DESIGN OF 19 SEATED BUSINESS

AIRCRAFT
AE6612 Aircraft Design Project – II

Submitted by

R.RAJA 730916101079

V.PRAVEEN KRISHNAKUMAR 730916101076

M.SAKTHI 730916101091

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Komarapalayam-637303

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI – 600 025.

APRIL 2019
ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this aircraft design project-I report “DESIGN OF 19

SEATED BUSINESS AIRCRAFT” is the work of “R.RAJA (730916101079) ,
V.PRAVEEN KRISHNAKUMAR (730916101072) , M.SAKTHI
(730916101091)” who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr. SANKARAN Ph.D., Mr.N. SREENIVASARAJA,M.Tech.,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Department of Aeronautical Department of Aeronautical
Engineering Engineering

Excel Engineering college Excel Engineering College

Komarapalayam. Komarapalayam.

Submitted for Anna University Project Examination held on __________________.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost we thank the almighty for endowing his immense

blessing that helped us in each step of our progress towards successful completion

of our project. We are greatly indebted to our chairman Prof Dr. A.K.NATESAN

M.COM..,MBA. M.Phil., Ph.D., FTA. and vice chairman Dr.N

.MATHANKARTHICK M.B.B.S., M.H.SC., PHF. For his constant support and

encouragement. We warmly extend our gratitude to the chairman for having

provided us with necessary infrastructure to complete our project. We express our

hearty thanks to Principal Dr.S.POORNACHANDRA M.E.,Ph.D. for his

valuable suggestions in our entire endeavor.

We thank Dr. G.MANIKANDAN, Ph.D. Head of department, Aeronautical

Engineering, for his guidance and constant inspiration. We express our gratitude to

our coordinator Mr. S.R.ARUN M.Tech&Mr. N.SREENIVASARAJA M.E.,for

his encouragement and dedicated guidance.

We take privilege to record our everlasting and loving thanks to our parents

for their kind help and support which rendered in bringing our project in a fruitful

manner.

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 ABSTRACT
With the knowledge of previous design data from previous design project,
this report provides data of 19 seated business aircraft for preliminary and detailed
design of wing, fuselage, control surface and landing gear. In this, the theoretical
aspect of aerodynamics, aircraft structure, propulsion, stability and control are
given as per the need for design. This report also deals with in depth study of
structural characteristics of aircraft components.

Apart from this, a three dimensional model of 19 seated business aircraft is

modeled using CATIA V5. Several curves are given in order to provide clear
vision of design performance of an aircraft.

4
 1. PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING
1.1 Shrenck's curve
Shrenck’s Curve is used to obtain the Lift distribution along the span of an
Aircraft wing.
For designing an aircraft and its parts, it is necessary to study the loads and
its distribution over the surface of the aircraft. Especially for the structural
design of a wing, it is important to study the distribution of its main load, the lift
distribution along its span. Hence the lift distribution over the span of the wing is
obtained by Shrenck’s curve is an average of Trapezoidal Lift Distribution and
Elliptic Lift Distribution.

1.2 Wing description

Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle
of attack and sweep along the span. Shrenck’s curve defines this lift distribution
over the wing span of an aircraft, also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve.
Shrenck’s Curve is given by
Y1 +Y2
Y=
2

Where,
Y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1,
Y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2

1.3 Linear lift distribution

Lift at root
ρV2 CL CRoot
LRoot =
2
(1.225)(796.6)²(0.240994069)(2.7)
LRoot =
2
LRoot =252904.65(N/m)

5
Lift at tip
ρV2 CL CRoot
LTip =
2
(1.225)(796.6)²(0.240994069)(1.12)
LTip =
2
LTip =104855.92 (N/m)
By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation for the
wing.

252904.65N 104855.92 N

Figure 1.1 Linear lift distribution

Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing
Y1 = mx+c
Y1 = - (1590.82) x + 252904.65
Equation of linear lift distribution for port wing we have to replace x by –x
in general,
Y1 =(1590.82) x +252904.65

1.4 Linear variation of lift along wing semi span

Elliptical variation of lift Vs Wing

semi span
Elipitical lift Distubution
(N/m)

Wing Semi span (m)

Graph 1.1Linear Variation of lift along wing semi span

6
1.5 Elliptic lift distribution
In Elliptical lift distribution, the lift distribution over the span of the wing is
assumed to be in semi elliptic shape. For a required lift, the wing area required to
produce lift is minimum when the lift distribution is elliptic. When lift distribution
is elliptic, the Ostwald’s plan form efficiency is one. In the graph of the Lift per
unit span vs. Span wise distance, the area under the curve gives the lift which is
equal to weight of the airplane for steady level flight. The major axis of ellipse
coincides with the span of the wing. By using the condition we find the semi-major
axis of ellipse and hence its equation. Twice the area under the curve or line will
give the lift which will be required to overcome weight. Considering an elliptic lift
distribution we get,
L W πab1 πab1
= = A=
2 2 4 4
Where,
b1 - is Actual lift at root
a - is wing semi span
Lift at tip
4W
b1 = b = 3466.35 m
2πa 1

3466.35m13.734m

Figure 1.2Elliptic lift distribution.

1.6 Calculation of schrenk's curve
2b
Y2 = √(a2 -x2 )
a
2*3466.35
Y2 = (√(13.7342 -x2 ))
13.734

7
 1.8 Construction of schrenk’s curve
Shrenck’s Curve is given by,

Y1 +Y2
Y=
2
((1590.82) + 252904.65)+ (504.78 (√(6.672 -x2 ))
Y=
2
1.9 Tabulation for shrenck’s curve

X Y1 Y2 Y
0 252904 6932.65 129918.325

0.5 305699 6528.05 156113.525

1 354495.8 6110.43 180303.115

1.5 395290.2 5891.18 200590.69

2 446085.6 5358.75 225722.175

2.5 486881.1 5016.82 245948.96

3 527676.5 4765.23 266220.865

3.5 570471.9 4203.75 287337.825

4 621067.3 4032.1 312549.7

4.5 651962.7 3549.95 327756.325

5 690858.1 2456.89 346657.495

Table 1.1X & Y coordinates for shrenck's curve.

8
1.10 Schrenk's curve

Chart Title
800000
700000 Series1,
690858.1
600000
500000
Axis Title

400000 Series3,
300000 346657.495

200000
100000
Series2,
0
2456.89
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Graph 1.3Load distribution.

1.11 Structural load distribution
1.11.1 Loads on aircraft
The span wise lift distribution as obtained in the previous exercise is a
prerequisite to the calculation of the shear force and bending moments.
Considering the size of the aircraft wing, it is known that there will be a substantial
amount of force due to the wing structure also. This is essentially the gravitational
and inertial force component of the wing. The weight of the wing is also calculated
for each station considered in the previous exercise, assuming a weight distribution
proportional to the chord. The presence of engine in the wing has an advantage in
that provides a good amount of relief in the bending moment at the root. Therefore
the weight of the engine at its location must also be added to the span wise load
distribution. The engine weight is simply considered to be a counteracted load on
the wing structure. The fuel tank in the wing also contributes reasonably to the
weight acting on the wing structure. The weight due to the fuel is calculated in a
manner similar to that of finding the wing weight distribution by dividing the wing
into a number of elements, calculation of volume of fuel that element can carry and
the hence weight of the fuel in each element.

9
1.11.2 Loads acting on wing
As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first.
There are three primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction
which can cause considerable shear forces and bending moments on it.
They are as follows:
 Lift force (given by Shrenck’s curve)
 Self-weight of the wing
 Weight of the power plant
 Weight of the fuel in the wing

1.11.3 Self-weight of wing (𝒀𝟑)

Self-weight of the wing,

WING/W to =0.349

w(wing) =0.349*74742.84*9.81

w(wing) =255896.31 N
Wing port=-255896.31N
Wing starboard = -255896.31N

Assuming parabolic weight distribution

b 2
Y3 =k (x- )
2
Where,
13.734
b 2
-255896.31= ∫ k (x- )
0 2
x(1733.18)3
-255896.31=
3
K=-1610.97
Y3=-1610.97(X-1733.18)*2

10
1.11.4 Weight of empty wing Vs span wing
-480.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-481

-481.5

-482
Series1
-482.5

-483

-483.5

-484

Graph 1.4 Self weight of wing

1.11.5 Power plant weight

There is no power plant located on wing. Power plant is mounted on
Fuselage. So weight of the power plant is negligible.

