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Unique and creative solutions that meet the clients’ expectations not only by realizing the
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1
OBJECTIVE:
We aim at providing highest quality of service in every phase of Client Relationship from
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developing and maintaining the products and services we offer, but also on building long
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2
 INTRODUCTION

ABOUT PYTHON LANGUAGE

Python is an interpreted, high-level, general-purpose programming language. Created

by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991, Python's design philosophy
emphasizes code readability with its notable use of significant whitespace. Its language
constructs and object-oriented approach aim to help programmers write clear, logical code for
small and large-scale projects.

Python is dynamically typed and garbage-collected. It supports multiple programming

paradigms, including procedural, object-oriented, and functional programming. Python is
often described as a "batteries included" language due to its comprehensive standard library.

Python was conceived in the late 1980s as a successor to the ABC language. Python 2.0,
released 2000, introduced features like list comprehensions and a garbage collection system
capable of collecting reference cycles. Python 3.0, released 2008, was a major revision of the
language that is not completely backward-compatible, and much Python 2 code does not run
unmodified on Python 3. Due to concern about the amount of code written for Python 2,
support for Python 2.7 (the last release in the 2.x series) was extended to 2020. Language
developer Guido van Rossum shouldered sole responsibility for the project until July 2018
but now shares his leadership as a member of a five-person steering council.

The Python 2 language, i.e. Python 2.7.x, is "sunsetting" on January 1, 2020, and the Python
team of volunteers will not fix security issues, or improve it in other ways after that
date. With the end-of-life, only Python 3.6.x and later will be supported.

Python interpreters are available for many operating systems. A global community of
programmers develops and maintains CPython, an open source reference implementation.
A non-profit organization, the Python Software Foundation, manages and directs resources
for Python and CPython

3
History

Guido van Rossum at OSCON 2006

Python was conceived in the late 1980s by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde &
Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC language (itself inspired
by SETL), capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system.
[8]
Its implementation began in December 1989.[38] Van Rossum continued as Python's lead
developer until July 12, 2018, when he announced his "permanent vacation" from his
responsibilities as Python's Benevolent Dictator For Life, a title the Python community
bestowed upon him to reflect his long-term commitment as the project's chief decision-
maker. In January, 2019, active Python core developers elected Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan,
Barry Warsaw, Carol Willing and Van Rossum to a five-member "Steering Council" to lead
the project.

Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000 with many major new features, including
a cycle-detecting garbage collector and support for Unicode.

Python 3.0 was released on 3 December2008. It was a major revision of the language that is
not completely backward-compatible. Many of its major features were backported to Python
2.6.x[43] and 2.7.x version series. Releases of Python 3 include the 2to3 utility, which
automates (at least partially) the translation of Python 2 code to Python 3.

Python 2.7's end-of-life date was initially set at 2015 then postponed to 2020 out of concern
that a large body of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3. In January
2017, Google announced work on a Python 2.7 to Go transcompiler to improve performance
under concurrent workloads.

4
Features and philosophy

Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. Object-oriented

programming and structured programming are fully supported, and many of its features
support functional programming and aspect-oriented programming (including
by metaprogramming and metaobjects (magic methods)). Many other paradigms are
supported via extensions, including design by contract and logic programming.

Python uses dynamic typing, and a combination of reference counting and a cycle-detecting
garbage collector for memory management. It also features dynamic name resolution (late
binding), which binds method and variable names during program execution.

Python's design offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition. It
has filter , map, and reduce functions; list comprehensions, dictionaries, sets
and generator expressions. The standard library has two modules (itertools and functools) that
implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML.

The language's core philosophy is summarized in the document The Zen of Python (PEP 20),
which includes aphorisms such as:

Beautiful is better than ugly.

Explicit is better than implicit.

Simple is better than complex.

Complex is better than complicated.

Readability counts.

Rather than having all of its functionality built into its core, Python was designed to be
highly extensible. This compact modularity has made it particularly popular as a means of
adding programmable interfaces to existing applications. Van Rossum's vision of a small core
language with a large standard library and easily extensible interpreter stemmed from his
frustrations with ABC, which espoused the opposite approach.

Python strives for a simpler, less-cluttered syntax and grammar while giving developers a
choice in their coding methodology. In contrast to Perl's "there is more than one way to do it"
motto, Python embraces a "there should be one—and preferably only one—obvious way to

5
do it" design philosophy. Alex Martelli, a Fellow at the Python Software Foundation and
Python book author, writes that "To describe something as 'clever' is not considered a
compliment in the Python culture."

Python's developers strive to avoid premature optimization, and reject patches to non-critical
parts of the CPython reference implementation that would offer marginal increases in speed
at the cost of clarity. When speed is important, a Python programmer can move time-critical
functions to extension modules written in languages such as C, or use PyPy, a just-in-time
compiler. Cython is also available, which translates a Python script into C and makes direct
C-level API calls into the Python interpreter.

An important goal of Python's developers is keeping it fun to use. This is reflected in the
language's name—a tribute to the British comedy group Monty Python and in occasionally
playful approaches to tutorials and reference materials, such as examples that refer to spam
and eggs (from a famous Monty Python sketch) instead of the standard foo and bar.

