INTRODUCTION

What is Linux?
Linux is a UNIX-based operating system originally developed as for Intel-
compatible PC's. It is now available for most types of hardware platforms, ranging
from PDAs (and according to some reports, a wristwatch) to mainframes. Linux is a
"modern operating system", meaning it has such features as virtual memory, memory
protection, and preemptive multitasking.

Linux is built and supported by a large international community of developers and

users dedicated to free, open-source software.

There is a very large collection of free software available for Linux. There are
graphical environments (GUIs), office applications, developers' tools, system utilities,
business applications, document publishing tools, network client and server
applications -- the list goes on.

The best part of this community is that all code is open. This means there is no
barrier to entry; for any given problem, there are generally several applications
that solve the problem.

FEATURES OF LINUX :

• Multitasking: Several programs running at the same time.

• Multi-user: several users on the same machine at the same time (and no
two-user licenses!).

• Multiplatform: Runs on many different CPUs, not just Intel.

• Multiprocessor: SMP support is available on the Intel and SPARC

platforms (with work currently in progress on other platforms), and Linux is used
in several loosely-coupled MP applications, including Beowulf systems
• Multithreading: has native kernel support for multiple independent
threads of control within a single process memory space.

• Has memory protection between processes, so that one program can't

bring the whole system down.

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• Demand loads executables: Linux only reads from disk those parts of a
program that are actually used.

• Shared copy-on-write pages among executables. This means that

multiple processes can use the same memory to run in. When one tries to write
to that memory, that page (4KB piece of memory) is copied somewhere else.
Copy-on-write has two benefits: increasing speed and decreasing memory use.

• Virtual memory using paging (not swapping whole processes) to disk:

to a separate partition or a file in the file system, or both, with the possibility of
adding more swapping areas during runtime (yes, they're still called swapping
areas). A total of 16 of these 128 MB (2GB in recent kernels) swapping areas can
be used at the same time, for a theoretical total of 2 GB of useable swap space. It
is simple to increase this if necessary, by changing a few lines of source code.

• A unified memory pool for user programs and disk cache, so that all
free memory can be used for caching, and the cache can be reduced when
running large programs.

• Dynamically linked shared libraries (DLL's), and static libraries too, of

course.

• Does core dumps for post-mortem analysis, allowing the use of a

debugger on a program not only while it is running but also after it has crashed.

• Mostly compatible with POSIX, System V, and BSD at the source level.

• All source code is available, including the whole kernel and all drivers,
the development tools and all user programs; also, all of it is freely distributable.
Plenty of commercial programs are being provided for Linux without source, but
everything that has been free, including the entire base operating system, is still
free.

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LINUX CLIENT SERVER ARCHITECTURE

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4|Page
COMMAND EXECUTION DIAGRAM

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6|Page
 Linux Architecture:-

Linux Architecture is divided into two parts. These are

(a) Microkernel Architecture.

(b) Monolithic Architecture.

Microkernel Architecture Monolithic Architecture

It is the future architecture It is the past architecture.
It maintains more than one It maintains only one
function at a time. :
function at a time.
More data can be stored. One-by-one usage is
possible.
It uses inter-process No memory management
communication CIPC) & (MM).
memory management.
It uses virtual memory. It uses main memory.
It is complex. It is simple.
The system becomes slow As memory management &
I

due to IPC & memory IPC are not present, hence

management required inside its performance is better.
the micro kernel.

Maintenance is difficult. Maintenance is easy.

It is costly. It is less costly.

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BASIC COMMANDS
OF
LINUX
1. $echo :- This command is used to display messages. It takes 0,1 or more
number of arguments, which may be given , either in series or in double
quotes.
Syntax : $echo “Message”
Example : $echo “Hello”

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 Output: Hello

2. $tput:- This is used to control the movements of the cursor on the screen.
• $tput clear :- It is used to clear the screen.
• $tput cup r c :- This command is used to place the cursor at rth row and
cth column.

Syntax :- $tput cup row column

Example :- $tput cup 1 20

Output :- |

• $tput lines :- I t will count the number of lines used by the cursor.
Syntax :- $tput lines

Example :- $echo “hi!”

$echo “hello!”

$tput lines

Output:- 2

3. $tty:- In UNIX environment ,every terminal is associated with a special file

called a device file.All the device files are present in a /dev directory. A user can know
the name of his device file on which he/she is working by using tty command.
Syntax:- $tty

Example:- $tty

4. $who:- The user can know the login details of all the current users by using
this command.

