The Formation of the Light Elements in the Big Bang Theory

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to give evidence for and explain the
formation of the light elements in the big bang theory.

What elements were produced during the big bang expansion?

Learn about it!

Big Bang Theory
The big bang theory is a cosmological model stating that the universe
started its expansion about 13.8 billion years ago. Pieces of evidence
supporting this theory are (1) occurrence of redshift, (2) background
radiation, and (3) abundance of light elements.

Redshift

In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz measured the
wavelengths of light from spiral nebulae, which are interstellar clouds
of dust and ionized gases. They discovered that the light from the
nebulae increased in wavelength. They explained their discovery as a
Doppler shift. The Doppler shift or Doppler effect explains that when
an object gets closer to us, its light waves are compressed into shorter
wavelengths (blueshifted, because blue light has the shortest
wavelength in the visible region). On the other hand, when an object
moves away from us, its light waves are stretched into longer
wavelengths (redshifted, because red light has the longest wavength
in the visible region).

Slipher and Wirtz then explained that the redshift or increase in

wavelength was due to the increase in the distance between the Earth
and the nebulae. They concluded that the redshift occurred due to the
expansion of space.

In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light from galaxies to

calculate the velocities and distances of these galaxies from the
Earth. He discovered that they were moving away from the Earth and
from each other. His calculations supported the theory that the
universe is expanding.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias discovered a low, steady

“hum” from their Holmdel Horn antenna (an antenna built to support
NASA’s Project Echo). They concluded that the noise is Cosmic
Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR), the remains of energy
created after the big bang expansion.

Abundance of Light Elements

The observed abundance of light elements supports the big bang

theory. The theory predicts that the universe is composed of 73%
hydrogen and 25% helium by mass. The prediction correlated to the
measured abundances of primordial material in unprocessed gas in
some parts of the universe with no stars.

Learn about it!

Formation of Light Elements
Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing the light
elements during the big bang expansion. In the beginning, the universe
was very hot that matter was fully ionized and dissociated. Few
seconds after the start of the big bang, the universe was filled with
protons, neutrons, electrons, neutrinos, and positrons. After the first
three minutes, the universe cooled down to a point where atomic
nuclei can form. Protons and neutrons combined to form atomic nuclei
such as deuterium.
However, the temperature of the universe was still much greater than
the binding energy of deuterium. Binding energy is the energy required
to break down a nucleus into its components. Therefore, deuterium
easily decayed upon formation.

Learn about it!

When the temperature cooled down below 10 K, deuterium nuclei
10

combined with other nuclei to form heavier ones.

Helium-3 was formed from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a
release of a neutron.

Tritium or hydrogen-3 was produced from the fusion of two deuterium

nuclei and a release of a proton.
Helium-4 was also synthesized from deuterium and helium-3.

Helium-4 was produced from the fusion of deuterium and tritium.

Learn about it!
For the first three minutes, a substantial amount of neutrons was
converted into helium-4 nuclei, before their decay. Helium then
combined to other nuclei to form heavier ones such as lithium-7 and
beryllium-7.

Lithium-7 was synthesized from helium-4 and tritium.

Beryllium-7 was produced from helium-3 and helium-4.

Among the light elements formed, deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and

lithium-7 were stable. Beryllium-7 was unstable and decayed
spontaneously to lithium-7.
What do you think?
How are elements heavier than beryllium formed?

Key Points
 Pieces of evidence that support the big bang theory are redshift,
cosmic microwave background radiation, and abundance of light
elements.
 Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of light element
formation.

 The light elements that formed after the big bang were helium,
deuterium, and trace amounts of lithium and beryllium.

 Deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable. On the

other hand, beryllium-7 was unstable and decayed spontaneously
to lithium-7.

The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation and

Evolution
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give evidence for and
describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and
evolution.

In the previous lesson, you have learned how the light elements –
hydrogen, helium, lithium, and beryllium, were formed during the big
bang nucleosynthesis.

How were elements heavier than beryllium formed?

Learn about it!

Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar
nucleosynthesis. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which
elements are formed within stars. The abundances of these elements
change as the stars evolve.

Evolution of Stars
The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse
of the dense regions of a molecular cloud. As the cloud collapses, the
fragments contract to form a stellar core called protostar. Due to
strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts and its temperature
increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K,
nuclear reactions begin. The reactions release positrons and neutrinos
which increase pressure and stop the contraction. When the
contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is reached, and the
protostar has become a main sequence star.