A common neologism in the Python community is pythonic, which can have a wide range of
meanings related to program style. To say that code is pythonic is to say that it uses Python
idioms well, that it is natural or shows fluency in the language, that it conforms with Python's
minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability. In contrast, code that is difficult to
understand or reads like a rough transcription from another programming language is
called unpythonic.

Users and admirers of Python, especially those considered knowledgeable or experienced, are
often referred to as Pythonists, Pthonistas, and Pythoneers.

Syntax and semantics

Python syntax and semantics

Python is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is visually uncluttered, and
it often uses English keywords where other languages use punctuation. Unlike many other
languages, it does not use curly brackets to delimit blocks, and semicolons after statements
are optional. It has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal.

6
Indentation

Python syntax and semantics § Indentation

Python uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly brackets or keywords, to

delimit blocks. An increase in indentation comes after certain statements; a decrease in
indentation signifies the end of the current block. Thus, the program's visual structure
accurately represents the program's semantic structure. This feature is also sometimes termed
the off-side rule. The enforcement of indentation in Python makes the code look neat and
clean. This results into Python programs that look similar and consistent.

Statements and control flow

Python's statements include (among others):

The assignment statement (token '=', the equals sign). This operates differently than in
traditional imperative programming languages, and this fundamental mechanism (including
the nature of Python's version of variables) illuminates many other features of the language.
Assignment in C, e.g., x = 2, translates to "typed variable name x receives a copy of numeric
value 2". The (right-hand) value is copied into an allocated storage location for which the
(left-hand) variable name is the symbolic address. The memory allocated to the variable is
large enough (potentially quite large) for the declared type. In the simplest case of Python
assignment, using the same example, x = 2, translates to "(generic) name x receives
a reference to a separate, dynamically allocated object of numeric (int) type of value 2." This
is termed binding the name to the object. Since the name's storage location
doesn't contain the indicated value, it is improper to call it a variable. Names may be
subsequently rebound at any time to objects of greatly varying types, including strings,
procedures, complex objects with data and methods, etc. Successive assignments of a
common value to multiple names, e.g., x = 2; y = 2; z = 2 result in allocating storage to (at
most) three names and one numeric object, to which all three names are bound. Since a name
is a generic reference holder it is unreasonable to associate a fixed data type with it. However
at a given time a name will be bound to some object, which will have a type; thus there
is dynamic typing.

The if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with else and elif (a
contraction of else-if).

7
The for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each element to a local
variable for use by the attached block.

The while statement, which executes a block of code as long as its condition is true.

The try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and
handled by except clauses; it also ensures that clean-up code in a finally block will always be
run regardless of how the block exits.

The raise statement, used to raise a specified exception or re-raise a caught exception.

The class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to
a class, for use in object-oriented programming.

The def statement, which defines a function or method.

The with statement, from Python 2.5 released on September 2006, [66] which encloses a code
block within a context manager (for example, acquiring a lock before the block of code is run
and releasing the lock afterwards, or opening a file and then closing it), allowing Resource
Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII)-like behavior and replaces a common try/finally idiom.[67]

The pass statement, which serves as a NOP. It is syntactically needed to create an empty
code block.

The assert statement, used during debugging to check for conditions that ought to apply.

The yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function. From Python
2.5, yield is also an operator. This form is used to implement coroutines.

The import statement, which is used to import modules whose functions or variables can be
used in the current program. There are three ways of using import: import <module name>
[as <alias>] or from <module name> import * or from <module name> import <definition
1> [as <alias 1>], <definition 2> [as <alias 2>]

The print statement was changed to the print() function in Python 3.

Python does not support tail call optimization or first-class continuations, and, according to
Guido van Rossum, it never will. However, better support for coroutine-like functionality is
8
provided in 2.5, by extending Python's generators. Before 2.5, generators were lazy iterators;
information was passed unidirectionally out of the generator. From Python 2.5, it is possible
to pass information back into a generator function, and from Python 3.3, the information can
be passed through multiple stack levels.

Expressions

Some Python expressions are similar to languages such as C and Java, while some are not:

Addition, subtraction, and multiplication are the same, but the behavior of division differs.
There are two types of divisions in Python. They are floor division (or integer division) // and
floating point/division. Python also added the ** operator for exponentiation.

From Python 3.5, the new @ infix operator was introduced. It is intended to be used by
libraries such as NumPy for matrix multiplication.

From Python 3.8, the syntax :=, called as 'walrus operator' was introduced. It assigns values
to variables as part of a larger expression.

In Python, == compares by value, versus Java, which compares numerics by value[77] and
objects by reference.[78] (Value comparisons in Java on objects can be performed with
the equals() method.) Python's is operator may be used to compare object identities
(comparison by reference). In Python, comparisons may be chained, for example a <= b <=
c.Python uses the words and, or, not for its boolean operators rather than the
symbolic &&, ||, ! used in Java and C.

Python has a type of expression termed a list comprehension. Python 2.4 extended list
comprehensions into a more general expression termed a generator expression.[53]

Anonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions; however, these are limited
in that the body can only be one expression.

Conditional expressions in Python are written as x if c else y [79] (different in order of

operands from the c ? x : y operator common to many other languages).