1.11.7 Fuel weight

This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight of the
fuel in one the wing.
W(Fuel Wing) 13488
= (Kg)
2 2
W(Fuel Weight ) = 6744 N

11
 Figure 1.3 Slope of the fuel weight
Again by using general formula for straight line y=mx+cwe get,

dy = 1.6675 x m
Dy=(2497.5-dy)
Where,
2497.5-1.6675m
m=
4.002

2497.5 = 4.002m+1.6675m

2497.5
m=
5.6695
Solving these equation,

m=440.51 N⁄ 2
m
Yf = 440.51 x – 2497.5
1.11.7 Load acting on wing with span wise

Fuel Distribution
Yf, 5, -
Yf,294.95
4.5, -
Load acting on wing (N/m)

Yf,515.205
4, -
Yf, 3.5,735.46
-
Yf, 3,955.715
-
Yf, 2.5, -
1175.97
Yf, 2,1396.225
-
Yf, 1.5, -
1616.48
Yf, 1,1836.735
-
Yf, 0.5, -
2056.99
Yf, 0, -2277.245
2497.5
Span Wise location (m)

Graph 1.5 Fuel distribution

12
1.11.8 Types of loads
An aircraft is basically required to support two types of basic loads:
 Ground Loads: Encountered by the aircraft during movement on the
ground; that is taxiing, landing, towing, etc.
 Air Loads: Loads exerted onto the structure during flight by the
maneuvers carried out by the aircraft or by wind gusts (such as wind shear).

As well as these, other role specific loads may be generated by the aircraft,

High Altitude Flying : Pressurized cabin,

Amphibious aircraft : Landing on water

Military Aircraft : High Speed Maneuvers, Withstand Considerable damage.

These two loads classes may be further divided into

 Surface Loads : Act on the surface of the structure, such as aerodynamic

or hydrostatic loads, and
 Body forces : Act over the volume of the structure and are generated by
gravitational and inertia effects.

1.11.9 Aerodynamic surface loads

All flying aircraft flying under steady flight, maneuver or gust conditions
experience pressure distributions on the surface of the skin. The resultants of these
pressures cause direct loads such as: bending, shear and torsion in all parts of the
structure. A conventional aircraft consists of a fuselage, a pair of wings, and a tail
plane. (Horizontal & vertical tail section).
The fuselage carries crew, payload, passengers, cargo, weapons, or fuel. The
wings provide lift and the tail plane contributes to directional control. As well there
are ailerons, elevators and a rudder which enable the aircraft to be controlled, and
flaps provide extra lift during take-off and landing.

13
 Figure 1.4 Pressure distribution and resultant forces around aerofoil

This wing with incoming wind direction as shown creates this pressure
distribution. By integrating the pressure in the vertical and horizontal components
about the wind direction the following terms can be obtained:
 The vertical Lift Force component (L), perpendicular to the wind
direction.
 The horizontal Drag component (D), parallel to the wind direction.
Both these resultants act through the center of pressure (CP) of the airfoil.
But as this point will move depending on the attitude of the airfoil to the incoming
wind, the lift and drag forces are moved to act about the aerodynamic center (AC)
(the quarter chord). This means that an extra Moment (M) needs to be included to
keep the system in equilibrium.

1.11.10 Accelerated flight (rapid pull out from dive)

Increased downward load on horizontal tail, increases lift load causing
upward acceleration normal to the flight path.

14
 Figure 1.5 Resultant forces around aerofoil

This causes the load factor 'n' to be greater than 1.

1+v2
n=
Rg
Where,
n=secφ;

R=Radius of curvature of the flight path

V2
tanφ = ( ) , for φ=60° , n=2
Rg
1.11.11 Steady banked turn
T

15
 Figure 1.6 Pressure distribution

Figure 1.7 Aircraft static ground loads

1.12 Shear force

Shear force is the force in the beam acting perpendicular to its longitudinal
(x) axis. For design purposes, the beam's ability to resist shear force is more
important than its ability to resist an axial force. Axial force is the force in the
beam acting parallel to the longitudinal axis.

Figure 1.8 Shear force

Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one
direction, and another part of the body in the opposite direction. When the forces
are aligned into each other, they are called compression forces. Another example is
when wind blows at the side of a peaked roof of a home - the side walls experience
a force at their top pushing in the direction of the wind, and their bottom in the
16
opposite direction, from the ground or foundation. It defines shear force in terms of
planes "If a plane is passed through a body, a force acting along this plane is called
a shear force or shearing force."
In engineering, shear strength is the strength of a material or component
against the type of yield or structural failure where the material or component fails
in shear. A shear load is a force that tends to produce a sliding failure on a material
along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the force.
Shear and bending moment diagrams are analytical tools used in conjunction
with structural analysis to help perform structural design by determining the value
of shear force and bending moment at a given point of a structural element such as
a beam.

1.13 Bending moment

A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an
external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend.
The most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is
the beam. The example shows a beam which .is simply supported at both ends.

Figure 1.9Bending moment

Force acting on a substance in a direction perpendicular to the extension of

the substance, as for example the pressure of air along the front of an airplane
wing. Shear forces often result in shear strain. Resistance to such forces in a fluid
is linked to its viscosity. Also called shearing force. Shear and bending moment
diagrams are analytical tools used in conjunction with structural analysis to help
17
perform structural design by determining the value of shear force and bending
moment at a given point of a structural element such as a beam.

1.13.1 Bending moment in the structural element

A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural elementwhen an
external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend.
The most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is
the beam. The example shows a beam which is simply supported at both ends.
Simply supported means that each end of the beam can rotate; therefore each end
support has no bending moment. The ends can only react to the shear load. Other
beams can have both ends fixed; therefore each end support has both bending
moment and shear reaction loads. Beams can also have one end fixed and one end
simply supported. The simplest type of beam is the cantilever,
Which is fixed at one end and is free at the other end (neither simple nor
fixed). In reality, beam supports are usually neither absolutely fixed nor absolutely
rotating freely.
The internal reaction loads in across-section of the structural element can be
resolved into a resultant force and a resultant couple. For equilibrium, the moment
created by external forces (and external moments) must be balanced by the couple
induced by the internal loads. The resultant internal couple is called the bending
moment while the resultant internal force is called the shear force (if it is
transverse to the plane of element) or the normal force (if it is along the plane of
the element).
The bending moment at a section through a structural element may be
defined as "the sum of the moments about that section of all external forces acting
to one side of that section". The forces and moments on either side of the section
must be equal in order to counteract each other and maintain a state of equilibrium
so the same bending moment will result from summing the moments, regardless of
which side of the section is selected.

18
 If clockwise bending moments are taken as negative, then a negative
bending moment within an element will cause "sagging", and a positive moment
will cause "hogging". It is therefore clear that a point of zero bending moment
within abeam is a point of contra flexure that is the point of transition from
hogging to sagging or vice versa.
Moments and torques are measured as a force multiplied by a distance so
they have as unit newton -meters (N-m), or pound-foot or foot-pound (ft-lb). The
concept of bending moment is very important in engineering (particularly in civil
and mechanical engineering) and physics.

1.14 Torque diagrams

Torque, moment, or moment of force is the tendency of a force to rotate an
object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque
can be thought of as a twist to an object. Mathematically, torque is defined as the
cross product of the vector by which the force's application point is offset relative
to the fixed suspension point (distance vector) and the force vector, which tends to
produce rotation.
Torque is a measure of the turning force on an object such as a bolt or a
flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a
nut or bolt produces a torque (turning force) that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt.

Figure 1.10 Torque and power curve

19
 The symbol for torque is typically, the lowercase Greek letter When it is
called moment of force, it is commonly denoted by M.
The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: the force applied, the
length of the lever arm connecting the axis to the point of force application, and the
angle between the force vector and the lever arm. In symbols:
Where,
 r is the position vector (a vector from the origin of the coordinate system
defined to the point where the force is applied), F is the force vector
 x denotes the cross product, is the angle between the force vector and the
lever arm vector

1.15 Torque forces

Figure 1.11 Torque diagrams

Result
Thus the preliminary design of aircraft wing has been calculated.
20
 2. DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING

2.1 Design of spars, ribs and stringers

2.1.1 Spars

In a fixed-wing aircraft, the spar is often the main structural member of the
wing, running span wiseat right angles (or thereabouts depending on wings weep)
to the fuselage. The spar carries flight loads and the weight of the wings while on
the ground. Other structural and forming members such as ribs may be attached to
the spar or spars, with stressed skin construction also sharing the loads where it is
used. There may be more than one spar in a wing or none at all. However, where a
single spar carries the majority of the forces on it, it is known as the main spar.

Spars are also used in other aircraft aerofoilsurfaces such as the tail planeand
fin and serve a similar function, although the loads transmitted may be different
from those of a wing spar.

 Form the main span-wise beam.

 Transmit bending and torsional members.
 Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion,
shear & tension loads.
 Webs- resist shear & tensional loads and help to stabilize the
skin.
 Flanges- resist the compressive loads caused by wing loading.

2.1.2 Spar loads

The wing spar provides the majority of the weight support and dynamic load
integrity of cantilever monoplanes, often coupled with the strength of the wing 'D'
box itself. Together, these two structural components collectively provide the wing
rigidity needed to enable the aircraft to fly safely. Biplanes employing flying wires

21
have much of the flight loads transmitted through the wires and interplane struts
enabling smaller section and thus lighter spars to be used.