5. $who am I:- If we have to see the self login details then we can give
arguments who i.e. am and i.
Syntax :- $who am i

Example :- $who am i

Output :- Administrator ttyn00 Oct 25 11:04

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 6. $uname :- By this command ,we can get the name of the unix system which is
used by the user.
Syntax :- $uname

Example :- $uname

7. $date :- It is used to display the current date along with the time seconds.
Syntax :- $date

Example:- $date

Output :- Thu Oct 23 11:56:05 IST 2008

8. $date + %m :- It will display the name of the month in numeric form.

Syntax:- $date + %m

Example :- $date +%m

Output :- 10

9. $date + %h :-It will display the name of the month in alphabetic form.
Syntax :- $date + %h

Example :- $date + %h

Output :- 10 october

10.$date +%m+ %h :- It will display the name of the month in both numeric as well as
alphabetic form.

Syntax :- $date +%m+ %h

Example :- $date + %m +%h

Output:-10 October

11. $cal :- It will print the calendar of specific month or a specific year. It can print

any calendar for any month or year between 1 and 9999.

Syntax:- $cal

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 Example :- $cal 11 2007

Output:- S M Tu W Th F S

1 2 3

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17

18 19 20 21 22 23 24

25 26 27 28 29 30

12. $banner :- It will display a banner.

Syntax :- $banner message

Example:-$banner hello

13. $passwd :- We cannot create a new password.It helps us to change the old

password into new one.

Example:- $passwd

Output :- Enter old password: ***

Enter new password: ****

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 DIRECTORY
COMMANDS OF
LINUX

1. $mkdir :- This command is used to make a directory where any number of

files can be stored.
Syntax: $mkdir directory_name

Example :- $mkdir abc

After executing the above command a directory is created with name abc.

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 2. $cd:- This command stands for change directory.This command is used to
change the directory in which you want to work.
Syntax:- $cd directory-name

Example :- $cd abc

3. $cd > filename:- This command is used to create a file.

Syntax:- cd > filename

Example:- cd a

Output:- This command will create a file named a in the directory table.

4. $cat file1 file2 > file3:- This command is used to concatenate two files
and store the contents in third file.
Syntax :- cat file1 file2 >file3

Example:- $cat >s

Hi!

[ ctrl+z ]

Hello!

[ctrl+z]

$cat s h >w

$cat w

Output:- Hi!Hello!

5. $cat file1>>file2>file3:- This command is used to append two files in a

third file.
Syntax: $cat file1>>file2>file3

Example:- $cat >a

Hello

[ctrl+z]

$cat >b

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 Everybody

[ctrl+z]

$cat>c

Hi

[ctrl+z]

$cat a>>b>c

$cat c

Output:- Hi Hello Everybody

6. $rmdir:- This command is used for removing a directory.

Syntax:- $rmdir directoryname

Example:- $rmdir abc

It will remove the directory name abc.

7. $touch:- This command is used to create a empty file.

Syntax:- $touch filename

Example:- $touch n

It will create an empty file named n.

8. $ls :- This command is used for listing the files.

Syntax:- $ls filename

Example:- $ls

Output:- b fibo name switch

country Fibonacci number text

9. $ls –a:- This command is used for listing all files.

10. $ls –x:- This command is used to show the list of row_wise.

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11.$chmode : This command is used to grant permission for read, write and
execution.
Here permission like read( r),write ( w) and executable ( x) are granted to the
users( u),group (g) or others (o).

syntax:- $ chmode u = rwx filename

$ chmode g = rw filename

$chmode o = rx filename

Example:-$ chmode u= rwx file1

12. $ ps:- This command is used to know the status of the process.
Syntax:- $ ps filename

Example:- $ ps file1

13. $ piping( ):- It is used to filter.It passes the output according to your input.

14. $ cp:- This command is used for copying files.

Syntax:- $c p file1 file2

Example:- $cat>a

Riya

[ctrl+z]

$cat>b

jain

[ctrl+z]

$c p a b

Output:- Riya jain

15. $ mv :- This command is used to move a file

Syntax:- $mv file1 file2
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 Example:- $cat>a

Hi

[ctrl+z]

$cat>b

Priya

[ctrl+z]

$mv a b

Output:- cat a

Empty file

Cat b

Hi Priya

16. $rm:- This command is used to remove a file

Syntax:- file1 $rm* - It will remove all files

File1 $ rm file3 * - It will remove files starting from file3.

17.$wc :- This command is used to count character, word and lines present in a
file.

