HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT CONFIGURATIONS

Monopole and earth return

In a common configuration, called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is connected to
earth ground. The other terminal, at a potential high above, or below, ground, is connected to a
transmission line. Theearthed terminal may or may not be connected to the corresponding
connection at the inverting station by means of a second conductor.

If no metallic conductor is installed, current flows in the earth between the earth electrodes at the
two stations. The issues surrounding earth-return current include

Electrochemical corrosion of long buried metal objects such as pipelines

Underwater earth-return electrodes in seawater may produce chlorine or otherwise affect water
chemistry.

An unbalanced current path may result in a net magnetic field, which can affect
magnetic navigationalcompasses for ships passing over an underwater cable.

These effects can be eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor between the two
ends of the monopolar transmission line. Since one terminal of the converters is connected to earth,
the return conductor need not be insulated for the full transmission voltage which makes it less
costly than the high-voltage conductor. Use of a metallic return conductor is decided based on
economic, technical and environmental factors[8].

Modern monopolar systems for pure overhead lines carry typically 1500 MW[9]. If underground or
seacables are used the typical value is 600 MW.

Bipolar

In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect to ground,
in opposite polarity. Since these conductors must be insulated for the full voltage, transmission line
cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor. However, there are a number of
advantages to bipolar transmission which can make it the attractive option.
Under normal load, negligible earth-current flows, as in the case of monopolar transmission with a
metallic earth-return; minimising earth return loss and environmental effects.

When a fault develops in a line, with earth return electrodes installed at each end of the line,
current can continue flow using the earth as a return path, operating in monopolar mode.

Since for a given power rating bipolar lines carry only half the current of monopolar lines, the cost of
the second conductor is reduced compared to a monopolar line of the same rating.

In very adverse terrain, the second conductor may be carried on an independent set of transmission
towers, so that some power may continue to be transmitted even if one line is damaged.

A bipolar system may also be installed with a metallic earth return conductor.

Bipolar systems may carry as much as 6400 MW at voltages of +/-800 kV. Under sea cable
installations initially commissioned as a monopole may be upgraded with additional cables and
operated as a bipole.

Back to back

A back-to-back station is a plant in which both static inverters are in the same area, usually even in
the same building and the length of the direct current line is only a few meters. HVDC back-to-back
stations are used for

coupling of electricity mains of different frequency (as in Japan)

coupling two networks of the same nominal frequency but no fixed phase relationship

different frequency and phase number (for example, as a replacement for traction current converter
plants)

different modes of operation (as until 1995/96 in Etzenricht, Dürnrohr and Vienna).

In contrast to HVDC long-distance lines, the DC voltage in the intermediate circuit can be selected
freely at HVDC back-to-back stations because of the short conductor length. The DC voltage is as low
as possible, in order to build a small valve hall and to avoid parallel switching of valves. For this
reason at HVDC back-to-back stations the strongest available static inverter valves are used.
Tripole - Current Modulating Control

A newly patented scheme (US Patent 6714427) is particularly applicable to conversion of existing AC
transmission lines to HVDC. Two of the three circuit conductors are operated as a bipole. The third
conductor is used as a parallel monopole, equipped with reversing valves (or parallel valves
connected in reverse polarity). The parallel monopole periodically relieves current from one pole or
the other, switching polarity over a span of several minutes. The bipole conductors would be loaded
to either 1.37 or 0.37 of their thermal limit, with the parallel monopole always carrying +/- 1 times
its thermal limit current. The combined RMS heating effect is as if each of the conductors was
always carrying 1.0 of its rated current. This allows heavier currents to be carried by the bipole
conductors, and full use of the installed third conductor for energy transmission. The higher current
compared to AC operation may also help prevent ice build-up during winter storms. The system can
be arranged to circulate high currents through the line conductors even if load demand is low.