2.1.3 Types of spars

In the case of a two or three spar box beam layout, the front spar should be
located as far forward as possible to maximize the wing box size, though this is
subject to there being

 Adequate wing depth for reacting vertical shear loads.

 Adequate nose space for LE devices, de-icing equipment, etc.

2.1.4 Forces

Some of the forces acting on a wing spar are:

 Upward bending loads resulting from the wing lift force that supports the
fuselage in flight. These forces are often offset by carrying fuel in the
wings or employing wing-tip-mounted fuel tanks; the Cessna 310 is an
example of this design feature.
 Downward bending loads while stationary on the ground due to the
weight of the structure, fuel carried in the wings, and wing-mounted
engines if used.
 Drag loads dependent on airspeed and inertia.Rolling inertia loads.
 Chord wisetwisting loads due to aerodynamic effects at high airspeeds
often associated with washout, and the use of ailerons resulting in
controlreversal. Further twisting loads are induced by changes of thrust
settings to under wing-mounted engines.
 The "D" box construction is beneficial to reduce wing twisting.

Many of these loads are reversed abruptly in flight with an aircraft such as
the Extra 300 when performing extreme aerobatic maneuvers; the spars of these
aircraft are designed to safely withstand great load factors.

22
 Figure 2.1Design of spars and stringers

2.2 Bending stress and shear flow calculations

The solution methods which follow Euler's beam bending theory

(σ/y=M/I=E/R) use the bending moment values to determine the stresses
developed at a particular section of the beam due to the combination of
aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse direction. Most engineering
solution methods for structural mechanics problems (both exact and approximate
methods) use the shear force and bending moment equations to determine the
deflection and slope at a particular section of the beam. Therefore, these equations
are to be obtained as analytical expressions in terms of span wise location. The
bending moment produced here is about the longitudinal (x) axis. As both the
wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There are three
primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can cause
considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows

 Lift force and Self-weight of the wings.

 Weight of the power plant.

23
2.3 Component of wing structure

The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main
lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There are numerous wing
designs, sizes, and a shape used by the various manufacturers. Each fulfills a
certain need with respect to the expected performance for the particular airplane.
Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage. These
designs are referred to as high, mid, and low-wing, respectively. The number of
wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as
monoplanes, while those with two sets are called biplanes. Many high-wing
airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the flight and landing
loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts are
usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type of wing
structure is called semi-cantilever. A few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes
have a full cantilever wing designed to carry the loads without external struts. The
principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers.

Figure 2.2Components of wing structure

These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including

the skin. The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil).
Attached to the rear, or trailing, edges of the wings are two types of control
24
surfaces referred to as ailerons and flaps. Ailerons extend from about the midpoint
of each wing outward toward the tip and move in opposite directions create
aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward from the
fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing. The flaps are normally flush with the
wing surface during cruising flight. When extended, the flaps move simultaneously
downward to increase the lifting force of the wing for takeoffs and landings.

2.4 Calculation of centroid

S.no Curve/component Area /structural weight (N) Centroid (m)

1
Y1⁄ 178880.29 4.84
2

2
Y2⁄ 37390.33 3.10
2

3
Wing 127948.155 1.20

4
Fuel 6744 2.15

Table 2.1Centroid calculation

ΣV=0
VA -178880.29-37390.33+ 127948.155+ 6744 = 0
VA = 81578.62 N

ΣM = 0
MA - (178880.29*4.84) - (37390.33*3.10) + (127948.155*1.20) + (6744*2.15) = 0
MA = 813653.24 N⁄m

25
Now we know VA and MA, using this we can find out shear force and bending
moment.
2.4 Shear force

y1 + y2
SFBC = ∫ ( - y3 ) dx- VA
2
-(1590.82) x +252904.65 + 504.78√(13.734)2 - x2)
SFBC = ∫ ( +) +1610.97(X-1733.18)*2
2

dx-471152.56
x
SFBC = 298.84x2 + 45489.019X + 577.8 [x√42.903- x2 + 42.903 sin-1 ( )]
6.55
x3
+ 290.52 ( -6.55x2 +42.90x) - 194.85
3

SFCD =SFBC + ∫ yf dx

SFCD = SFBC + ∫ (440.51x-2497.5) dx

SFCD = SFBC + (220.25x2 -2497.5x)

SFDE = SFCD + (220.25x2 -2497.5x)+11110.95

2.6 Tabulation for X and shear force

X Shear force (N)

-5 37188.98
-4.5 36372.09
-4 35277.98
-3.5 32550.26
-3 30585.7
-2.5 28731.26
-2 26986.95
-1.5 25352.76
26
 -1 23828.7
-0.5 22414.76
0 -19625.79
0.5 -11917.263
1 -8113.17
1.5 -9456.98
2 1496.55
2.5 5678.98
3 9203.37
3.5 10898.79
4 15007.29
4.5 18908.31
5 20906.28

Table 2.2 Span Vs Shear

2.6.1 Shear force Vs location in wing

50000

40000

30000

20000
X
10000
Shear force (N)
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
-10000

-20000

-30000

2.1 Shear force flow in wing

27
Bending moment
y1 + y2
BCBC = [∬ ( - y3 ) dx - VA ] dx2 + MA
2

-(1590.82) x +252904.65 + 504.78√(13.734)2 - x2) + 1610.97(X-1733.18)*2

BCBC = [∬ ( ) dx ]
2
- 471152.56 +2091668.7

x
BMBC = -199.21x2 + 15163.006x2 - 288.9x + 82.34x [x√42.903 - x2 + 42.903 sin-1 ( )]
6.55
2 )1⁄5
x4
+ 385.2(42.903 - x - 290.52 ( + 21.24x3 - 2.18x2 ) + 94662.97
4
BMDE =BMCD +146.83x3 -1248.75x2

BMEA =BMDE -(146.83x3 -1248.75x2 )+11110.95x

2.8 Tabulation for X and bending moment

X Bending moment (N)

-7 33774.79
-6.5 20861.7
-6 10004.58
-5.5 1093.304
-5 -5982.25
-4.5 -11332.2
-4 -15066.7
-3.5 -17295.8
-3 -18129.7
-2.5 -17678.5
-2 -16052.3
-1.5 -13361.2
28
 -1 -9715.37
-0.5 -5224.93
0 0
0.5 5849.309
1 10212.87
1.5 12980.56
2 106283.26
2.5 107646.84
3 131882.19
3.5 47890.18
4 1108829.68
4.5 161906.58
5 1381469.75
5.5 74456.07
6 79905.42
6.5 84657.67
7 88602.71
7.5 91630.41
8 93630.64
8.5 94493.29
9 94108.23
9.5 92365.34
10 89154.5
10.5 84365.58
11 77888.47
11.5 69613.04
12 59429.16
12.5 47226.72

29
 13 32895.59
13.5 16325.65
14 -2593.22
14.5 -23971.1
15 -47918.3

Table 2.3 Span s bending moment

2.8.1 Bending moment vs location in wing

1600000

1400000

1200000

1000000

800000 X

600000 Bending moment (N)

400000

200000

0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43
-200000

2.2 Bending moment in wing Graph

2.9 Basic Functions of Wing Structural Members

The structural functions of each of these types of members may be

considered independently as:

Spars
Form the main span wise beam
 Transmit bending and torsional loads
 Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and
tension loads.
30
  Webs – resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
 Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.
Skin

 To form impermeable aerodynamics surface

 Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
 Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
 React axial bending loads (with stringers).
Stringers

 Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length

sections.
 React axial bending loads
Ribs

 Maintain the aerodynamic shape

 Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure
loads
 Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress
around any discontinuities
 Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end
restraint
 Increase the skin panel buckling strength.
2.10 Spar Definition

The maximum bending moment from previous section was found to be as

94493.29 Nm. Therefore we define 3 Spars with front spar at 15% of chord, middle

spar at 45% of chord and rear spar at 70% of chord. The position of the three spars

from the leading edge of the root chord is given below as follows:

31
 Figure 2.3 Different spar separation

Bending moment M = Max BM * FOS * n

= 2897784.15 × 1.5 × 3.8
= 16517371.71 Nm

The Structural load bearing members in the wing are the Spars and
Stringers. The bending moment carried by the Spars is 70% and that of Stringers is
30% of the total Bending Moment.

