophila and T.
pyriformis)
 Multicellular organisms
We’re made up of around 200 different types of cell with a total
combined count of around 37.2 trillions cells.

Benefits of being Multicellular:

1. Larger organism are prey for fewer predators and can eat a wider
variety of prey
2. Longer life: Not limited to the life span of a single cell
3. Specialisation for adaptation and efficiency
Multicellular organisms
 Organelles
LEARNING OUTCOME
•Describe the structure and function of the cytoplasm and
cytoskeleton

•Describe the structure and function of the organelles

involved in protein synthesis, packaging & transport

•Describe the structure and function of the organelles

involved in respiration, transcription and translation
 Cytoplasm
• Contains all the cellular components between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus
• Contains 2 components
1. The cytosol (intracellular fluid)
2. The organelles (specialised structure which co-operate to
maintain homeostasis)

Cytosol
• 55% of cells total volume, between 75-90% water
• Contains dissolved ions, glucose, amino acids, ATP, lipids
and waste products
• Is the site for a wide range of enzymatically controlled
reactions
The cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton
It consists of a network of protein filaments extending
throughout the cytoplasm
• They are of 3 main types
1. Microfilaments
2. Intermediate filaments and
3. Microtubules
Cytoskeleton
Micro filaments
•Surround the edge of the cell
•Actin and myosin
•Help generate movement (contraction,
locomotion and cell division)
•provide mechanical support needed for
cell strength and shape
•Create microvilli
Intermediate filaments
• Very strong
• Are found in parts of the cell subject to
mechanical stress
• Help stabilise the positions of the organelles
• Proteins such as keratin, vimentin and lamin
Microtubules
• Long, unbranched hollow tubules made from tubulin
• They form in the centrosome, then radiate outwards
• Help with cell strength, shape and movement of
organelles such as vesicles and during division
• Help provide structure to flagella
Centrosome
• Found near the nucleus consist of :
•2 Centrioles
-Cylindrical structures composed of a circle of nine clusters of
microtubule triplets, both at right angles to each other
-Pericentriolar material surrounds the centrioles and consists
of numerous rings of tubulin
•Function: Growth of mitotic spindle during cell division
 Centrosome
• In dividing eukaryotic cells,
most microtubules spread out
from the centrosomes,
• When a cell is not undergoing
division, a single centrosome is
present.
• However, when the cell does
begin to divide the centrosome
replicates early in the process.
• The spindle apparatus then
begins to form.
Cilia and flagella
Primarily made from microtubules
These are motile projections on cell surface
CiIia: Numerous, short hair like projections. Each cilium is
anchored to a basal body and has a core of microtubules
(Nine pairs microtubules encircle a central pair) enclosed in a
membrane.
Function: transport of fluid along cells surface.
Smoking destroys the cilia, resulting in a build up of
mucus, dust and bacteria within the lungs. This must
be removed by persistent coughing.

They pass the oocyte towards the uterus. Female

smokers have an increased risk of an ectopic
pregnancy
Flagella

• Are similar in structure to cilia but are much

longer and often only one is found on a cell
• E.g. sperm tail
 Organelles
LEARNING OUTCOME
•Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton
•Describe the structure and function of the organelles
involved in protein synthesis, packaging & transport
•Describe the structure and function of the organelles
involved in respiration, transcription and translation

