Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Gathering Techniques and Analysis

Topic Outline

• Research Design and Sampling

• Data collection methods and techniques
• Qualitative data analysis
Guide Questions
• What do I want to know?
• Why do I want to know it?
• What assumptions am I making about research and knowledge?
• What types of data would best answer these questions?
• What type of data will I use to tell me what I want to know?
• How much data will I need?
• How will I collect my data?
• If my research involves participants?
a. Who will I need to collect data from?
b. How will I access and recruit these participants?
• How will I analyze my data in order to answer my questions?
• What particular ethical issues do I need to consider?
• Are there any practical factors that I need to take into account?
Research Design and Sampling Methods
Parts of a Research Design

1. Sampling design - deals with the method of selecting items to be observed

for the given study
2. Observational design – relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
3. Statistical design – concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed;
4. Operational design – deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried
out.
Concept of Sampling
Research Design and Sampling methods

Sampling methods

• In quantitative research, the primary goal of sampling is to get a representative

sample, or a small collection of units or cases from a much larger population –
uses probability sampling;
• In qualitative research, the primary purpose of sampling is to collect specific
cases, events or actions that can clarify and deepen understanding – uses
nonprobability sampling
Research Design and Sampling methods

Type of Non-P Sampling Principle

Convenience sampling Get any cases in any manner that is convenient
Quota Get a preset number of cases in each of the several predetermined
categories that will reflect the diversity of the population, using haphazard
methods

Purposive Get all possible cases that fit particular criteria

Snowball Get cases using referrals from one or a few cases, and then referrals from
those cases, and so forth
Research Design and Sampling methods
Types of Probability Technique
Simple random Create a sampling frame for all cases, then select cases using a purely
random processes (e.g. random number table or computer program)
Stratified Create a sampling frame for each of several categories of cases, draw a
random sample from each category, then combine the several samples

Systematic Create a sampling frame, calculate the sampling interval 1/k, choose a
random starting place, then take every 1/k case
Cluster Create a sampling frame for larger cluster units, draw a random sample of
the cluster units, create a sampling frame for cases within each selected
cluster unit then draw a random sample of cases, and so forth
Research Design and Sampling methods
Research Design and Sampling methods
Research Design and Sampling methods
Research Design and Sampling methods
Research Design and Sampling methods
Research Design and Sampling methods
• Sample size determination in probability sampling:
• Making assumptions about the population and use statistical equations
about random sampling processes The sample size, n, may be computed
from:

• where; n = number of samples or sample size

N = number of populations
e = limited error
Research Design and Sampling methods
Research Design and Sampling methods
Sample size determination in probability sampling (continuation):

➢ Rule of thumb
Data Collection Methods and Techniques

Types of data based on sources

• Primary data – those which are to be collected afresh and for the first time
and generated to meet specific requirements of the investigation at hand;

• Secondary data – those which have already been collected by someone else
for a purpose other than to solve the specific problem under investigation
Data Collection Methods and Techniques
(Secondary data)
Published data are usually available in (print or soft copy from internet):
• Various publications of central, state and local governments
• Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and
their subsidiary organizations
• Technical and trade journals
• Books, magazines and newspapers
• Reports and publications of various associations
• Reports prepared by research scholars, economists, etc.
• Public records and statistics, historical documents, and others
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(Secondary data)
(Secondary data)
Secondary Data Collection Sources of unpublished data:

• Scholars and research workers

• Trade associations
• Labour bureaus
• Other public and private organizations
• Diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies
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(Secondary data)
(Secondary data)
Two broad categories of secondary data:

• Internal secondary data – refers to information already exists within the

company or organization in which the research problem arises;

• External secondary data – refers to information which is collected by a

source external to the firm or organization and whose major purpose may
not be the solution of the particular research problem being faced by the
organization.
DataData
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Collection andand
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(Secondary data)
(Secondary data)
Important data characteristics to consider in using secondary data:

• Reliability of data: includes who collected, the sources, the methods used,
time of collection, any bias, level of accuracy

• Suitability of data: the definition of various terms and units of collection

used

• Adequacy of data: the level of accuracy, area considered

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(Secondary data)
(Secondary data)
• provides an insight into the total situation, and could also
contribute to the unfolding of hidden information;
• helps in the formulation of hypothesis;
• helps in testing the hypothesis;
• provides supplementary information – available documents
may be used to supplement or check information gathered
specifically for the purposes of a given investigation
Data Collection Methods and Techniques (primary/
quali)
Qualitative data gathering techniques

1. Interview
2. Observation
3. Focus Groups
4. Biography/Autobiography
Data Collection Methods and Techniques
1. Interview

• One of the important and powerful tools for data collection in social research
• It is a verbal method of securing data especially in the field research connected
with social problems
• The main purpose is to gather data extensively and intensively
• Interview is not the same as conversation or inquiry or investigation
DataData
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Techniques