• $wc –c :- It will count the numbers of characters in the file.

• $wc –w:- It will count the numbers of words in the file.
• $wc –l:- It will count the number of lines in the file.

Example:- $cat >f1

Hello this is linux

[ctrl+z]

$wc –c

19

$wc –w

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 4

$wc –l

18. $cmp:- This command is used to compare two files.

Syntax:- $cmp file1 file2

19. $sort :- This command is used to sort the number of lines according to the first
alphabet of the line.

Syntax:- $sort filename

Example:- cat >st

Parrot

Cat

Goat

Bat

Output:- Bat

Cat

Goat

Parrot

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 EDITOR
COMMANDS

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1. $Vi :- This command is used to invoke the editor.

Syntax:- $vi filename

Example: $vi f1

2. Esc I :- After invoking the editor, if we want to make any changes in the file then we
can do it by using this command.

3. Esc dd :- This command is used to delete a line from the file while working in a
editor.

4. Esc x :- This command is used to delete a character from the file in the editor.

5. Esc r :- This command is used to modify the character in the file.

6. Esc l :- This command is used to move to the next line.

7. Esc k :- This command is used to move to the above line in the file.

8. Esc o :- This command is used to modify the data in the file.

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 SHELL
PROGRAMMING

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SHELL:
Some operating system includes the command interpreter in the kernel. Others, like
UNIX, treat the command interpreter as the special program that is running when a job is
initiated or when the user logs on. On systems with multiple commands interpreters to
choose from, the interpreters are known as shell.

In Linux, there are different types of shells are:-

• Bourne shell

• C shell

• Bourne again shell

• Korn shell

What is Shell Script?

The commands written in shell are known as shell script. It is also known as batch file. It is
in ASCII format. Commands related to the operating system are written in it.

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1. Shell Program to count number of character, word, lines

according to user's file.

$ cat<f1
i am hello

abc

[ctrl+z]

vi f1

echo" enter your file"

cat>f1

echo" number of characters"

wc -c f1

echo" number of words"

wc -w f1

echo" number of lines"

wc -i

Output

$ sh f1

enter your file

f1

number of characters

13

number of words

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number of lines

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2. Write a shell program to input the age of a person and

displays that whether a person is a minor, young or old.

$ mkdir dir1
-...
$ cd dir1

$ vi file1

echo" enter the age"

read age

if [ $ age –ie 18 ]

then

echo " minor"

else

if [ $ age -gt 18 -a $ age -ie 25 ]

then

echo" young"

else
echo" old age"

fi

fi

Output

enter the age

23

young

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3.Write a shell program to display date, user, calendar and process

state

echo ''today's date is:"

date

echo" process state is"

ps

echo "calender:"

cal

echo "what is ur name:"

readname

echo "your name is:" "$name"

Output

today’s date is: nov 16 2009

calender

s m t w t f s

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

22 23 24 25 26 28 29

30 31

what s your name:

gjhhg

your names:

gjhhg

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4. Write a shell program to search a word in given File

clear

echo "this is to search a pattern in your text"

echo "\n enter the text"

cat>text

read 'word

if [gref sword text> /dev/null]

then

echo"\n the word $word is present in line"

gref sword text

else

echo"\n word not found in the text"

fi

Output

this is to search a pattern in your text

enter the text

hello everyone.

enter the word you want to

search

hello

the word hello is present in line

hello everyone

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5. Write shell program to print the multiplication Table

clear

echo "enter the number whose table is to form"

read n
echo "table for $n is :\n"

i=1

while [$i -lt 11]

do

t='expr $n\*$i'

echo “$n * $i = $t”

i='expr $i+1'

done

Output
enter the number whose table is to form 8

table for 8 is:

8*1=8

8*2=16

8*3=24

8*4=32

8*5=40

8*6=48

8*7=56

8*8=64

8*9=72

8*10=80
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6. Write a shell program to generate the Fibonacci series

echo "enter the value of n"

read n

a=0

b=1

if [ $n -ge 2 ]

then

echo $a

echo $b

n= $n \- 2

else

if [ $n -eq 1 ]

then

echo $a

n = $n \- 1

fi

fi

while [ $n -ne 0 ]

do

(( c = $a + $b ))

(( echo $c ))

(( a = $b))
,
(( b = $c ))

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((n = $n\-l))

done

29 | P a g e
Output
enter value of n

7
0

5
8

30 | P a g e
7. Write a shell program to find the factorial of a number

clear

echo “enter the number”

read n

fact=1

while [$n –ge 1]

do

fact=` expr $fact \* $n`

n='expr $n-1'

done

echo ”factorial is :-$fact”

Output

enter the number.

factorial is.