In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via
the proton-proton chain. When most of the hydrogen in the core is
fused into helium, fusion stops, and the pressure in the core
decreases. Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and
hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core
while hydrogen is converted to helium in the shell surrounding the
core. The star has become a red giant.
Learn about it!
When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to
carbon, then the rate of fusion decreases. Gravity again squeezes the
star. In a low-mass star (with mass less than twice the Sun’s mass),
there is not enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is
depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown off into
space. The only thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon core.
The star becomes awhite dwarf.

However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has

enough mass such that temperature and pressure increase to a point
where carbon fusion can occur. The star goes through a series of
stages where heavier elements are fused in the core and in the shells
around the core. The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion;
neon from oxygen fusion; magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from
magnesium fusion; and iron from silicon fusion. The star becomes a
multiple-shell red giant.

Learn about it!

The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion.
Elements lighter than iron can be fused because when two of these
elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass lower than the
sum of their masses. The missing mass is released as energy.
Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases energy.
However, this does not happen to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing
energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei requires an input of energy.
Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron can be produced in
a massive star, but no elements heavier than iron are produced.

When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the star
is doomed. Gravity squeezes the core until the star explodes and
releases a large amount of energy. The star explosion is called
a supernova.
Pieces of Evidence
The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the
early part of the 20th century provided a crucial piece of evidence to
support the star formation theory. Other pieces of evidence come from
the study of different stages of formation happening in different areas
in space and piecing them together to form a clearer picture.

Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different

stages of star formation. For instance, astronomers measure the IR
released by a protostar and compare it to the IR from a nearby area
with zero extinction. Extinction in astronomy means the absorption
and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by gases and dust
particles between an emitting astronomical object and an observer.
The IR measurements are then used to approximate the energy,
temperature, and pressure in the protostar.

Try it!
Research about the nuclear binding energy. Then explain why the
nuclear fusion reactions in massive stars stop in iron through the
concept of binding energy.

What do you think?

How are elements heavier than iron formed?

Key Points
 Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are
formed within stars.
 The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the
collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud.

 A protostar is a stellar core formed when the fragments of a

collapsed molecular cloud contract.

 A main sequence star is formed when gravitational equilibrium is

reached during the hydrogen fusion in a protostar.
  A red giant is a star that has used up its hydrogen supply in the
core and switched into the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in
the shell surrounding the core.

 A massive star becomes a multiple-shell red giant when the

elements oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, and iron are formed
in its core together with carbon, helium, and hydrogen.

 A supernova is a star that blows apart and releases a large

amount of energy.

 Evidence of star formation comes from studying IR emissions

from the different stages of star evolution.

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how elements
are formed in stars through nuclear fusion.

What are the nuclear fusion reactions that happen in the stellar cores?

Learn about it!

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed
in the cores and shells of the stars through nuclear fusion
reactions. Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter
elements to form heavier ones. It requires very high temperatures and
pressures. It is the reaction that fuels the stars since stars have very
high temperatures and pressures in their cores.

Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most abundant in space.

Thus, the formation of heavier elements starts with
hydrogen. Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that produces
energy in the stars. There are two dominant hydrogen burning
processes, the proton-proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO)
cycle.

Learn about it!

Proton-Proton Chain
The proton-proton chain is a series of thermonuclear reactions in the
stars. It is the main source of energy radiated by the sun and other
stars. It happens due to the large kinetic energies of the protons. If the
kinetic energies of the protons are high enough to overcome their
electrostatic repulsion, then proton-proton chain proceeds.

The sequence proceeds as follows:

1. The chain starts when two protons fuse. When the fused proton breaks,
one proton is transmuted into a neutron.
2. The proton and neutron then pairs, forming an isotope of hydrogen
calleddeuterium.

3. Another proton collides with a deuterium forming a helium-3 nucleus

and a gamma ray.

4. Finally, two helium-3 nuclei collide, and a helium-4 is created with the
release of two protons.
Learn about it!
Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle
For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is
the more favorable route in converting hydrogen to helium.

The cycle proceeds as follows:

1. Carbon-12 captures a proton and gives off a gamma ray, producing an

unstable nitrogen-13.
2. Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form carbon-13.

3. Carbon-13 captures a proton and releases a gamma ray to become

nitrogen-14.

4. Nitrogen-14 then captures another proton and releases a gamma ray to

produce oxygen-15.

5. Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay and becomes nitrogen-15.