Python makes a distinction between lists and tuples. Lists are written as [1, 2, 3], are
mutable, and cannot be used as the keys of dictionaries (dictionary keys must

9
be immutable in Python). Tuples are written as (1, 2, 3), are immutable and thus can be used
as the keys of dictionaries, provided all elements of the tuple are immutable. The + operator
can be used to concatenate two tuples, which does not directly modify their contents, but
rather produces a new tuple containing the elements of both provided tuples. Thus, given the
variable t initially equal to (1, 2, 3), executing t = t + (4, 5) first evaluates t + (4, 5), which
yields (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), which is then assigned back to t, thereby effectively "modifying the
contents" of t, while conforming to the immutable nature of tuple objects. Parentheses are
optional for tuples in unambiguous contexts.

Python features sequence unpacking where multiple expressions, each evaluating to anything
that can be assigned to (a variable, a writable property, etc.), are associated in the identical
manner to that forming tuple literals and, as a whole, are put on the left hand side of the equal
sign in an assignment statement. The statement expects an iterable object on the right hand
side of the equal sign that produces the same number of values as the provided writable
expressions when iterated through, and will iterate through it, assigning each of the produced
values to the corresponding expression on the left.

Python has a "string format" operator %. This functions analogous to printf format strings
in C, e.g. "spam=%s eggs=%d" % ("blah", 2) evaluates to "spam=blah eggs=2". In Python 3
and 2.6+, this was supplemented by the format() method of the str class, e.g. "spam={0}
eggs={1}".format("blah", 2). Python 3.6 added "f-strings": blah = "blah"; eggs = 2;
f'spam={blah} eggs={eggs}'.[82]

Python has various kinds of string literals:

Strings delimited by single or double quote marks. Unlike in Unix shells, Perl and Perl-
influenced languages, single quote marks and double quote marks function identically. Both
kinds of string use the backslash ( \) as an escape character. String interpolation became
available in Python 3.6 as "formatted string literals".

Triple-quoted strings, which begin and end with a series of three single or double quote
marks. They may span multiple lines and function like here documents in shells, Perl
and Ruby.

10
Raw string varieties, denoted by prefixing the string literal with an r. Escape sequences are
not interpreted; hence raw strings are useful where literal backslashes are common, such
as regular expressions and Windows-style paths. Compare "@-quoting" in C#.

Python has array index and array slicing expressions on lists, denoted
as a[key], a[start:stop] or a[start:stop:step] . Indexes are zero-based, and negative indexes are
relative to the end. Slices take elements from the start index up to, but not including,
the stop index. The third slice parameter, called step or stride, allows elements to be skipped
and reversed. Slice indexes may be omitted, for example a[:] returns a copy of the entire list.
Each element of a slice is a shallow copy.

In Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced, in contrast to

languages such as Common Lisp, Scheme, or Ruby. This leads to duplicating some
functionality. For example:

List comprehensions vs. for-loops

Conditional expressions vs. if blocks

The eval() vs. exec() built-in functions (in Python 2, exec is a statement); the former is for
expressions, the latter is for statements.

Statements cannot be a part of an expression, so list and other comprehensions or lambda

expressions, all being expressions, cannot contain statements. A particular case of this is that
an assignment statement such as a = 1 cannot form part of the conditional expression of a
conditional statement. This has the advantage of avoiding a classic C error of mistaking an
assignment operator = for an equality operator == in conditions: if (c = 1) { ... } is
syntactically valid (but probably unintended) C code but if c = 1: ... causes a syntax error in
Python.

Methods

Methods on objects are functions attached to the object's class; the

syntax instance.method(argument) is, for normal methods and functions, syntactic
sugar for Class.method(instance, argument) . Python methods have an explicit self parameter

11
to access instance data, in contrast to the implicit self (or this) in some other object-oriented
programming languages (e.g., C++, Java, Objective-C, or Ruby

Typing

The standard type hierarchy in Python 3

Python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable names. Type constraints
are not checked at compile time; rather, operations on an object may fail, signifying that the
given object is not of a suitable type. Despite being dynamically typed, Python is strongly
typed, forbidding operations that are not well-defined (for example, adding a number to a
string) rather than silently attempting to make sense of them.

Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes, which are most often
used for object-oriented programming. New instances of classes are constructed by calling
the class (for example, SpamClass() or EggsClass()), and the classes are instances of
the metaclass type (itself an instance of itself), allowing metaprogramming and reflection.

Before version 3.0, Python had two kinds of classes: old-style and new-style.[84] The syntax of
both styles is the same, the difference being whether the class object is inherited from,
directly or indirectly (all new-style classes inherit from object and are instances of type). In
versions of Python 2 from Python 2.2 onwards, both kinds of classes can be used. Old-style
classes were eliminated in Python 3.0.

12
The long term plan is to support gradual typing and from Python 3.5, the syntax of the
language allows specifying static types but they are not checked in the default
implementation, CPython. An experimental optional static type checker named mypy supports
compile-time type checking.

ummary of Python 3's built-in types

Type Mutability Description Syntax example

True
bool immutable Boolean value
False

bytearray(b'Some
ASCII')
bytearray(b"Some
bytearray mutable Sequence of bytes
ASCII")
bytearray([119, 105,
107, 105])

b'Some ASCII'
b"Some ASCII"
bytes immutable Sequence of bytes
bytes([119, 105, 107,
105])

Complex number with real and

complex immutable 3+2.7j
imaginary parts

Associative array (or dictionary)

of key and value pairs; can
dict mutable contain mixed types (keys and {'key1': 1.0, 3: False}
values), keys must be a hashable
type

ellipsis a immutable An ellipsis placeholder to be used ...