Bending Moment taken by Spars is = 0.7 x 16517371.71 = 11562160.19 Nm

The cross section of the spar chosen here is an I-section

For each spar we are determining the following parameters

a) Centroid
b) Moment of Inertia
c) Bending Moment
d) Bending Stress
2.10.1 Front spar
Height of the spar = 29 cm
Breadth of the spar = 17 cm
Thickness of the spar = 3 cm

32
 Figure 2.4 Cross section of front spar.

To find out the centroid, the following calculations are made

Area(A) X Y Ax Ay Ax2 Ay2

Element
(cm2 ) (cm) (cm) (cm3 ) (cm3 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 )

1 72 8 2.25 576 162 4608 364.5

2 130.5 8 19 1044 2479.5 8352 47110.5

3 72 8 35.75 576 2574 4608 92020.5

Total 274.5 2196 5215.5 17568 139495.5

Table 2.4 Centroid calculation for front spar

Front spar calculations

14 36
Centroid, x = =8 cm; y= =19 cm
2 2

Ixx =49789.88 cm4

Iyy = ∑ Icy + ∑ Ax2 + ∑ AX2

Iyy = (3292.22) + (17568) – (274.5) (82 )

33
 Iyy = 3292.22cm4

The front spar carries 35 % of the BM carried by the Spars. Thus,

Front spar BM = 0.35* 11521606.7 N-cm

= 404675606.7 N cm

Front Spar Bending Stress

M
Bending Stress, σz = ( x) y
Ixx

Points Coordinates (Y) (cm) Bending

stress(N/cm2)

A 19 154425.68

B 14.5 117851.18

C 14.5 117851.18

D -14.5 -117851.18

E -14.5 -117851.18

F -19 -154425.68

Table 2.5 Spar bending Stress

The bending stress at various points whose co-ordinates are determined with
centroid as the origin are calculated from above formula and tabulated.

2.10.2 Middle spar

Height of the spar = 40 cm

34
Breadth of the spar = 16 cm
Thickness of the spar = 4 cm

Figure 2.5 Cross section of middle spar

To find out the centroid, the following calculations are made

Area(A) X Y Ax Ay Ax2 Ay2

Element
(cm2 ) (cm) (cm) (cm3 ) (cm3 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 )

1 90 9 2.5 810 225 7290 562.5

2 158 9 20.8 1422 3286.4 12798 68357.12

3 90 9 39.1 810 3519 7290 137592

Total 338 3042 7030.4 27378 206512.5

Table 2.6 Centroid calculation for middle spar

Middle spar calculations

16 40
Centroid, x = =9 cm ; y= =20.8 cm
2 2

Ixx = ∑ Icx + ∑ Ay2 - ∑ AY2

35
 Ixx =(13522.7) + (20651.5) – (338)(20.82 )

Ixx = 60467.7 cm4

Iyy = ∑ Icy + ∑ Ax2 + ∑ AX2

Iyy = (5189.17) + (27378) – (338)(92 )

Iyy = 5189.17 cm4
The middle spar carries 40 % of the BM carried by the Spars. Thus,

Middle spar BM = 0.40* 297653.86 N-cm

= 462486407.6 N cm

Middle Spar Bending Stress

M
Bending Stress, σz = ( x) y
I xx

Points Coordinates (y) (cm) Bending

stress(N/cm2)

A 20.8 159088.52

B 15.8 120846.09

C 15.8 120846.09

D -15.8 -120846.09

E -15.8 -120846.09

F -20.8 -159088.52

Table 2.7 Spar bending Stress

The bending stress at various points whose co-ordinates are determined with
Centroid as the origin are calculated from above formula and tabulated.
36
2.10.3 Rear spar

Height of the spar = 17.72 cm

Breadth of the spar = 6 cm
Thickness of the spar = 2.5 cm

Figure 2.6 Cross section of rear spar

To find out the centroid, the following calculations are made

Area(A) X Y Ax Ay Ax2 Ay2

Element
(cm2 ) (cm) (cm) (cm3 ) (cm3 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 )

1 19 3.8 1.25 72.2 23.75 274.36 29.68

2 31.8 3.8 8.86 120.84 281.748 459.19 2496.287

3 19 3.8 16.47 72.2 312.93 274.36 5153.957

Total 69.8 256.24 618.428 1007.9 7679.32

Table 2.8 Centroid calculation for rear spar

Rear spar calculations

7.2 19
Centroid, x = = 3.8 cm ; y = = 8.86 cm
2 2

Ixx = ∑ Icx + ∑ Ay2 - ∑ AY2

37
 Ixx = (488.522) + (7679.32) – (69.8)(8.862 )
Ixx = 2649.184 cm4

Iyy = ∑ Icy + ∑ Ax2 + ∑ AX2

Iyy = (199.46) + (1007.9) – (69.8)(3.8)2

Iyy =199.46cm4
The Rear sparcarries 25 % of the BM carried by the Spars. Thus,
Rear sparBM = 0.25*297653.86 N-cm
= 289054004.8 N cm
Rear spar Bending Stress

M
Bending Stress, σz = ( x) y
Ixx

COORDINATES (y) BENDING

POINTS
(cm) STRESS(N/cm2)

A 8.86 966719.74

B 6.36 693943.29

C 6.36 693943.29

D -6.36 -693943.29

E -6.36 -693943.29

F -8.86 -

Table 2.9 Spar bending stress

The bending stress at various points whose co-ordinates are determined with
Centroid as the origin are calculated from above formula and tabulated

38
Result

Thus the detailed design of an aircraft has been calculated.

3. PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

39
3.1 Load distribution on an aircraft fuselage

Load distribution improves the distribution of workloads across multiple

computing resources, such as computers, a computer cluster, network links, central
processing units, or disk drives. Load balancing aims to optimize resource use,
maximize throughput, minimize response time, and avoid overload of any single
resource.

Using multiple components with load balancing instead of a single

component may increase reliability and availability through redundancy. Load
balancing usually involves dedicated software or hardware, such as a multilayer
switch or a Domain Name System server process.

Load balancing differs from channel bonding in that load balancing divides
traffic between network interfaces on a network socket basis, while channel
bonding implies a division of traffic between physical interfaces at a lower level,
either per packet or basis with a protocol like shortest path bridging.

Weight distribution is the apportioning of weight within a vehicle, especially

cars, airplanes, and trains. Typically, it is written in the form x/y, where x is the
percentage of weight in the front, and y is the percentage in the back. In a vehicle
which relies on gravity in some way, weight distribution directly affects a variety
of vehicle characteristics, including handling, acceleration, traction, and
component life. For this reason weight distribution varies with the vehicle's
intended usage. For example, a drag car maximizes traction at the rear axle while
countering the reactionary pitch-up torque. It generates this counter-torque by
placing a small amount of counterweight at a great distance forward of the rear
axle

In the airline industry, load balancing is used to evenly distribute the weight
of passengers, cargo, and fuel throughout an aircraft, so as to keep the aircraft's
center of gravity close to its center of pressure to avoid losing pitch control. In
military transport aircraft, it is common to have a loadmaster as a part of the crew;
40
their responsibilities include calculating accurate load information for center of
gravity calculations, and ensuring cargo is properly secured to prevent its shifting.

In large aircraft and ships, multiple fuel tanks and pumps are often used, so
that as fuel is consumed, the remaining fuel can be positioned to keep the vehicle
balanced, and to reduce stability problems associated with the free surface effect.
In the trucking industry, individual axle weight limits require balancing the cargo
when the gross vehicle weight nears the legal limit.

3.2 Fuselage design

3.2.1 Description

Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an
important structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load
producing components such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc.
and thus redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose of housing or
accommodating practically all equipment, accessories and systems in addition to
carrying the payload. Because of large amount of equipment inside the fuselage, it
is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access and
inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design
being more complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design. As a
common member to which other components are attached, there by transmitting
the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam. There actions
produced by the wing, tail or landing gear may be considered as concentrated loads
at the respective attachment points. The balancing re actions are provided by the
inertia forces contributed by the weight of the fuselage structure and the various
components inside the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all along the
length of the fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is
subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural
analysis due to its symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading. The main
load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is

41
transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of
both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams for
the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each of them is
checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective
member.

3.2.2 Loads and its distribution

To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases. The
main components of the fuselage loading diagram are:

 Weight of the fuselage

 Engine weight

 Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers

 Tail lift

 Weight of crew, payload and landing gear

Systems, equipment, accessories Symmetric flight condition, steady and level

flight: (Downward forces negative) Values for the different component weights are
obtained from aerodynamic design calculations.