Types of interview

• Formal or informal
• Personal or group
• Diagnostic, treatment, research, interviews to fulfill curiosity
• Short or prolonged
• Qualitative, quantitative, mixed
• Non-directive, focused, repeated
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Major advantages of interview

• more information (and in greater depth) can be obtained;

• the interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, from the
respondents;
• there is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure
questions is always there, especially in case of unstructured interviews;
• observation can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various
questions;
• personal information can as well be obtained easily;
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Major advantages of interview (continuation)

• samples can be controlled more effectively;

• the interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the question
which is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach;
• the language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational
level of the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning
questions can be avoided;
• the interviewer can collect supplementary information about the
respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of
great value in interpreting results.
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Weaknesses of interview

• a very expensive method, especially when large and widely spread

geographical sample is taken;
• there remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the
respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of
interviewers;
• certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or
people in high income groups may not be easily approachable under this
method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate;
• this method is relatively more time consuming;
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Weaknesses of interview (continuation)

• the presence of the interviewer on the spot may over stimulate the
respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary
information just to make the interview interesting;
• under this method, the organization required for selecting, training and
supervising the field staff is more complex with formidable problems;
• interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors;
• effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would
facilitate free and frank responses.
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Guidelines for a successful interview

• the interviewer must plan in advance and should fully know the problem
under consideration;
• interviewer’s approach must be friendly and informal;
• all possible efforts should be made to establish proper rapport with the
interviewee;
• interviewer must know that ability to listen with understanding, respect and
curiosity is the gateway to communication, hence must act accordingly during
the interview;
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Guidelines for a successful interview (continuation)

• to the extent possible, there should be a free-flowing interview and the

questions must be well phrased in order to have full cooperation of the
interviewee;
• in case of big inquiries where the task of collecting information is to be
accomplished by several interviewers, there should be an interview guide to
be observed by all so as to ensure reasonable uniformity in respect of all
salient points in the study.
DataData
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Collection andand
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Techniques
quali)
(primary/ quali)
2. Observation: the most commonly used especially in studies relating to
behavioral sciences

Types of observation:

• Structured or unstructured
• Participant or non-participant
• Controlled or uncontrolled
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Techniques
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Guidelines to effective and useful observations:

• obtain prior knowledge of what to observe;

• examine general and specific objectives;
• define and establish categories;
• observe carefully and critically;
• rate specific phenomena independently;
• devise a method of recording results;
• become well acquainted with the recording instrument;
• observers should separate the facts from their interpretation at a later time;
observations are to be checked and verified, whenever possible, by repetition or by
comparison with those of other competent observers
DataData
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Techniques
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Main advantages of observation:

• subjective bias is eliminated if observation is done correctly;

• the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening;
• this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as
happens to be the case in the interview or questionnaire method;
• particularly suitable in studies which deal with the subjects (i.e. respondents)
who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or
another.
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(primary/ quali)
Limitations of observation:

• an expensive method;
• the information provided is very limited;
• sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task;
• the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates
obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.
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2. Focus groups

• A focus group is where a number of people are asked to come together in

order to discuss a certain issue for the purpose of research.
• It is facilitated by a moderator who asks questions, probes for more detail,
makes sure the discussion does not digress and tries to ensure that everyone
has an input and that no one person dominates the discussion.
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Other considerations in conducting focus groups:

• Recording: a tape recording of the discussion supplemented by a few

handwritten notes may be adequate
• Venue: important to choose the right venue as this will affect participation
levels, the level of discussion, and the standard of recording
• Recruiting participants: take time to ensure the achievement of a high turn
out
DataData
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Collection andand
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Techniques
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(primary/ quan)
Quantitative data gathering techniques:

1. Surveys – questionnaire, schedules., interviews

2. Experiments
3. Field and laboratory measurements - measurement of soil hydraulic
properties - soil erosion measurements - measurements of stream and
canal flow - measurements of water quality parameters
DataData
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Techniques
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(primary/ quan)
1. Surveys

• Survey refers to the method of securing information concerning a

phenomenon under study from all or a selected number of respondents of
the concerned universe.
• Surveys produce information that are inherently statistical in nature.
• Researchers sample many respondents who answer the same questions.
DataData
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Collection andand
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Techniques
quanti)
(primary/ quan)
Steps in conducting a survey:

Step 1 Develop hypotheses Step 4 Locate respondents

Decide on type of survey (mail, interview, Conduct interviews
telephone)
Decide on response categories Design layout
Step 5 Enter data into computers
Recheck all data
Step 2 Plan how to record data
Perform statistical analysis on
Pilot test survey instrument data

Step 3 Decide on target population

Get a sampling frame
Decide on sample size
Select sample
Generic Steps in Data Analysis (Quali)

• Organize and prepare the data for analysis

• Read through all the data
• Begin detailed analysis with coding process
• Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or
people as well as categories or themes for analysis
• Decide how the description and themes be represented
• A final step in data analysis involves making an interpretation of
data, that is “lessons learned”.
THANK YOU