13
 as an index in NumPy arrays Ellipsis

Floating point number, system-

float immutable 3.1415927
defined precision

Unordered set, contains no

frozenset([4.0,
frozenset immutable duplicates; can contain mixed
'string', True])
types, if hashable

int immutable Integer of unlimited magnitude[87] 42

list mutable List, can contain mixed types [4.0, 'string', True]

An object representing the

NoneType a immutable None
absence of a value.

A placeholder that can be returned

from overloaded operators to
NotImplementedType a immutable NotImplemented
indicate unsupported operand
types.

Unordered set, contains no

set mutable duplicates; can contain mixed {4.0, 'string', True}
types, if hashable

'Wikipedia'
"Wikipedia"
A character string: sequence of
str immutable """Spanning
Unicode codepoints
multiple
lines"""

tuple immutable Can contain mixed types (4.0, 'string', True)

A Sequence of numbers
commonly used for looping
range immutable range(1, 10)
specific number of times
in for loops[88]

^a Not directly accessible by name

14
Mathematics

Python has the usual symbols for arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, /), and the remainder
operator % (where the remainder can be negative, e.g. 4%-3 == -2). It also has ** for
exponentiation as in the C language, e.g. 5**3 == 125 and 9**0.5 == 3.0, and a new matrix
multiply @ operator is included in version 3.5. I.e. all these operators work as in traditional
math; with same precedence rules, the operators infix (or - can additionally be unary).
Additionally, it has a unary operator ( ~), which essentially inverts all the bits of its one
argument. For integers, this means ~x=-x-1.[90] Other operators include bitwise shift
operators x << y, which shifts x to the left y places, the same as x*(2**y) , and x >> y,
which shifts x to the right y places, the same as x//(2**y).

The behavior of division has changed significantly over time so that division between
integers produces accurate floating point results:

Python 2.1 and earlier use the C division behavior. The / operator is integer division if both
operands are integers, and floating-point division otherwise. Integer division rounds towards
0, e.g. 7/3 == 2 and -7/3 == -2.

Python 2.2 changes integer division to round towards negative infinity, e.g. 7/3 == 2 and -7/3
== -3. The floor division // operator is introduced. So 7//3 == 2, -7//3 == -3, 7.5//3 ==
2.0 and -7.5//3 == -3.0. Adding from __future__ import division causes a module to use
Python 3.0 rules for division (see next).

Python 3.0 changes / to always be floating-point division, e.g. 5/2 == 2.5. In Python terms,
the pre-3.0 / is classic division, the version-3.0 / is true division, and // is floor division.

Rounding towards negative infinity, though different from most languages, adds consistency.
For instance, it means that the equation (a + b)//b == a//b + 1 is always true. It also means
that the equation b*(a//b) + a%b == a is valid for both positive and negative values of a.
However, maintaining the validity of this equation means that while the result of a%b is, as
expected, in the half-open interval [0, b), where b is a positive integer, it has to lie in the
interval (b, 0] when b is negative.

15
Python provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer. For tie-breaking,
versions before 3 use round-away-from-zero: round(0.5) is 1.0, round(-0.5) is −1.0.
[94]
Python 3 uses round to even: round(1.5) is 2, round(2.5) is 2.

Python allows boolean expressions with multiple equality relations in a manner that is
consistent with general use in mathematics. For example, the expression a < b < c tests
whether a is less than b and b is less than c.[96] C-derived languages interpret this expression
differently: in C, the expression would first evaluate a < b, resulting in 0 or 1, and that result
would then be compared with c.

Python has extensive built-in support for arbitrary-precision arithmetic. Integers are
transparently switched from the machine-supported maximum fixed-precision (usually 32 or
64 bits), belonging to the python type int, to arbitrary precision, belonging to the Python
type long, where needed. The latter have an "L" suffix in their textual representation. [98] (In
Python 3, the distinction between the int and long types was eliminated; this behavior is now
entirely contained by the int class.) The Decimal type/class in module decimal (since
version 2.4) provides decimal floating point numbers to arbitrary precision and several
rounding modes. The Fraction type in module fractions (since version 2.6) provides arbitrary
precision for rational numbers.

Due to Python's extensive mathematics library, and the third-party library NumPy that further
extends the native capabilities, it is frequently used as a scientific scripting language to aid in
problems such as numerical data processing and manipulation.

Python programming examples

Hello world program

print('Hello, world!')

Program to calculate factorial of a positive integer:

n = int(input('Type a number, then its factorial will be printed: '))

if n < 0:

print('Error: It must be a positive number')

16
else:

fact = 1

i=2

while i <= n:

fact = fact * i

i += 1

print(fact)

Libraries

Python's large standard library, commonly cited as one of its greatest strengths, provides tools
suited to many tasks. For Internet-facing applications, many standard formats and protocols
such as MIME and HTTP are supported. It includes modules for creating graphical user
interfaces, connecting to relational databases, generating pseudorandom numbers, arithmetic
with arbitrary-precision decimals, manipulating regular expressions, and unit testing.

Some parts of the standard library are covered by specifications (for example, the Web Server
Gateway Interface (WSGI) implementation wsgiref follows PEP 333), but most modules are
not. They are specified by their code, internal documentation, and test suites (if supplied).
However, because most of the standard library is cross-platform Python code, only a few
modules need altering or rewriting for variant implementations.