6. Finally, nitrogen-15 captures a proton and gives off helium (alpha

particle) ending the cycle and returning to carbon-12.
Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle is a catalytic process.
Carbon-12 acts a catalyst for the cycle. It is used in the initial reaction
and is regenerated in the final one.

Try it!
Look at the periodic table of elements. Which elements are formed
during the big bang nucleosynthesis? Which elements are formed
during stellar nucleosynthesis?
What do you think?
Are there elements found in the outer space that are not present in the
earth?

Key Points
 Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter elements to
form heavier ones.
 Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that produces energy in
the stars. There are two dominant hydrogen burning processes,
the proton-proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.

 Proton-proton chain is a sequence of thermonuclear reactions in

the stars. It is the main source of energy radiated by the sun and
other stars.

 Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is a catalytic cycle of gamma

emission and beta decay that converts hydrogen into helium.

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how elements
heavier than iron is formed.

Nucleosynthesis is the process by which new nuclei are formed from

pre-existing or seed nuclei. In the previous lessons, you have learned
about the types of nucleosynthesis. The big bang nucleosynthesis
produced hydrogen and helium, whereas the stellar nucleosynthesis
produced elements up to iron in the core of the stars.
If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up to iron, then
what type of nucleosynthesis produced the elements heavier than
iron?

Learn about it!

The stellar nucleosynthesis produced nuclei that are heavier than
helium-4 by nuclear fusion. It started by fusing two helium-4 nuclei to
form beryllium-8 accompanied by a release of energy in the form of
gamma radiation (γγ). This process continues until nickel-56. However,
nickel-56 is unstable and undergoes positron (0+1β+10β) emission.
Recall that positron emission results in a nucleus with lower atomic
number.
AZx→AZ−1y+0+1βZAx→Z−1Ay++10β
A is mass number, Z is atomic number, x is the seed nucleus, and y is
the new nucleus formed.

Nickel-58 radioactively decomposes to a more stable iron-56 through

subsequent emission of two positrons.

5628Ni→5627Co+0+1β→5626Fe+0+1β2856Ni→2756Co++10β→2656Fe++10β

Learn about it!

The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56
because fusion reaction becomes unfavorable. This is because
the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy that holds the
nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different pathways
are needed for the synthesis of heavier nuclei.

Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture

processes.

Neutron Capture
In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. The addition
of neutron produces a heavier isotope of the element.

AZx+10n→A+1ZyZAx+01n→ZA+1y
For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.

5626Fe+310n→5926Fe2656Fe+301n→2659Fe
The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes beta (0−1β−10β)
decay. This decay results in an increase in the number of protons of
the nucleus by 1. Hence, a heavier nucleus is formed.
AZx→AZ+1y+0−1βZAx→Z+1Ay+−10β
Beta decay results in the formation of a new element. For example, the
unstable iron-59 undergoes beta decay to produce cobalt-59.

5926Fe→5927Co+0−1β

Learn about it!

Neutron capture can either be slow or rapid.

Slow neutron capture or s-process happens when there is a small

number of neutrons. It is termed slow because the rate of neutron
capture is slow compared to the rate of 0−1β−10β decay. Therefore, if
a 0−1β−10β decay occurs, it almost always occurs before another
neutron can be captured.
Rapid neutron capture or r-process, on the other hand, happens when
there is a large number of neutrons. It is termed rapid because the rate
of neutron capture is fast that an unstable nucleus may still be
combined with another neutron just before it
undergoes 0−1β−10β decay. The r-process is associated with a
supernova. The temperature after a supernova is tremendously high
that the neutrons are moving very fast. Because of their speed, they
can immediately combine with the already heavy isotopes. This kind of
nucleosynthesis is also called supernova nucleosynthesis.

Learn about it!

Proton Capture
Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a proton in the nucleus. It
happens after a supernova, when there is a tremendous amount of
energy available. It is because the addition of a proton to the nucleus
is not favorable because of Coulombic repulsion, which is the repulsive
force between particles with the same charge.

Proton capture produces a heavier nucleus that is different from the

seed nucleus.

AZx+11p→A+1Z+1y+γZAx+11p→Z+1A+1y+γ
For example, molybdenum-94 undergoes proton capture to produce
technetium-95.

9442Mo+11p→9543Tc+γ4294Mo+11p→4395Tc+γ

Try it!
Nuclei, stable or radioactive, may be a product of s-, r-, or p-process.
The nuclei produced by the s-process are called s-nuclei, whereas
those from r- and p-processes are called r- and p-nuclei, respectively.
Go over the web and look for the following nuclei and classify them as
s-, r-, or p-nucleus.