120

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8.Write a shell program to display option based on-
-Is

-date

-who

-Is –l

clear

while test true

do

echo "enter your choice"

echo “press q to exit”

echo" 1 -> is"

echo "2 -> date"

echo "3 -> who"

echo "4 -> is -i"

read ch

case $ch in

1) is ;;

2) date ;;

3) who ;;

4) is -i ;;

q) break ;;

*) echo this was not in operation

esac

done

32 | P a g e
OUTPUT

enter your choice

press q to exit

1 -> Is

2 -> date

3 -> who

4 -> Is –I

tue nov 16 11:22:15 IST

33 | P a g e
9.Write a shell program to check whether the no. is less than or

greater than 50

clear

echo"enter the no."

read n

if [ $n -lt 50]

then

echo"\n the no. $n is less than 50"

else

echo"\n the no. is greater than 50"

fi

Output

enter the no

20

the number 20 is less than 50 enter the no.

76

the no. 76 is greater than 50

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10.Write a shell program to accept number from user and display

whether it lies between 1 to 100

echo "enter the number"

read n

if [$n –gt 0 -a$n –le l00]

then

echo "\n the number lies between 1 to 100"

else

echo "\nthe number does not lies between 1 to 100"

fi

Output

enter the number

25

the number lies between 1 to 100

enter the number

120

the number does not lies between 1 to 100

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 11.Write a shell program to copy, edit, rename and delete a file

clear

echo" enter the file name"

read flname

echo "enter the file content"

cat>$flname

echo "list of operations to be performed"

echo" 1. copy"

echo "2. edit"

echo "3. rename"

echo "4. delete"

echo "enter your operation"

read x

case $x in

1) echo "\n enter the filename to which you

want to transfer data"

read flnm

cp $flname $flnm

echo "\n the content of file $flname is copied to file

$flnm"

echo "$cat$flnm";;

2) vi $flname

echo "\n the filename $flname is edited";;

3) echo "\n enter the name with which you want to

rename the file $flname"

read flnm

36 | P a g e
 mv $flname $flnm

echo "\n the file $flname renamed with $flnm";;

4)rm $flname

echo "\n the file $flname has been deleted";;

5) echo "\n wrong option"

esac

Output

enter the filename

file1

enter the file content

hello everyone

list of operations to be performed

1. copy

2. edit

3. rename

4. delete

enter your option

enter the name with which you want to rename the file

file2

$cat hello

hello everyone

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12. Write a shell program to merge the content of 3 files sort and display
the sorted output.

clear

echo “enter the name of first file”

read file 1

echo ”enter the first file contents”

cat > $file1

echo “enter the name of second file”

read file 2

echo ”enter the second file contents”

cat > $file2

echo “enter the name of third file”

cat > $file3

cat $file1$file2$file3 > fname

echo “the merged and sorted output of three files is:”

sort –n $fname

echo $fname

38 | P a g e
 Output

enter the name of first file

1
enter the first file contents
hello
enter the second file name
2
enter the second file contents
every
enter the third file name
3
enter the third file contents
one
the merged and sorted output of three file is:
hello
every
one

39 | P a g e
 13.Write shell program to check whether the string entered is

palindrome or not

clear

echo "enter the string"

read str

instr=str

count='echo $str/wc-c'

while test $count –gt 0

do

ch='echo $str/cut -c $count'

rev='echo $rev $ch'

done

echo "given string: $str"

,.-... echo "reverse of the string is $rev"

if test $instr -eq $rev

then

echo "the given string is palindrome"

else

echo "the given string is not palindrome"

fi

40 | P a g e
Output

enter the string

12321

given string: 12321

reverse of the string is: - 12321

the given string is palindrome

enter the string

abc

reverse of the string is: - cba

the given string is not a palindrome

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14.Write a Shell Program to see whether the argument is positive

or negative

echo "enter a number"

read n
if [ $n -ie 0 ]
then

echo "negative number"

else

if [$n -gt 0 ]
then

echo "positive number"

fi

fi

Output

enter a number

positive number

enter a number

-2

negative number

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15. Write a Shell Program to find the power of a number

echo "enter the number"

read n
echo "enter the power"

read p

result= 1
x~1

while [ $p -ge $x ]
do
(( result = $result \* $n ))
(( p = $ p \ - $x ))
done

echo $result

Output

enter the number

enter the power

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16.Write a Shell Program to display whether a number is