As of March 2018, the Python Package Index (PyPI), the official repository for third-party
Python software, contains over 130,000[106] packages with a wide range of functionality,
including:

Graphical user interfaces

Web frameworks

Multimedia

Databases

Networking

17
Test frameworks

Automation

Web scraping

Documentation

System administration

Scientific computing

Text processing

Image processing

Development environments

Comparison of integrated development environments § Python

Most Python implementations (including CPython) include a read–eval–print loop (REPL),

permitting them to function as a command line interpreter for which the user enters
statements sequentially and receives results immediately.

Other shells, including IDLE and IPython, add further abilities such as auto-completion,
session state retention and syntax highlighting.

As well as standard desktop integrated development environments, there are Web browser-
based IDEs; SageMath (intended for developing science and math-related Python
programs); PythonAnywhere, a browser-based IDE and hosting environment; and Canopy
IDE, a commercial Python IDE emphasizing scientific computing.

Implementations: List of Python software § Python implementations

Reference implementation

CPython is the reference implementation of Python. It is written in C, meeting

the C89 standard with several select C99 features It compiles Python programs into an
intermediate bytecode which is then executed by its virtual machine. CPython is distributed
with a large standard library written in a mixture of C and native Python. It is available for

18
many platforms, including Windows and most modern Unix-like systems. Platform
portability was one of its earliest priorities.

Other implementations

PyPy is a fast, compliant interpreter of Python 2.7 and 3.5. Its just-in-time compiler brings a
significant speed improvement over CPython.

Stackless Python is a significant fork of CPython that implements microthreads; it does not
use the C memory stack, thus allowing massively concurrent programs. PyPy also has a
stackless version.

MicroPython and CircuitPython are Python 3 variants optimized for microcontrollers. This
includes Lego Mindstorms EV3.

RustPython is a Python 3 interpreter written in Rust.

Unsupported implementations

Other just-in-time Python compilers have been developed, but are now unsupported:

Google began a project named Unladen Swallow in 2009, with the aim of speeding up the
Python interpreter five-fold by using the LLVM, and of improving its multithreading ability
to scale to thousands of cores.

Psyco is a just-in-time specialising compiler that integrates with CPython and transforms
bytecode to machine code at runtime. The emitted code is specialized for certain data
types and is faster than standard Python code.

In 2005, Nokia released a Python interpreter for the Series 60 mobile phones named PyS60. It
includes many of the modules from the CPython implementations and some additional
modules to integrate with the Symbian operating system. The project has been kept up-to-
date to run on all variants of the S60 platform, and several third-party modules are available.
The Nokia N900 also supports Python with GTK widget libraries, enabling programs to be
written and run on the target device.

Cross-compilers to other languages

There are several compilers to high-level object languages, with either unrestricted Python, a
restricted subset of Python, or a language similar to Python as the source language:

19
Jython compiles into Java byte code, which can then be executed by every Java virtual
machine implementation. This also enables the use of Java class library functions from the
Python program.

IronPython follows a similar approach in order to run Python programs on the

.NET Common Language Runtime.

The RPython language can be compiled to C, Java bytecode, or Common Intermediate

Language, and is used to build the PyPy interpreter of Python.

Pyjs compiles Python to JavaScript.

Cython compiles Python to C and C++.

Numba uses LLVM to compile Python to machine code.

Pythran compiles Python to C++.

Somewhat dated Pyrex (latest release in 2010) and Shed Skin (latest release in 2013) compile
to C and C++ respectively.

Google's Grumpy compiles Python to Go.

MyHDL compiles Python to VHDL.

Nuitka compiles Python into C++.

Performance

A performance comparison of various Python implementations on a non-numerical

(combinatorial) workload was presented at EuroSciPy '13.

Development

Python's development is conducted largely through the Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP)
process, the primary mechanism for proposing major new features, collecting community
input on issues and documenting Python design decisions. Python coding style is covered in
PEP 8. Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented on by the Python community and the
steering council.

20
Enhancement of the language corresponds with development of the CPython reference
implementation. The mailing list python-dev is the primary forum for the language's
development. Specific issues are discussed in the Roundup bug tracker maintained at
python.org. Development originally took place on a self-hosted source-code repository
running Mercurial, until Python moved to GitHub in January 2017.

CPython's public releases come in three types, distinguished by which part of the version
number is incremented:

Backward-incompatible versions, where code is expected to break and need to be

manually ported. The first part of the version number is incremented. These releases happen
infrequently—for example, version 3.0 was released 8 years after 2.0.

Major or "feature" releases, about every 18 months, are largely compatible but introduce new
features. The second part of the version number is incremented. Each major version is
supported by bugfixes for several years after its release.

Bugfix releases, which introduce no new features, occur about every 3 months and are made
when a sufficient number of bugs have been fixed upstream since the last release. Security
vulnerabilities are also patched in these releases. The third and final part of the version
number is incremented.

Many alpha, beta, and release-candidates are also released as previews and for testing before
final releases. Although there is a rough schedule for each release, they are often delayed if
the code is not ready. Python's development team monitors the state of the code by running
the large unit test suite during development, and using the BuildBot continuous
integration system.

The community of Python developers has also contributed over 86,000[129] software modules
(as of 20 August 2016) to the Python Package Index (PyPI), the official repository of third-
party Python libraries.