• Explain how their disruption may lead to disease states

 Endoplasmic reticulum
•ER is a network of membranes in the form of flattened
sacs and tubules extending from the nuclear envelope into
the cytoplasm
• There are two types: The rough ER and the smooth ER
 Rough ER
• Rough ER contains ribosomes attached, which are the site
of protein synthesis
• Proteins made by the ribosomes enter the ER space for
processing and sorting
• Enzymes may attach carbohydrate groups or attach the
proteins to phospholipids
• These molecules may be incorporated into membranes of
organelles or the plasma membrane, or be secreted via
exocytosis
Ribosomes
• It consists of a large subunit and small subunit synthesized
separately in the nucleolus.
• They are rich in ribosomal RNA and contain over 50 proteins
each.
• The ribosomes are present free in the cytoplasm, within the
mitochondria or attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum
• Function: sites of protein synthesis
 Smooth ER
• Extends from the rough ER
• Contains no ribosomes but has a greater range of
enzymes, making its functions more diverse
• Synthesizes fatty acids and steroids such as estrogens and
testosterone
• In the liver it helps release glucose from gluc-6-p and
detoxify lipid soluble drugs such as alcohol and pesticides
• Stores Ca2+ ions in muscle
Individuals who repeatedly take drugs such as the sedative
phenobarbital, develop changes in the smooth ER in their liver cells.
The cells produce more smooth ER to counteract the poison, meaning
the person has to take more of the drug to feel the effect
Golgi complex
• Most proteins from the rough ER are transported to other regions of
the cell
•It consists of 3-20 membranous cisternae(sac like structures) with
bulging edges arranged in a stack.
• The convex entry or cis face faces the ER and the concave
exit(trans) face faces the plasma membrane.
•Sacs between are called medial cisternae
Processing and packaging by the golgi
1

2 3
4

5
9
6

8
7
 Golgi complex
1. Proteins surrounded by ER membrane and transported through
the cell
2. Transport vesicles move to entry face
3. Fusion of several vesicles crates the entry face and releases
proteins
4. Proteins are modified and move into medial cisternae, then
either taken back to the entry face or to the exit face
5. Within the exit face proteins are modified and packaged
6-9. Proteins sent to their destinations
Lysosome

•Functions: Digestion of substances entering the cell, worn

out organelles (autophagy) and entire cells (autolysis)
•autophagy is required for renewal, cellular differentiation,
control of growth & tissue remodelling
Tay- Sachs disease
Inherited condition affecting children. Caused by absence of a
single lysosomal enzyme Hex A. It normally breaks down a
glycolipid called ganglioside GM2, especially prevalent in nerve
cells. It builds up, destroying nerves cell function. The patient
suffers from seizures, muscle rigidity and become blind. Death is
often before the age of 5
Peroxisomes
• Similar to lysosomes but smaller.
• Contains oxidases (oxidise substrates by removing hydrogen)
• They are involved with amino acid and fatty acid metabolism
• Oxidise toxic substances such as alcohol, high copy number in the liver

• Also contain enzyme catalase to protection against toxic effects of

hydrogen peroxide (made in oxidation reactions)
Peroxisomal disorders form a heterogeneous disease group,
with different degrees of severity.
•Zellweger syndrome (ZS), which is usually fatal within the first
year of life,
•neonatal adrenoleukodystrophy (NALD), which is usually fatal
within the first 10 years,
•rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata (RCDP), which in its most
severe form is fatal within the first year or two of life.
Proteasomes
•lysosomes degrade proteins delivered in vesicles
•Proteasomes degrade cytosolic proteins (unneeded, damaged or faulty)
• Important in negative feedback (switch off a pathway once a resposne
has been achieved)
•A typically cell contains thousand of these structures but they’ve only
recently been discovered
•Contain protease enzymes

Alzheimers disease is caused by the build up of misfolded

proteins in brain cells.
Ongoing research to look at why these proteins are not
degraded
LEARNING OUTCOME
•Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton
•Describe the structure and function of the organelles
involved in protein synthesis, packaging & transport
•Describe the structure and function of the organelles
involved in respiration, transcription and translation

• Explain how their disruption may lead to disease states

Mitochondria
•Site of aerobic respiration
•‘power house of the cell’-Produce ATP
•Cells have 100- 1000s depending on function

•Cristae provide a massive

surface area for respiration
•Enzymes needed for
respiration are found in the
matrix and on the cristae
Nucleus
• Spherical or oval shaped, most cells only have 1
• Surrounded by a double membrane (nuclear envelope)
• Many nuclear pores extend through the envelope (channels for
ions, active transport for RNAs and proteins)
• In centre spherical bodies called nucleoli are present
• They are clusters of protein, DNA & RNA, responsible for
producing ribosomes
 Organelles
LEARNING OUTCOME
•Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton
•Describe the structure and function of the organelles
involved in protein synthesis, packaging & transport
•Describe the structure and function of the organelles
involved in respiration, transcription and translation

• Explain how their disruption may lead to disease states