Combined with the higher average power possible with a DC transmission line for the same line to
ground voltage, a tripole conversion of an existing AC line could allow up to 80% more power to be
transferred using the same transmission right-of-way, towers, and conductors. Some AC lines
cannot be loaded to their thermal limit due to system stability, reliability, and reactive power
concerns, which would not exist with an HVDC link.

The system operates without earth-return current. Since a single failure of a pole converter or a
conductor results in only a small loss of capacity and no earth-return current, reliability of this
scheme would be high. No time would be lost in switching if a conductor broke. The valves would
inherently have an emergency overload rating in bipole mode. This would possibly allow great
increase in power transmission with significant effect in congested transmission systems, where
consequences of a single line failure limit the allowed loading of other parallel transmission lines.
While capital costs are higher than for a bipole conversion operating at the same voltage class, the
extra power capability reduces incremental cost per megawatt. Depending on transmission line
physical configuration, replacement of insulators may be required to achieve the highest power
rating, to insure proper line-to-line clearance distances.

As of 2005 no tri-pole conversions are in operation, although a transmission line in India has been
converted to bipole HVDC.
See Presentation on Current-Modulated Control

United States Department of Energy comments received on an inquiry into power transmission
bottlenecks

Corona discharge

Corona discharge is the creation of ions in a fluid (such as air) by the presence of a strong electric
field.Electrons are torn from un-ionised air, and either the positive ions or else the electrons are
attracted to the conductor, whilst the charged particles drift. This effect can cause considerable
power loss, create audible and radio-frequency interference, generate toxic compounds such as
oxides of nitrogen and ozone, and lead to arcing.

Both AC and DC transmission lines can generate coronas, in the former case in the form of
oscillating particles, in the latter a constant wind. Due to the space charge formed around the
conductors, an HVDC system may have about half the loss per unit length of a high voltage AC
system carrying the same amount of power. With monopolar transmission the choice of polarity of
the energised conductor leads to a degree of control over the corona discharge. In particular, the
polarity of the ions emitted can be controlled, which may have an environmental impact
on particulate condensation (particles of different polarities have a different mean-free
path). Negative coronas generate considerably more ozone than positive coronas, and generate it
further downwind of the power line, creating the potential for health effects. The use of
a positive voltage will reduce the ozone impacts of monopole HVDC power lines.

Applications

Overview

The controllability of current-flow through HVDC rectifiers and inverters, their application in
connecting unsynchronized networks, and their applications in efficient under sea cables mean that
HVDC cables are often used at national boundaries for the exchange of power. Offshore windfarms
also require undersea cables, and their turbines are unsynchronized. In very long-distance
connections between just two points, for example around the remote communities
of Siberia, Canada, and the Scandinavian North, the decreased line-costs of HVDC also makes it the
usual choice. Other applications have been noted throughout this article.

The development of insulated gate bipolar transistors and gate turn-off thyristors has made smaller
HVDC systems economical. These may be installed in existing AC grids for their role in stabilizing
power flow without the additional short-circuit current that would be produced by an additional AC
transmission line. One manufacturer calls this concept "HVDC Light", and has extended the use of
HVDC down to blocks as small at a few tens of megawatts and lines as short as a few score
kilometres of overhead line.

System configurations

A HVDC link in which the two AC-to-DC converters are housed in the same building, the HVDC
transmission existing only within the building itself, is called a back-to-back HVDC link. This is the
common configuration for interconnecting two unsynchronised grids or for changing frequency or
for stabilizing an AC network.

HVDC back-to-back stations can also be designed to deliver single phase AC. This is required
for Traction current converter plants.

The most common configuration of an HVDC link is a station-to-station link, where

Multi-terminal HVDC links, connecting more than two points, are rare. The configuration of
multiple terminalscan be series, parallel, or hybrid (a mixture of series and parallel). Parallel
configuration tends to be used for large capacity stations, and series for lower capacity stations. An
example is the 2000 MW Quebec - New England Transmission system opened in 1992, which is
currently the largest multi-terminal HVDC system in the world[10].

Source : http://engineering.wikia.com/wiki/HVDC