3.2.3Fuselage alone analysis

42
 Condition Full Payload and Full Fuel
Fuselage Alone Analysis
Distance
from Mass Moment
S.No Component Weight (N)
reference (Kg) (Nm)
line (m)
1 Crew 10.32 210 2060.10 21260.23
2 Nose Landing Gear 0.58 401 3933.81 2281.609
3 Payload bay 1 8.172 18700 183.447 1499.128
4 Fixed Equipment 12.641 994.9 9759.96 123375.65
5 Excess Mass 18.64 17600 172656 3218307.84
6 Fuselage Mass 12.50 23500 230535 2881687.5
7 Fuel in Fuselage 12.50 75392.42 739599.64 92449955

8 Main Landing Gear 12.50 8800 86328 1079100

Assembly 1
9 Main Landing Gear 20.32 5300 51993 1056497.76
Assembly 2
10 Payload bay 2 20.32 31500 309015 6279184.8
Horizontal 5100 50031 1055654.1
11 21.10
Stabilizer
12 Vertical Stabilizer 21.60 2500 24525 529.740

TOTAL 189998.32 1680619.957 108169333.4

CG from Nose 64.3627567

Table 3.1 Loads acting on Fuselage

43
3.3 Shear force and bending moment calculation

Distance (m) Load (N) SF (N) BM (N-m)

0 0 0 0
10.32 -2060.10 -2060.10 23541.839
0.58 -3933.81 -5993.91 23541.839
8.172 -183.447 -4117.257 3780.737
12.641 -9759.96 -9943.407 124874.778
18.64 -172656 -182415.96 3341683.49
12.50 -230535 -403191 6099995.34
12.50 -739599.64 -970134.64 95331642.5
12.50 -86328 -825927.64 93529055
20.32 -51993 -138321 2135597.76
20.32 -309015 -361008 7335682.56
21.10 -50031 -359046 7334838.9
21.60 -24525 0 0
31.92 0 0 0

Table 3.2 Shear force and bending moment tabulation

44
3.3.1 Shear force vs distance from nose

200000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-200000

-400000 Distance (m)

-600000 SF (N)

-800000

-1000000

-1200000

Graph 3.1 Shear force

3.3.2 Bending moment vs distance from nose

120000000

100000000

80000000

60000000 Load (N)

40000000 BM (N-m)

20000000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-20000000

Graph 3.2 Bending moment

45
Result

Thus the preliminary design of an aircraft fuselage has been calculated.

46
 4. DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

4.1 Introduction
The fuselage is an aircraft's main body section that holds crew and
passengers or cargo. In single-engine aircraft it will usually contain an engine,
although in some amphibious aircraft the single engine is mounted on a pylon
attached to the fuselage which in turn is used as a floating hull. The fuselage also
serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to
lifting surfaces, required for aircraft stability and maneuverability.

4.2 Types of structures

 Truss structure
 Geodesic construction
 Monocoque shell
 Semi-monocoque

4.2.1 Truss structure

This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using
weldedsteel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be built out of
wood often covered with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the
addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form a
more aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.

4.2.2 Geodesic construction

Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers
between the wars and into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage,
including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of construction multiple flat strip
stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions, forming a
basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the
47
advantage of being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using
aluminum alloy was used with less materials than would be required for other
structural types. The geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive
localized damage without catastrophic failure. A fabric covering over the structure
completed the aerodynamic shell the logical evolution of this is the creation of
fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the grain
in differing directions to give the monocoque type below.

4.2.3 Monocoque
In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary
structure. A typical early form of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using
molded plywood, where the layers of plywood are formed over a "plug" or within a
mold. A later form of this structure uses fiber glass cloth impregnated with
polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this
used in some amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the core,
with a fiberglass covering, eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but
requiring more effort in finishing. An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft
is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light bomber of World War II. No plywood-
skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into
the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin.
The use of molded fiberglass using negative ("female") molds (which give a nearly
finished product) is prevalent in the series production of many modern sailplanes.
The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended to fighter
aircraft.

48
 Figure 4.1: Monocoque construction

4.2.4 Semi monocoque

This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First,
a series of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on
a rigid fixture. These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements
called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached
by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled
and removed from the completed fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with
wiring, controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most
modern large aircraft are built using this technique, but use several large sections
constructed in this fashion which are then joined with fasteners to form the
complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined largely by
the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where a large number
of identical aircraft are to be produced. Early examples of this type include the
Douglas Aircraft DC-2 and DC-3 civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying
Fortress. Most metal light aircraft are constructed using this process which is
shown below as a diagram thus these are

49
 Figure 4.2Monocoque and semi monocoque

Figure 4.3Semi monocoqueconstruction

Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin"

structures as all or a portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage,
and from discrete masses such as the engine) is taken by the surface covering. In
addition, all the load from internal pressurization is carried (as skin tension) by the
external skin.

The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice

dictated largely by the dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components

50
available for construction and whether or not a design is intended to be "self-
jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment.

4.3 Bulk head

A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a ship or within the fuselage
of an aero plane. Other kinds of partition elements within a ship are decks and deck
heads.

This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept. It is

used when the overall structural loading is relatively low or when there are
extensive cut-outs in the shell. The concept comprises four or more continuous
heavy booms (longerons), reacting against any direct stresses caused by applied
vertical and lateral bending loads. Frames or solid section bulkheads are used at
positions where there is distinct direction changes and possibly elsewhere along the
lengths of the longeron members. The outer shell helps to support the longerons
against the applied compression loads and also helps in the shear carrying. Floors
are needed where there are substantial cut-outs and the skin is stabilized against
buckling by the use of frames and bulkheads.

Figure 4.4Bulk heads and longerons

Texts written by Western writers such as Marco Polo (1254–1324),
NiccolDa Conti (1395–1469), and Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) describe the

51
bulkhead partitions of East Asian shipbuilding. An account of the early fifteenth
century describes Indian ships as being built in compartments so that even if one
part was damaged, the rest remained intact a forerunner of the modern day
watertight compartments using bulkheads.

4.3.1 Purpose
Bulkheads in a ship serve several purposes:
 Increase the structural rigidity of the vessel,
 Divide functional areas into rooms
 Create water tight compartments that can contain water in the case of a
hull breach or other leak.
 Some bulkheads and decks are fire-resistance rated to achieve
compartmentalization, a passive fire protection measure; see firewall
(construction).

Figure 4.5Bulk Head

On an aircraft, bulkheads divide the cabin into multiple areas. On passenger
aircraft a common application is for physically dividing cabins used for different
classes of service (e.g. economy and business.) On combination cargo/ passenger,
52
or "combo" aircraft, bulkhead walls are inserted to divide areas intended for
passenger seating and cargo storage.

Bulkhead partitions became widespread in Western shipbuilding during the

early 19th century. Benjamin Franklin wrote in a 1787 letter that "as these vessels
are not to be laden with goods, their holds may without inconvenience be divided
into separate apartments, after the Chinese manner, and each of these apartments
caulked tight so as to keep out water." A 19th century book on shipbuilding
attributes the introduction of watertight bulkheads to Charles Wye Williams,
known for his steamships.

4.3.2 Different types of bulk head

 Flat Bulkhead
 Corrugated Bulkhead
 Longitudinal Bulkhead
 Transverse Bulkhead
 Watertight Bulkhead
 Non watertight Bulkhead
 Collision Bulkhead
 Insulated Bulkhead
 Pressure Bulkhead
 Fuel Bulkhead

4.4 CALCULATION
Load ×distance = Bending Moment (B.M.)
Combined shear force and bending moment diagram

53
 Figure 4.6Combined shear force and bending moment diagram

4.4 Design of fuselage component-stringer

The circumference of the fuselage is 6.15752 m. To find the area of one

stringer, number of stringers per quadrant is assumed to be 2. I.e. the total number
of stringers in the fuselage is 4. The stringers are equally spaced around the
circumference of the fuselage.

4.5.1 Stringer Spacing

The stringers are symmetrically spaced on the fuselage with the spacing
calculate as shown below,

Circumference of the fuselage = π*d=6.15752m

Total number of stringers = 4Therefore the stringers are spaced at the interval of =
6.15752
= 1.539m
4

4.5.2 Stringer area calculation

The stress induced in the each stringer is calculated with the area keeping
constant in the stress term. Then the maximum stress (i.e. one which has larger

54
numerator) is equated with the yield strength of the material. From this area of one
stringer is calculated.

The direct stress in each stringer produced by bending moments 𝑀𝑥 and 𝑀𝑦 is

given by the equation:

Mx Mz
σ= z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz
Where

Mx =94493.29 N
1
Mz = ( ρV2 St at Ψ) x
2

ρ is density =1.225 kg/m3

V is cruise velocity=592 m/s
St is the tail area=5.56 m2
at is the slope of the lift curve=0.019/deg
Ψ is the angle of yaw for asymmetric flight

457.2
Ψ = 0.7 nmax +
VD
Ψ=2.8722 deg

xis the distance between the aircraft c.g position and horizontal tail c.gposition

x = 2.8722 m

Then,
Mz = 1873709.231

Ixx = Iyy = Astinger D2

Where Astinger is the stringer area, D is the diameter of the fuselage = 1.96 m

55
Mx andMy reach their maximum only from the stringer 1 to 4. Thus the stresses are
high only on this stringers. Calculating stress for stringers 1 to 4.