The major academic conference on Python is PyCon. There are also special Python
mentoring programmes, such as Pyladies.

21
Naming

Python's name is derived from the British comedy group Monty Python, whom Python
creator Guido van Rossum enjoyed while developing the language. Monty Python references
appear frequently in Python code and culture;[130] for example, the metasyntactic
variables often used in Python literature are spam and eggs instead of the
traditional foo and bar. The official Python documentation also contains various references to
Monty Python routines.

The prefix Py- is used to show that something is related to Python. Examples of the use of
this prefix in names of Python applications or libraries include Pygame, a binding of SDL to
Python (commonly used to create games); PyQt and PyGTK, which bind Qt and GTK to
Python respectively; and PyPy, a Python implementation originally written in Python.

API documentation generators

Python API documentation generators include:

Sphinx

Epydoc

HeaderDoc

pydoc

Uses

Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten most popular programming
languages in the TIOBE Programming Community Index where, as of December 2018, it is
the third most popular language (behind Java, and C). It was selected Programming Language
of the Year in 2007, 2010, and 2018.

An empirical study found that scripting languages, such as Python, are more productive than
conventional languages, such as C and Java, for programming problems involving string
manipulation and search in a dictionary, and determined that memory consumption was often
"better than Java and not much worse than C or C++".

Large organizations that use Python

include Wikipedia, Google, Yahoo!, CERN,NASA, Facebook, Amazon, Instagram, Spotify[143

22
]
and some smaller entities like ILM and ITA. The social news networking site Reddit is
written entirely in Python.

Python can serve as a scripting language for web applications, e.g., via mod_wsgi for
the Apache web server. With Web Server Gateway Interface, a standard API has evolved to
facilitate these applications. Web
frameworks like Django, Pylons, Pyramid, TurboGears, web2py, Tornado, Flask, Bottle and
Zope support developers in the design and maintenance of complex
applications. Pyjs and IronPython can be used to develop the client-side of Ajax-based
applications. SQLAlchemy can be used as data mapper to a relational database. Twisted is a
framework to program communications between computers, and is used (for example)
by Dropbox.

Libraries such as NumPy, SciPy and Matplotlib allow the effective use of Python in scientific
computing,[148][149] with specialized libraries such as Biopython and Astropy providing
domain-specific functionality. SageMath is a mathematical software with a notebook
interface programmable in Python: its library covers many aspects of mathematics,
including algebra, combinatorics, numerical mathematics, number theory, and calculus.

Python has been successfully embedded in many software products as a scripting language,
including in finite element method software such as Abaqus, 3D parametric modeler
like FreeCAD, 3D animation packages such as 3ds Max, Blender, Cinema
4D, Lightwave, Houdini, Maya, modo, MotionBuilder, Softimage, the visual effects
compositor Nuke, 2D imaging programs like GIMP, Inkscape, Scribus and Paint Shop Pro,
[151]
and musical notation programs like scorewriter and capella. GNU Debugger uses Python
as a pretty printer to show complex structures such as C++ containers. Esri promotes Python
as the best choice for writing scripts in ArcGIS. It has also been used in several video games,
[153][154]
and has been adopted as first of the three available programming languages in Google
App Engine, the other two being Java and Go.

Python is commonly used in artificial intelligence projects with the help of libraries
like TensorFlow, Keras and Scikit-learn. As a scripting language with modular architecture,
simple syntax and rich text processing tools, Python is often used for natural language
processing.

23
Many operating systems include Python as a standard component. It ships with most Linux
distributions, AmigaOS 4, FreeBSD (as a package), NetBSD, OpenBSD (as a package)
and macOS and can be used from the command line (terminal). Many Linux distributions use
installers written in Python: Ubuntu uses the Ubiquity installer, while Red Hat
Linux and Fedora use the Anaconda installer. Gentoo Linux uses Python in its package
management system, Portage.

Python is used extensively in the information security industry, including in exploit

development.

Most of the Sugar software for the One Laptop per Child XO, now developed at Sugar Labs,
is written in Python. The Raspberry Pi single-board computer project has adopted Python as
its main user-programming language.

LibreOffice includes Python, and intends to replace Java with Python. Its Python Scripting
Provider is a core feature since Version 4.0 from 7 February 2013.

Languages influenced by Python

Python's design and philosophy have influenced many other programming languages:

Boo uses indentation, a similar syntax, and a similar object model

Cobra uses indentation and a similar syntax, and its "Acknowledgements" document lists
Python first among languages that influenced it. However, Cobra directly supports design-by-
contract, unit tests, and optional static typing.

CoffeeScript, a programming language that cross-compiles to JavaScript, has Python-inspired

syntax.

ECMAScript borrowed iterators and generators from Python.

Go is designed for the "speed of working in a dynamic language like Python" and shares the
same syntax for slicing arrays.

Groovy was motivated by the desire to bring the Python design philosophy to Java.

Julia was designed "with true macros [.. and to be] as usable for general programming as
Python [and] should be as fast as C".Calling to or from Julia is possible; to with PyCall.jl and
a Python package pyjulia allows calling, in the other direction, from Python.

24
Kotlin is a functional programming language with an interactive shell similar to Python.
However, Kotlin is strongly typed with access to standard Java libraries.

Ruby's creator, Yukihiro Matsumoto, has said: "I wanted a scripting language that was more
powerful than Perl, and more object-oriented than Python. That's why I decided to design my
own language."