1. xenon-136
2. tellurium-122

3. barium-132

4. antimony-121

5. cesium-133

Tips
Big bang, stellar, and supernova nucleosynthesis are natural nuclear
transformation processes. These nuclear reactions are natural, that is,
they happen in nature. These processes produced the elements we
have in the periodic table. However, note that not all of the elements
are naturally occurring. Some of them are artificially made such as
Flerovium (Fl) and Livermorium (Lv).

What do you think?

What process is used for the production of the synthetic elements?

Key Points
 Fusion reactions cannot account for the synthesis of nuclei
heavier than 5626Fe2656Fe.
 Neutron and proton capture processes are responsible for the
synthesis of nuclei heavier than 5626Fe2656Fe.

 Seed nucleus is the starting material for the formation of heavier

isotopes or new nuclei.

 Neutron capture process can be either slow (s-process) or rapid

(r-process).

 Neutron capture process is often accompanied by

subsequent 0−1β−10β decay.

 The r-process and proton capture are processes that happen in a

supernova because a tremendous amount of energy is needed for
them to occur.

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the ideas of
the Ancient Greeks on atoms.

Can matter be infinitely divided into smaller particles?

Learn about it!

The Indivisible Atom
Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher Leucippus of
Miletus (c.500 B.C.) were Greek scholars who believed that matter
could be divided into tiny particles until such point where it can no
longer be divided anymore. They became the first proponents of the
atomic theory. Their early ideas on atoms are summarized below.

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms,

which come from the Greek word atomos meaning uncuttable.
The atoms are indestructible, impenetrable, and unchangeable.
2. The atoms make up the universe as they are continuously moving
in a “void” that surrounds them, repelling each other when they
collide, or combining into clusters.
3. Atoms are completely solid which means that there is no void or
empty space inside that will make them prone to disintegration
or destruction.
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature. They have no internal
structures.
5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes.
These proposed ideas about atoms were supported by some Greek
philosophers but were strongly opposed by others especially Aristotle.

Learn about it!

Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, had a different view on atoms. He
disregarded the existence of atoms proposed by Leucippus and
Democritus. He did not believe that matter is a collection of atoms.
Instead, he believed that everything in the universe is made up of the
four elements, air, fire, water, and earth. He stated that believing in
atoms would mean putting restriction on the gods, who have the power
to divide elements smaller than the atom.

Aristotle's beliefs greatly flourished especially in the Middle Ages in

Europe, where Roman Catholics were strongly influenced by his ideas.
They believed that ideas about the atoms equated to Godlessness.
Thus, the whole concept of the atom was dismissed for centuries.
However, the Greeks' concept of atoms and even Aristotle's arguments
were rediscovered in France at the start of the Renaissance period.
The theory of Aristotle was proven incorrect, and Democritus' and
Leucippus' theory on the existence of atoms was proven right.
Explore!
Choose one digital photo and zoom in. Can you see a group of tiny
squares? They are called pixels. How can you relate them to atoms?

Try it!
Get a piece of paper. Divide it into half as many times as you can. What
do you notice? How would you relate this activity to the concept of the
atoms?

What do you think?

Is the early idea of the existence of the atom true?

Key Points
 Democritus and Leucippus, ancient Greek philosophers, first
proposed the idea of the atom.
 Their theory states that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible
particles calledatoms.

 They believed that the atoms are very small, have different
shapes and sizes, are continuously moving, and can combine
with other atoms.

 Aristotle did not believe that matter is strictly a collection of

atoms, and that matter can be made of air, fire, water, or earth.

 Democritus’ idea on the existence of atoms was accepted, and

Aristotle’s argument was proven incorrect.

The Discovery of the Structure of the Atom and its Subatomic Particles
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the main ideas
in the discovery of the structure of the atom and its subatomic
particles.

In the previous lessons, you have learned that matter is composed of

atoms.

What is the structure of the atom?

Learn about it!

Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus developed the idea that
all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
However, their atomic theory was based only on assumptions. It was
not until the early 1800s that experiments were performed to develop
models for the structure of the atom.