X=0, Z=0.98
Mx Mz
σ1 = z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz
Then,
24105.43 N
σ1 = ⁄m2
Astinger
X=0.26, Z=0.92
Mx Mz
σ2 = z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz
Then,
22642.26 N
σ2 = ⁄m2
Astinger

X=0.48, Z=0.48
Mx Mz
σ3 = z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz
Then,

11830.153 N
σ3 = ⁄m2
Astinger

X=0.91, Z=0.23
Mx Mz
σ4 = z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz

56
Then,

5701.78 N
σ4 = ⁄m2
Astinger

The allowable stress in the stringer is 455.053962 MPa for Al Alloy (Al 7075).

Maximum direct stress in the stringer 1 is

24105.1907 N
σ1 = ⁄m2
Astinger

Therefore the required stringer area of cross section is the given by

24105.1907
=455.053962*106
Astinger

Astinger =5.2972*10-5 m2

Thus one stringer area is 5.2972 *10-5 m2. The stringer chosen is Z section.
The dimension of the stringer are obtained from the analysis and design of the
flight vechical structure by Remer book.

The dimension are,

tw =tf =4.6 mm
bflange =11.45 mm
bweb =24.9 mm

57
 Figure 4.7 Cross Section of Z

To find out the centroid, the following calculations are made:

Area(A) X Y Ax Ay Ax2 Ay2

Element
(cm2 ) (cm) (cm) (cm3 ) (cm3 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 )

1 52.67 5.725 22.6 301.53 1190.34 1726.29 26901.72

2 72.22 9.15 12.45 660.81 899.13 6046.43 11194.28

3 52.67 12.575 2.3 662.32 121.141 8328.74 278.6

Table 4.1 Cross section of Z section

Result

Thus the detailed design of an aircraft fuselage have been successfully done.

58
 5. DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES-BALANCING AND
MANEUVERING LOADS ON TAIL PLANE, AILERON AND RUDDER

5.1 High Lift Systems

A wing designed for efficient high-speed flight is often quite different from
one designed solely for take-off and landing. Take-off and landing distances are
strongly influenced by aircraft stalling speed, with lower stall speeds requiring
lower acceleration or deceleration and correspondingly shorter field lengths. It is
always possible to reduce stall speed by increasing wing area, but it is not desirable
to cruise with hundreds of square feet of extra wing area (and the associated weight
and drag), area that is only needed for a few minutes. Since the stalling speed is
related to wing parameters by: It is also possible to reduce stalling speed by
reducing weight, increasing air density, or increasing wing CLmax . The latter
parameter is the most interesting. One can design a wing airfoil that compromises
cruise efficiency to obtain a good CLmax , but it is usually more efficient to include
movable leading and/or trailing edges so that one may obtain good high speed
performance while achieving a high CLmax at take-off and landing. The primary
goal of a high lift system is a high CLmax; however, it may also be desirable to
maintain low drag at take-off, or high drag on approach. It is also necessary to do
this with a system that has low weight and high reliability. This is generally
achieved by incorporating some form of trailing edge flap and perhaps a leading
edge device such as a slat.

5.2 Flaps
Wing flaps can be found on virtually every modern airplane. The effect of
adding flaps to the trailing edge of the wing is equivalent to increasing the camber
of the wing. Some flap designs also increase the chord length of the wing. This
increases the area of the wing so that more air is diverted, thus reducing the angle
59
of attack needed for lift. There are many types of flaps. In the 1930s and 1940s the
split flap, shown in Figure was introduced and was one of the first types of flap to
appear in production airplanes. Splitting the last 20 percent or so of the wing forms
this type of flap. The top surface of the wing does not move while the bottom
surface lowers. The split flap is effective in improving the lift, but it creates a great
deal of form drag, as shown in the figure. The split flap was used on the DC-3. It
was also used on WWII-era dive-bombers because it helped increase lift at low
speeds and slowed the airplane during the dive. The simple hinged flap is most
common on smaller aircraft. The last 20 percent or so of the inboard section of the
wing is simply hinged so that it can increase the camber. The first 20 degrees of
flap extension increase the lift without greatly increasing the drag of the wing at
low speeds. Many airplanes extend their flaps to 10 or 20 degrees on takeoff in
order to shorten the takeoff distance. When the flaps are extended greater than 20
degrees, the form drag increases rapidly with little or no increase in lift. Increasing
the drag increases the descent rate, which is desirable during the approach for
landing. Thus it is not uncommon for an airplane to land with the flaps set at 40
degrees.
A more sophisticated flap is the Fowler flap shown in Figure. With the
Fowler flap, the rear section of the wing not only changes angle but also moves aft.
The result is both an increase in camber and an increase in wing area. A bigger
wing will divert more air and increased camber will increase the downwash
velocity. Mechanisms to operate Fowler flaps can be quite complicated.
The maximum lift that a flap can generate is limited by the critical angle
where the flap begins to stall. This has been improved by the introduction of
slotted flaps. A single slotted flap is shown in Figure. A slotted flap extends both
aft and downward, like a Fowler flap, plus it is designed to take advantage of the
gap between the flap and the wing. The air in the boundary layer, having passed

60
over the top of the wing, has lost most of its kinetic energy. Thus when it reaches
the extended flap it is likely to separate from the flap and cause a stall. However,
the air passing under the wing does not face the same problem. The slot between
the wing and the flap diverts some of the higher energy, lower-surface air to the
top of the flap. The air remains attached to the flap longer, thus reducing drag and
inhibiting stalls. A double slotted flap basically repeats this step twice, using two
separate flaps in tandem. This provides the maximum lift from a flap design. The
disadvantage of this design is that the operating mechanism is very complicated
and heavy.
Multi slotted flaps are seen on many modern passenger jets, while large
airplanes use single-slotted flaps. Until the 1990s airplane performance was the
key design criterion. Airplane companies were proud of sophisticated triple-slotted
flap systems. During the 1990s a shift toward reducing cost as a key design
criterion has pushed airplane companies to maximize the performance of single-
slotted flaps. One technique that is used is to place vortex generators on the leading
edge of the single slotted flap. When the flap is retracted, the vortex generators on
the flap are hidden in the wing. Thus, the vortex generators do not penalize the
airplane in cruise but are available for takeoff and landing. The next times you fly
a commercial airplane ask for a window seat behind the wing. During the approach
and landing phase of the flight, watch the wing unfold. It is truly remarkable how
the wing evolves into a high-lift wing from its normal cruise configuration.

5.3 Slots and Slats

Leading-edge devices, like flaps, are sometimes used to increase the camber
of the wing and increase the stall angle of attack. But the details are somewhat
different. Other times, the purpose of the leading edge devices is much like that of
the slot in a slotted flap. These devices allow the high-energy air from below the
wing to flow to the upper surface of the wing. This energizes the boundary layer.
61
Thus, the wing stalls at a higher angle of attack and the maximum lift is increased.
The simplest leading edge device is the fixed slot shown in Figure. This is a
permanent slot near the leading edge of the wing. The high-pressure air below the
wing is drawn up through the slot and flows over the top of the wing. This
energizes the boundary on top of the wing. A permanent slot can increase the
critical angle of attack significantly.
The disadvantage of the fixed slot is that it causes increased power
consumption and drag at cruise speeds. A device similar to the slot is the fixed slat,
shown in Figure 3.32. It is added onto the wing, increasing the wings cord length
as well as energizing the boundary layer. Like the fixed slot, the fixed slat causes
increased drag at cruise speeds. The solution to the drag caused by fixed slots and
slats is to design a slat that is deployed only at slow speeds and causes little or no
drag in cruise. The Handley-Page retractable slat, shown in Figure extends to large
droop angles to give the wing large leading-edge camber. In cruise the slats are
retracted and do not cause increased drag. This type of slat is often designed so that
they deploy by themselves at slow speeds and high angles of attack and return to
the flush position in cruise.