Swift, a programming language developed by Apple, has some Python-inspired syntax.

GDScript, dynamically typed programming language used to create video-games. It is

extremely similar to Python with a few minor differences.

Python's development practices have also been emulated by other languages. For example,
the practice of requiring a document describing the rationale for, and issues surrounding, a
change to the language (in Python, a PEP) is also used in Tcl and Erlang.

Python received TIOBE's Programming Language of the Year awards in 2007, 2010 and
2018. The award is given to the language with the greatest growth in popularity over the year,
as measured by the TIOBE index.

25
Python program to add two numbers

Given two numbers num1 and num2. The task is to write a Python program to
find the addition of these two numbers.

Examples:
Input: num1 = 5, num2 = 3

Output: 8

Input: num1 = 13, num2 = 6

Output: 19

In the below program to add two numbers, the user is first asked to enter two
numbers and the input is scanned using the input() function and stored in the
variables number1 and number2. Then, the variables number1 and number2 are
added using the arithmetic operator + and the result is stored in the variable
sum.

Below is the Python program to add two numbers:

Example 1:

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# Python3 program to add two numbers

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 num1 = 15

num2 = 12

# Adding two nos

sum = num1 + num2

# printing values

print("Sum of {0} and {1} is {2}" .format(num1, num2, sum))

Output:

Sum of 15 and 12 is 27

Example 2: Adding two number provided by user input

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# Python3 program to add two numbers

number1 = input("First number: ")

number2 = input("\nSecond number: ")

# Adding two numbers

# User might also enter float numbers

sum = float(number1) + float(number2)

# Display the sum

# will print value in float

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print("The sum of {0} and {1} is {2}" .format(number1, number2, sum))
Output:

First number: 13.5 Second number: 1.54

The sum of 13.5 and 1.54 is 15.04

Python Program for factorial of a number

Factorial of a non-negative integer, is multiplication of all integers smaller than

or equal to n. For example factorial of 6 is 6*5*4*3*2*1 which is 720.

Recursive :
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# Python 3 program to find

# factorial of given number

def factorial(n):

# single line to find factorial

return 1 if (n==1 or n==0) else n * factorial(n - 1);

# Driver Code

num = 5;

print("Factorial of",num,"is",

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factorial(num))

# This code is contributed by Smitha Dinesh Semwal

Iterative:
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# Python 3 program to find

# factorial of given number

def factorial(n):

# single line to find factorial

return 1 if (n==1 or n==0) else n * factorial(n - 1);

# Driver Code

num = 5;

print("Factorial of",num,"is",

factorial(num))

# This code is contributed by Smitha Dinesh Semwal

One line Solution (Using Ternary operator):
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# Python 3 program to find

# factorial of given number

def factorial(n):

# single line to find factorial

return 1 if (n==1 or n==0) else n * factorial(n - 1)

# Driver Code

num = 5

print ("Factorial of",num,"is",

factorial(num))

# This code is contributed

# by Smitha Dinesh Semwal.

Python Program for simple interest

Simple interest formula is given by:

Simple Interest = (P x T x R)/100
Where,
P is the principle amount
T is the time and
R is the rate
Examples:

EXAMPLE1:

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Input : P = 10000

R=5

T=5

Output :2500

We need to find simple interest on

Rs. 10,000 at the rate of 5% for 5

units of time.

EXAMPLE2:

Input : P = 3000

R=7

T=1

Output :210

Python3
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# for given principal amount, time and

# rate of interest.

# We can change values here for

# different inputs

P=1

R=1

T=1

# Calculates simple interest

SI = (P * R * T) / 100

# Print the resultant value of SI

print("simple interest is", SI)

# This code is contributed by Azkia Anam.

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Python Program for compound interest

Compound Interest formula:

Formula to calculate compound interest annually is given by:

Compound Interest = P(1 + R/100) r

Where,
P is principle amount
R is the rate and
T is the time span
Example:

Input : Principle (amount): 1200

Time: 2

Rate: 5.4

Output : Compound Interest = 1333.099243

Python3
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# Python3 program to find compound

# interest for given values.

def compound_interest(principle, rate, time):

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 # Calculates compound interest

CI = principle * (pow((1 + rate / 100), time))

print("Compound interest is", CI)

# Driver Code

compound_interest(10000, 10.25, 5)

# This code is contributed by Abhishek Agrawal.

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Python Program for compound interest

Compound Interest formula:

Formula to calculate compound interest annually is given by:

Compound Interest = P(1 + R/100) r

Where,
P is principle amount
R is the rate and
T is the time span
Example:

Input : Principle (amount): 1200

Time: 2

Rate: 5.4

Output : Compound Interest = 1333.099243

Python3
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# Python3 program to find compound

# interest for given values.

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def compound_interest(principle, rate, time):

# Calculates compound interest

CI = principle * (pow((1 + rate / 100), time))

print("Compound interest is", CI)

# Driver Code

compound_interest(10000, 10.25, 5)

# This code is contributed by Abhishek Agrawal.

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Python Program to check Armstrong Number

Given a number x, determine whether the given number is Armstrong number

or not. A positive integer of n digits is called an Armstrong number of order
n (order is number of digits) if.
abcd... = pow(a,n) + pow(b,n) + pow(c,n) + pow(d,n) + ....
Example:
Input : 153

Output : Yes

153 is an Armstrong number.