Armstrong or not

echo "enter a number"

read n

x = $n

result=o

while [ $n -ne 0 ]

do

(( rem = $n \% 10 ))

(( temp = $n \* $rem \* $rem ))

(( result = $result + $temp ))

(( n. $n v 10 ))

done

echo "the armstrong value is"

echo $result

if [ $x -eq $result ]

then

echo "it is an armstrong· no"

else

if[$x –ne $result]

then

echo”it is not an armstrong number”

fi

44 | P a g e
45 | P a g e
Output

enter a number

153

the armstrong value is

153

it is an armstrong number

46 | P a g e
 17.Write a shell program to make a calculator

clear

echo "calculator"

q= "y"

while[sq=”y”]

do

echo "enter the first value or operand)"

read f

echo "enter the second value or operand)"

read s

echo" 1. addition"

echo” 2.subtraction”
echo" 3. multiplication"
echo" 4. division"

echo "enter your choice"

read x

case $x in

1) k= 'expr$f+$s'

echo" the sum of two digits is" $k;;

2) k= 'expr$f-$s'

echo" the difference of two digits is" $k;;

3) k='expr$f*$s'

echo "the multiplication of two digits is" $k;;

4) k= 'expr$f/$s'

echo "the division of two digits is" $k;;

47 | P a g e
 *) echo "you had entered wrong choice"

esac

echo "want to do another operation (y/n)?"

read q

done

Output

enter the first value or (operand)

21

enter the second value or (operand)

1. addition

2. subtraction

3. multiplication

4. division

enter your choice

the sum of two digit is 26

want to do another operation (y/n)?

enter the first value or (operand)

9
48 | P a g e
 enter the second value or (operand)

1. addition
2. subtraction
3. multiplication
4. division
enter your choice
.--...
2

the difference of two digits is 26

want to do another operation (y/n)? n

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18.Write a shell program to compute area of rectangle and circle.

clear

echo"menu"

echo"1. find the area and perimeter of rectangle"

echo"2. find the area and circumference of circle"

echo"enter the option"

read ch

case $ch in

1) case"enter the length of rectangle"

read $in

case"enter the breadth of rectangle"

read $br

area1='expr $in\*$br'

echo''the area of rectangle is:"

$areal

p='expr $in+ $br'

perimeter='expr 2\*$p'

echo''the perimeter of rectangle is:"

$perimeter

2) echo"enter the radius of

circle"

read rd

pi = 'expr 22/7'
,
r= 'expr $rd\ *$rd'

50 | P a g e
 area2='expr $pi\*$r'

echo''the area of circle is " $area2

Output
menu

2. find the area & perimeter of rectangle

3. find the area & circumference of circle

enter option

Enter length of rectangle

Enter breadth of rectangle

The area of rectangle is: 72

The perimeter of rectangle is : 34

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 19.Write a shell program to check whether user is logged or not

clear
echo "to find user is logged in or not"

echo "enter the user"

read name

if who / gref $name

then

echo "$name is logged in"

else

echo "$name is not logged in"

fi

Output

to find user logged in or not

enter the user
abc

administrator abc. Nov 16 11:12

abc is logged in

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20.Write a shell program to form a pascal pyramid

clear

echo "pascal pyramid"

echo "enter the no. of rows"

read number

row=4

t1=1

n.:....O

r=0

while[$number -ge 1 ]

do

tput cup $row $number

((n1=n))

. ((t=t1))

while[ $t -gt 0 ]

do

((r1=$r))

((n1=$n))

((b=$n1 - $r1))

((f1 - 1))

while[$n 1 - ge 2]
do
(( fl=$f1 \$n1))

((n1=$n1 - 1))

done

53 | P a g e
((f2= 1))

while [ $r1 -ge2] .

do

((f2=$f2\*$r1) )

((r1=$r1 - 1))

done

((f3= = 1))

while [ $b -ge 2 ]
do

( (f3 = $ f3 \ * $ b) )

((b=$b - 1))

done

((term1=$f2 \ $term1))

echo "$term\c"

((t=$t - 1))

((r=$r - 1))

done

((t1=$t1 + 1))

((r=0) )

((n=$n + 1))

((no=$ no - 1))

((row=$row + 1))

done

54 | P a g e
Output

pascal pyramid
enter the no. of rows 4

1
1 1

1 2 1

1 3 3 1

55 | P a g e