62
 Figure 5.1 Double slotted flap

5.4 Deflected Slipstream and Jet Wash

One way to increase lift at slow flight speeds is to divert the propellers
slipstream or the jet engines exhaust down. To achieve a substantial lift increase
with a slipstream, the plane must have engines mounted on the wings with large
propellers that generate a slipstream over a substantial portion of the wing. The
wing must also have a multi slotted flap system to deflect the slipstream
effectively. This technique has not found significant commercial applications. The
exhaust of a turbofan-powered airplane can be diverted down to produce additional
lift at low speeds. One way to produce the diversion is to have the flaps extend
down into the exhaust when fully extended. One problem with this technique is
that the flap extension into the jet exhaust exposed it to very high temperatures,
creating a significant design challenge. Another way to divert the jet exhaust is to
mount the engines on the top of the wing with the engine exhaust crossing the top

63
of the wing as in Figure. Flaps behind the engines use the Coanda effect to divert
the exhaust down when extended. This gives a substantial increase in lift for
takeoff and landing.
Modern high lift systems are often quite complex with many elements and
multi-bar linkages. Here is a double-slotted flap system as used on a DC-8. For
some time Douglas resisted the temptation to use tracks and resorted to such
elaborate 4-bar linkages. The idea was that these would be more reliable. In
practice, it seems both schemes are very reliable. Current practice has been to
simplify the flap system and double (or even single) slotted systems are often
preferred.
Slats operate rather differently from flaps in that they have little effect on the
lift at a given angle of attack. Rather, they extend the range of angles over which
the flow remains attached. This is shown in fig

Figure 5.2 Motion of Double slotted Flap

5.5 Leading Edge Devices
Leading edge devices such as nose flaps, Kruger flaps, and slats reduce the
pressure peak near the nose by changing the nose camber. Slots and slats permit a

64
new boundary layer to start on the main wing portion, eliminating the detrimental
effect of the initial adverse gradient.
5.5 Wing tips
Wing tips shape has two effects upon subsonic aerodynamic performance.
The tip shape affects the aircraft wetted area, but only to a small extent. A far more
important effect is the influence the tip shape has upon the lateral spacing of the tip
vortices. This is largely determined by the ease with which the higher-pressure air
on the bottom of the wing can escape around the tip to the bottom of the wing
A smoothly-rounded tip easily permits the air to flow around the tip. A tip
with a sharp edge makes it more difficult, thus reducing the induced drag. Most of
the new low-drag wing tips use some form of sharp edge. In fact, even a simple
cut-off tip offers less drag than a rounded-off tip, due to the sharp edges where the
upper and lower surfaces end. The mostly widely used low-drag wing tip is the
Hoerner wingtip. This is a sharp-edged wing tip with a upper surface continuing
the upper surface of the wing. The lower surface is “undercut” and canted
approximately 30 deg to the horizontal. The lower surface may also be “under
cambered”.
The “drooped” and “upswept” wing tips are similar to the Hoerner wingtip
except that the tip is curved upward or downward to increase the effective span
without increasing the actual span.

Result
Thus the balancing and maneuvering loads on tail plane, aileron and rudder
was studied.

65
 6. DESIGN OF WING-ROOT ATTACHMENT

6.1 Wing root

The wing root is the part of the wing on a fixed-wing aircraft that is closest
to the fuselage. On a simple monoplane configuration, this is usually easy to
identify. On parasol wing or multiple boom aircraft, the wing may not have a
clear root area.
Wing roots usually bear the highest bending forces in flight and during
landing, and they often have fairings (often named "wing fillets") to reduce
interference dragbetween the wing and the fuselage.
The basic idea is as follows. If the fuselage expands and contracts over the
wings, as it does for the 601 HDS, then this increases drag and reduces lift,
particularly for large payloads or high angles of attack. The negative effects can
be mitigated by a fairing that simulates a constant width fuselage. The fairings
significantly improve climb rate, ceiling, and stall speed, sink rate at low speeds,
optimum glide ratio, minimum power to stay aloft, and stability of the plane when
CG is close to the rear limit. Generally, the required angle of attack in level flight
is significantly reduced at or below cruise power settings. This manifests itself by
a much lower nose, the design of the fairing is not difficult.
One draws on the fuselage the points of attachment of the fairing in a
reasonable curve. On the wing, one draws a straight line that is at 90 deg with
the spar and that just touches the fuselage at its widest point. Now one connects
the line on the wing with the curve on the fuselage, thus getting a surface. The
fairing must have that surface.
For creation of the fairing, one protects the wing and fuselage with masking
tape, then establishes the fairing surface using plaster. Once the plaster is cured
and dried, one lays the fiberglass. When the resin has set, the fairing is removed,
trimmed, and the fairing surface is finished using light-weight filler. Of course,
66
the plaster and masking tape are removed as well. The finished fairing is riveted
to sidewall and wing surface, and then painted. Overall, one should aim for very
lightweight fairings that together do not exceed 4 lbs. when painted.

Figure 6.1Wing root

6.2 Wing configuration
Fixed wing airplane popularly called aero planes, airplanes, or just planes,
may be built with many wing configurations.
This page provides a breakdown of types, allowing a full description of any
aircraft's wing configuration. For example, the super marine Spitfire wing may be
classified as a conventional low wing cantilever monoplane with straight elliptical
wings of moderate aspect ratio and slight dihedral.
Sometimes the distinction between types is blurred, for example the wings
of many modern combat aircraft may be described either as cropped compound
deltas with (forwards or backwards) swept trailing edge, or as sharply tapered
swept wings with large leading edge root extensions (or LERX).
All the configurations described have flown (if only very briefly) on full-
size aircraft, except as noted. Some variants may be duplicated under more than
one heading, due to their complex nature. This is particularly so for variable
geometry and combined (closed) wing types.
Note on terminology: Most fixed-wing aircraft have left hand (port) and
right hand (starboard) wings in a symmetrical arrangement. Strictly, such a pair of
67
 wings is called a wing plane or just plain. However, in certain situations it is
common to refer to a plane as a wing, as in "a biplane has two wings", or to refer
to the whole thing as a wing, as in "a biplane wing has two planes". Where the
meaning is clear, this article follows common usage, only being more precise
where needed to avoid real ambiguity or incorrectness.

Figure 6.2Types of wing

6.3 Wing plan form
6.3.1 Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio is the span divided by the mean or average chord. It is a
measure of how long and slender the wing appears when seen from above or
below.
 Low aspect ratio: short and stubby wing. More efficient structurally and
higher instantaneous roll rate. They tend to be used by fighter aircraft, such
as the Lockheed F-104 Star fighter, and by very high-speed aircraft (e.g.
North American X-15).
 Moderate aspect ratio: general-purpose wing (e.g. the Lockheed P-
80Shooting Star).
 High aspect ratio: long and slender wing. More efficient aerodynamically,
having less induced drag. They tend to be used by high-altitude subsonic

68
 aircraft (e.g. the Lockheed U-2), subsonic airliners (e.g. the Bombardier
Dash and by high-performance sailplanes (e.g. Glaser-Dirks DG-500).

6.3.2 Wing sweep

Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A
small degree of sweep is sometimes used to adjust the center of lift when the wing
cannot be attached in the ideal position for some reason, such as a pilot's visibility
from the cockpit. Other uses are described below.

Figure 6.3:Swept wing

 Straight: extends at right angles to the line of flight. The most structurally-
efficient wing, it is common for low-speed designs, such as the P-
80Shooting Star and sailplanes.
 Swept back (aka "swept wing"): The wing sweeps rearwards from the root to
the tip. In early tailless examples, such as the Dunne aircraft, this allowed
the outer wing section to act like a conventional empennage (tail) to provide
aerodynamic stability. At transonic speeds swept wings have lower drag, but
can handle badly in or near a stall and require high stiffness to avoid aero
elasticity at high speeds. Common on high-subsonic and early supersonic
designs e.g. the Hawker Hunter.
 Forward swept: the wing angles forward from the root. Benefits are similar
to backwards sweep, also it avoids the stall problems and has reduced tip
losses allowing a smaller wing, but requires even greater stiffness to avoid
69
 aero elastic flutter as on the Sukhoi Su-47. The HFB-320Hansa Jet used
forward sweep to prevent the wing spar passing through the cabin. Small
shoulder-wing aircraft may use forward sweep to maintain a correct CoG.

6.3.3 Chord variation along span

The wing chord may be varied along the span of the wing, for both structural
and aerodynamic reasons.
 Constant chord: parallel leading & trailing edges. Simplest to make, and
common where low cost is important, e.g. in the Piper J-3 Cub but
inefficient as the outer section generates little lift while adding both weight
and drag. Sometimes known as the Hershey Bar wing in North America due
to its similarity in shape to a chocolate bar.
 Tapered: wing narrows towards the tip. Structurally and aerodynamically
more efficient than a constant chord wing, and easier to make than the
elliptical type.
 Trapezoidal: a tapered wing with straight leading and trailing edges: may be
wept or swept. The straight tapered wing is one of the most common wing
plan forms, as seen on the Grumman F4F Wildcat.
 Inverse tapered: wing is widest near the tip. Structurally inefficient, leading
to high weight. Flown experimentally on the XF-91 Thunder captor in an
attempt to overcome the stall problems of swept wings.
 Compound tapered: taper reverses towards the root. Typically braced to
maintain stiffness. Used on the Westland Lysander army cooperation aircraft
to increase visibility for the crew.
 Constant chord with tapered outer section: common variant seen for example
on many Cessna types and the English Electric Canberra.

70
6.3.4 Dihedral and anhedral
Angling the wings up or down span wise from root to tip can help to resolve
various design issues, such as stability and control in flight.

 Dihedral: the tips are higher than the root as on the Boeing 737, giving a
shallow 'V' shape when seen from the front. Adds lateral stability.
 Anhedral: the tips are lower than the root, as on the Ilyushin Il-76; the
opposite of dihedral. Used to reduce stability where some other feature
results in too much stability.