1*1*1 + 5*5*5 + 3*3*3 = 153

Input : 120

Output : No

120 is not a Armstrong number.

1*1*1 + 2*2*2 + 0*0*0 = 9

Input : 1253

Output : No

1253 is not a Armstrong Number

1*1*1*1 + 2*2*2*2 + 5*5*5*5 + 3*3*3*3 = 723

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Input : 1634

Output : Yes

1*1*1*1 + 6*6*6*6 + 3*3*3*3 + 4*4*4*4 = 1634

Python
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# Python program to determine whether the number is

# Armstrong number or not

# Function to calculate x raised to the power y

def power(x, y):

if y==0:

return 1

if y%2==0:

return power(x, y/2)*power(x, y/2)

return x*power(x, y/2)*power(x, y/2)

# Function to calculate order of the number

def order(x):

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 # variable to store of the number

n=0

while (x!=0):

n = n+1

x = x/10

return n

Function to check whether the given number is

# Armstrong number or not

def isArmstrong (x):

n = order(x)

temp = x

sum1 = 0

while (temp!=0):

r = temp%10

sum1 = sum1 + power(r, n)

temp = temp/10

# If condition satisfies

return (sum1 == x)

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# Driver Program

x = 153

print(isArmstrong(x))

x = 1253

print(isArmstrong(x))

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Python Program for Program to find area of a circle

Area of a circle can simply be evaluated using following formula.

Area = pi * r2
where r is radius of circle
Python3
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# Python program to find Area of a circle

def findArea(r):

PI = 3.142

return PI * (r*r);

# Driver method

print("Area is %.6f" % findArea(5));

# This code is contributed by Chinmoy Lenka

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Python program to print all Prime numbers in an Interval

Given two positive integer start and end. The task is to write a Python
program toprint all Prime numbers in an Interval.

Definition: A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has no

positive divisors other than 1 and itself. The first few prime numbers are {2,
3, 5, 7, 11, ….}.
The idea to solve this problem is to iterate the val from start to end using a
for loop and for every number, if it is greater than 1, check if it divides n. If
we find any other number which divides, print that value.

Below is the Python implementation:

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# Python program to print all

# prime number in an interval

start = 11

end = 25

for val in range(start, end + 1):

# If num is divisible by any number

# between 2 and val, it is not prime

if val > 1:

for n in range(2, val):

if (val % n) == 0:

break

else:

print(val)
Output:

11

13

17

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19

23

The above solution can be optimized using Sieve of Erathostenes. Please

see print prime numbers in a range for details.

Python program to check whether a number is Prime or

not

Given a positive integer N. The task is to write a Python program to check if the
number is prime or not.
Definition: A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has no
positive divisors other than 1 and itself. The first few prime numbers are {2, 3,
5, 7, 11, ….}.
Examples :

Input: n = 11

Output: true

Input: n = 15

Output: false

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Input: n = 1

Output: false

The idea to solve this problem is to iterate through all the numbers starting from
2 to (N/2) using a for loop and for every number check if it divides N. If we find
any number that divides, we return false. If we did not find any number between
2 and N/2 which divides N then it means that N is prime and we will return
True.

Below is the Python program to check if a number is prime:

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# Python program to check if

# given number is prime or not

num = 11

# If given number is greater than 1

if num > 1:

# Iterate from 2 to n / 2

for i in range(2, num//2):

# If num is divisible by any number between

# 2 and n / 2, it is not prime

if (num % i) == 0:

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 print(num, "is not a prime number")

break

else:

print(num, "is a prime number")

else:

print(num, "is not a prime number")

Output:
11 is a prime number

Optimized Method
We can do following optimizations:

Instead of checking till n, we can check till √n because a larger factor of n must
be a multiple of smaller factor that has been already checked.

The algorithm can be improved further by observing that all primes are of the
form 6k ± 1, with the exception of 2 and 3. This is because all integers can be
expressed as (6k + i) for some integer k and for i = ?1, 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; 2 divides
(6k + 0), (6k + 2), (6k + 4); and 3 divides (6k + 3). So a more efficient method is
to test if n is divisible by 2 or 3, then to check through all the numbers of form
6k ± 1. (Source: wikipedia)

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# A optimized school method based

# Python3 program to check

46
# if a number is prime

def isPrime(n) :

# Corner cases

if (n <= 1) :

return False

if (n <= 3) :

return True

# This is checked so that we can skip

# middle five numbers in below loop

if (n % 2 == 0 or n % 3 == 0) :

return False

i=5

while(i * i <= n) :

if (n % i == 0 or n % (i + 2) == 0) :

return False

i=i+6

return True

# Driver Program

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if (isPrime(11)) :

print(" true")

else :

print(" false")

if(isPrime(15)) :

print(" true")

else :

print(" false")

# This code is contributed

# by Nikita Tiwari.

REFERENCES
"The Android Source Code". source.android.com. Retrieved February 2, 2017.

48
 Syed H (September 24, 2012). "Editorial: Why You Should Go Nexus". Droid
Lessons. Retrieved April 17, 2013.

 Android Developers Application Fundamentals

 "SDK Tools | Android Developers". Developer.android.com. Retrieved April

25, 2018.

 "Tools Overview". Android Developers. July 21, 2009.

49