Some biplanes have different degrees of dihedral/Anhedral on different wings;

e.g. the Sop with Camel had a flat upper wing and dihedral on the lower wing,
while the Hanriot HD-1 had dihedral on the upper wing but none on the lower.

6.3.5 Wings vs bodies

Some designs have no clear join between wing and fuselage, or body. This may
be because one or other of these is missing, or because they merge into each other:

 Flying wing: the aircraft has no distinct fuselage or horizontal tail (although
fins and pods, blisters, etc. may be present) such as on the B-2stealth
bomber.
 Blended body or blended wing-body: a smooth transition occurs between
wing and fuselage, with no hard dividing line. Reduces wetted area and can
also reduce interference between airflow over the wing root and any
adjacent body, in both cases reducing drag. The Lockheed SR-71spyplane
exemplifies this approach.

Result
Thus the design of wing root attachment is made.
71
 7. LANDING GEAR DESIGN

7.1 Landing gear

Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and is used in
both takeoff and landing.
For aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing
it to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Wheels are typically used but skids,
skis, floats or a combination of these and other elements can be deployed
depending both on the surface and on whether the craft only operates vertically
(VTOL) or is able to taxi along the surface. Faster aircraft usually have retractable
undercarriages, which folds away during flight to reduce air resistance or drag.
For launch vehicles and spacecraft landers, the landing gear is typically
designed to support the vehicle only post-flight, and are not used for takeoff or
surface movement.

7.2 Types of landing gear

 Detachable landing gear
 Rearwards and sideways retraction
 Tandem layout
 Early shock absorption
 "Kneeling" gear
 Folding gear
 Light aircraft
 Mono wheel
7.2.1 Detachable landing gear
Some aircraft use wheels for takeoff and then jettison them soon afterwards
for improved aerodynamic streamlining without the complexity, weight and space
requirements of a retraction mechanism. In these cases, the wheels to be jettisoned
72
are sometimes mounted onto axles that are part of a separate "dolly" (for main
wheels only) or "trolley" (for a three-wheel set with a nose wheel) chassis. Landing
is then accomplished on skids or similar other simple devices.
Historical examples include the "dolly"-using Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket
fighter the Messerschmitt Me 321 Giant troop glider, and the first eight "trolley"-
using prototypes of the AradoAr 234 jet reconnaissance bomber. The main
disadvantage to using the takeoff dolly/trolley and landing skid(s) system on
German World War II aircraft intended for a sizable number of late-war German
jet and rocket-powered military aircraft designs was that aircraft would likely be
scattered all over a military airfield after they had landed from a mission, and
would be unable to taxi on their own to an appropriately hidden "dispersal"
location, which could easily leave them vulnerable to being shot up by attacking
Allied fighters. A related contemporary example are the wingtip support wheels
("Pogos") on the Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft, which fall away after take-
off and drop to earth; the aircraft then relies on titanium skids on the wingtips for
landing.

7.2.2 Rearwards and sideways retraction

Some main landing gear struts on World War II aircraft, in order to allow a
single-leg main gear to more efficiently store the wheel within either the wing or
an engine nacelle, rotated the single gear strut through a 90° angle during the
Rearwards-retraction sequence to allow the main wheel to rest "flat" above the
lower end of the main gear strut, or flush within the wing or engine nacelles, when
fully retracted. Examples are the Vought F4U Corsair,Grumman F6F Hellcat,
"Messerschmitt Me 210 and Junkers Ju 88. The AeroCommander family of twin-
engine business aircraft also shares this feature on the main gears, which retract aft
into the ends of the engine nacelles. The rearward-retracting nose wheel strut and
the forward-retracting nose gear strut similarly rotated 90 degrees as they retracted.
73
7.2.3 Tandem layout
An unusual undercarriage configuration is found on which has two main
wheels in line astern under the fuselage (called a bicycle or tandem layout) and a
smaller wheel near the tip of each wing. On second generation Harriers, the wing is
extended past the outrigger wheels to allow greater wing-mounted munition loads
to be carried.
A multiple tandem layout was used on some military jet aircraft during the
1950s, pioneered by the Martin XB-51, and later used on such aircraft as the U-2,
Yakovlev Yak-25, because it allows room for a large internal bay between the
main wheels. A variation of the multi tandem layout is also used on the B-52 Strato
fortress which has four main wheel bogies (two forward and two aft) underneath
the fuselage and a small outrigger wheel supporting each wing-tip. This allows the
landing gear to line up with the runway and thus makes crosswind landings easier
(using a technique called crab landing. The challenge of designing a tandem-gear
layout is that the aircraft has to sit (on the ground) at the optimum flight angle for
landing – when the plane is nearly in a stalled attitude just before touchdown, both
fore and aft wheels must be ready to contact the runway. Otherwise there will be a
vicious jolt as the higher wheel falls to the runway at the stall.

7.2.4 "Kneeling” gear

Some early jet fighters were equipped with “kneeling” nose gear consisting
of small steerable auxiliary wheels on short struts located forward of the primary
nose gear, allowing the aircraft to be taxied tail-high with the primary nose gear
retracted.
This feature was intended to enhance safety aboard aircraft carriers by
redirecting the hot exhaust blast upwards, and to reduce hangar space requirements

74
by enabling the aircraft to be parked with its nose underneath the tail of a similarly
equipped jet. Kneeling gear was used on the North American, but was found to be
of little use operationally, and was not used on later Navy fighters.
The nose wheel gear systems of some large cargo jets, like the Condor, kneel
to assist in loading and unloading of cargo using ramps through the forward, "tilt-
up" hinged fuselage nose while stationary on the ground.

7.2.5 Folding gear

In order to save precious space, various folding and splay able landing gear
designs have been created.

7.2.6 Light aircraft

For light aircraft a type of landing gear which is economical to produce is a
simple wooden arch laminated from ash, as used on some homebuilt aircraft. A
similar arched gear is often formed from spring steel. The Cessna Air master was
among the first aircraft to use spring steel landing gear. The main advantage of
such gear is that no other shock-absorbing device is needed; the deflecting leaf
provides the shock absorption.

7.2.7 Monowheel
To minimize drag, modern gliders most usually have a single wheel,
retractable or fixed, centered under the fuselage, which is referred to as mono
wheel gear or mono wheel landing gear. Mono wheel gear is also used on some
powered aircraft, where drag reduction is a priority, such as the Much like the Me
163 rocket fighter, some gliders from prior to the Second World War used a take-
off dolly that was jettisoned on take-off and then landed on a fixed skid.

75
 Figure 7.1Landing Gear

Result
Thus the design of landing gear is made.

76
 8. A DETAILED DESIGN REPORT WITH CAD DIAGRAMS

8.1 Introduction
We have completed our design report with workout of CAD diagrams.
Technical drawing, drafting or druggeting is the act and discipline of composing
drawings that visually communicated how something functions or is to be
constructed. In technical drawing and computer graphics, a Multiview orthographic
projection is an illustration technique in which up to six pictures of an object are
produced, with each projection plane parallel to one of the coordinate axes of the
object. With CAD systems, drafters can create and store drawings electronically so
that they can plan and specifications used in the manufacture of aircraft, missiles
and related parts. Machine design reach qualified issues of design engineers and
engineering managers. Lofting is a drafting technique used in this whereby curved
lines are generated to be used in plans for streamlined objects. The technique can
be used as simple as bending a flexible object, such as a long strip of thin wood or
thin plastic, so that it passes over three non-linear points and scribing the resultant
curved line, or plotting the lines. These drafting conventions are condensed into
internationally accepted standards and specifications that transcend the barrier of
language making technical drawings with complex mechanical concepts. It is
essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering. To make this
drawing easier to understand, we have used familiar symbols, perspectives, units of
measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. Together, such
conventions constitute a visual language and help to ensure that the drawing is
unambiguous and relatively easy to understand.

77
8.2 Three view diagram of the aircraft

Figure 8.1The Top Front and Side View of the Aircraft

Result
Thus the detail report of the aircraft is made by the CAD Diagram.

78
 CONCLUSION
The preliminary and detailed design of 19 seat business aircraft was
completed with performance parameters required for calculation. The obtained
design values are not necessarily a definite reflection of the airplane true and
conceptual design, but the basic outlay of development has been obtained

The detailed design provides desired considerations of business aircraft. The

required ideal design changes and improvements secured an optimum performance
of an aircraft.

The challenges faced in this design project have various phases. The
experience plays a vital role in successful design of any aircraft in future. Future
development can be implemented for perfect aircraft design.

79
References
 Anderson, John D. Jr., (1999) Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw-
Hill, New York

 Anderson, John D. Jr., (2001) Introduction to Flight, McGraw-Hill , New

York

 Perkins, C. and Hage, R. (1949) Airplane Performance, Stability and

Control, Wiley, New York

 Raymer, Daniel P. (1992) Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, AIAA

Education series, Washington, DC

 Taylor, J. (2004) Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft, Jane’s, London, UK

80