In 1803, John Dalton, a British scientist, did experiments on mixtures

of gases. He studied how the properties of individual gases affect the
properties of the mixtures of these gases. He developed the
hypothesis that the sizes of the particles making up different gases
must be different. After several experiments, he concluded that all
matter is composed of spherical atoms, which cannot be broken down
into smaller pieces. He added that all atoms of one element are
identical to each other but different from the atoms of another
element.
Learn about it!
Discovery of the Subatomic Particles
The Electrons in the Plum Pudding Model

In 1897, Joseph John Thomson, a British physicist, proposed an atomic

model known as the plum pudding model. His model consisted of
negatively charged particles (plum) spread evenly throughout the
positively charged material (pudding). The small, negatively charged
particles are called electrons.

The Protons in the Planetary Model

In the early 1900s, Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born physicist,
established the planetary model which described the atom as small,
dense, and has a positively charged core called the nucleus. Inside the
nucleus are positively charged particles called the protons. The
nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles or electrons.
The electrostatic attraction between electrons and nucleus mimics
the gravitational force of attraction between planets and the sun.

The Neutrons

In 1923, James Chadwick proved the existence of the neutron, which is

also situated in the nucleus together with the proton. It has the same
mass as the proton but unlike the latter, it has no electric charge.

Learn about it!

Recent Atomic Models
Bohr’s Atomic Model

Rutherford’s model showed that the electrons and nucleus have

opposite charges which according to the laws of physics, will attract
each other. Thus, Rutherford's model would have electrons collapsing
into the nucleus, making the atom unstable. Niels Bohr solved this
problem by proposing that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set
energy levels. An electron absorbs energy if it moves from lower to
higher energy level, and it emits energy if it returns to the lower energy
level.

Quantum Mechanical Model

The quantum mechanical model of the atom states that a nucleus is

surrounded by a cloud of electrons called orbitals. It explains that it is
impossible to determine the exact location of the electron at a given
time, but one can find its probable location. It incorporates the
concept of Bohr’s model where the electrons move in one orbital to
another by absorbing or emitting energy.

Explore!
Look around your house. Try to think of Bohr’s discovery of energy
levels. What things can you find in your house that use the same
concept proposed by Bohr?

Try it!
Create a timeline on the discovery of subatomic particles and
development of the atomic theory. Who are the scientists who had
important contributions in atomic theory?

What do you think?

Based on Bohr's atomic model, what causes an electron to move from
one orbital to another?

Key Points
 John Dalton described the atom as spherical.
 Joseph John Thomson discovered the electron.

 Ernest Rutherford proposed that the electrons orbit around the

nucleus. He, together with his students, discovered the proton.

 Niels Bohr proposed that electrons orbit around the nucleus in

set energy levels.

 James Chadwick discovered the neutron.

 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus
in set energy levels.

 In the quantum mechanical model, the nucleus is surrounded by

a cloud of electrons called orbitals.

Understanding the Structure of Atom:The Contributions of J.J.

Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
Objective
In this lesson, you will be able to cite the contributions of Joseph John
Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the
understanding of the structure of the atom.

What are the contributions of Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson, Ernest

Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the
structure of the atom?

Learn about it!

J.J. Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron

In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electrons by conducting a series

of experiments using a high-vacuum cathode-ray tube that was
composed of negatively charged particles 1000 times lighter than the
hydrogen atom. He also proposed a sea of positive charge for the
overall neutrality of the atom. He then proposed an atomic model
known as the plum pudding model depicting a sphere of positive
charge (pudding) with negatively charged particles (plums) embedded
all throughout.

Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus containing

positively charged particles called protons. He advised his students,
Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, to bombard a thin sheet of gold foil
with alpha particles. He assumed that the alpha particles would just
pass straight through the foil, meaning an atom has a void space.
However, after the experiment, some particles passed right through it,
and some were deflected. He arrived at these two conclusions: (1) The
atom contained an empty space, as some particles went through the
foil; and (2) The atom had a very dense center of positive charge. From
these, Rutherford proposed the planetary model. He believed that the
electrons moved around a nucleus, which contained the protons.

Learn about it!

Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number

In 1913, Henry Moseley, a British chemist, developed the use of X-ray

in studying the structure of the atom. During this time, a coherent
structure of the atom was being developed, starting from J.J.
Thomson’s discovery of the electron to Rutherford’s publication of his
planetary model. He published results of his measurements of
wavelengths of the X-ray emissions of some elements that coincided
with the order of their atomic numbers. Moseley’s experimental data
backed up Rutherford’s structure of the atom with a very dense center
of positive charge. The data also justified that the atomic number of an
element is the number of positive charges in its nucleus.

Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model

If you would recall in magnetism, unlike charges attract. In

Rutherford’s model, since the electron and the nucleus have opposite
charges, the electrons would collapse into the nucleus, making the
atom unstable. Niels Bohr modified this model by proposing that the
electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits by absorbing or emitting
energy.

Try it!
Look at the periodic table. List down three elements with the lowest
atomic number and three with the highest atomic number. What does
the low and high atomic numbers signify?

What do you think?

What is the importance of knowing the atomic number of elements?

Key Points
 J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed the plum
pudding model.
 Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed the
planetary model.
  Henry Moseley used the X-rays in studying the structure of the
atom. The results of his experiments supported Rutherford's
model.

 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons move in fixed energy

levels or orbits.

The Nuclear Model of the Atom

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to describe the nuclear model of the
atom and the location of its major components (protons, neutrons, and
electrons).

If you have lived during the time when the atom was discovered, how
would you describe its structure?

Learn about it!

As subatomic particles were discovered, models for their arrangement
in the atom were developed. There was J. J. Thomson’s plum-pudding
model, which he proposed after his discovery of the electrons. Then
there was Ernest Rutherford’s planetary model, proposed after the
discovery of the protons in the nucleus.

The Nuclear Model

The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located
at the center of the atom. It contains protons and neutrons. Overall, it
is positively charged. It contains nearly all the mass of the atom. The
electrons orbit around it.
The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by
Rutherford.

Learn about it!

Geiger-Marsden Experiment
Under Rutherford's supervision, Hans Geiger, his assistant, and Ernest
Marsden, an undergraduate student, shot a narrow beam of alpha
particles at a very thin sheet of gold foil and measured the scattering
pattern on a fluorescent screen. It was observed that some particles
deflected, and others penetrated through the sheet of gold foil.
There was a force behind the deflections – the repulsion of the
positively charged alpha particles by a positively charged material. If
this charge existed in a sphere with the same size of the atom, the
force should have been weak. This led to the assumption that the
charge was concentrated in a small space or sphere.

Rutherford proposed that the positive charge, and the mass of the
atom were concentrated in a small part of the total volume of the atom
called the nucleus.

Learn about it!

Issues Involved in the Nuclear Model
The main problem in Rutherford's model was how the electrons
remained in their orbit without falling into the nucleus. Another
problem is the electron's continuous centripetal acceleration and the
energy lost through electromagnetic radiation. This energy would
make it approach the nucleus while increasing the electrostatic force.
The increase in force would increase the acceleration and the
emission of energy. Thus, the nucleus and the electrons would collide
with each other. This means that the atom would be unstable.

Explore!
Imagine you're holding two magnets with the same magnetic poles
(north to north poles or south to south poles). When you try to put the
magnets together, there is a force acting upon them which makes it
difficult to do so. The repulsion between the magnets represents the
forces between the alpha particles and the positively charged material
in the atom of the gold foil as presented in the Geiger-Marsden
experiment of Rutherford and his colleagues. What is the importance
of this scenario in studying the structure of the atom?

Try it!
Research on the succeeding studies about the nucleus and its
characteristics.
What do you think?
Rutherford postulated a neutral particle inside the nucleus. How did he
come into this conclusion?

Key Points
 The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and
located at the center of the atom. It contains protons and
neutrons.
 The nucleus is positively charged. It contains nearly all the mass
of the atom. The electrons orbit around it.

 The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done
by Rutherford.

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Elements

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the ideas of
the Ancient Greeks on the elements.

What were the early ideas of the Greeks on the elements?

Learn about it!

Many Greek philosophers tried to answer the question "What are the
primordial substances from which everything is made up of?" Some of
them believed that there was only one element that made up all
materials. Anaximenes thought that it was air;Heraclitus supposed it
was fire; Thales believed that it was water; and Xenophanusassumed it
was earth.
Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, are the
primordial substances. He called them roots.

Plato, the founder of the Academy in Athens (the first institution of

higher learning in the Western world), first used the term element. The
word element came from the Greek word “στοιχεῖον” (stoicheion) which
means smallest division.

Plato treated the four elements geometrically and named

them Platonic solids. Air was an octahedron; fire was a tetrahedron;
water was an icosahedron; and earth was a cube. He also added a fifth
one, a dodecahedron, which was the shape of the Universe.

Learn about it!

Aristotle, a student of Plato, described each element with two
qualities. He stated that air was wet and hot; fire was hot and dry;
water was wet and cold; and earth was dry and cold. He then added a
fifth element, aether. He thought aether was the finest of all
substances, the “quintessence,” associated with the heavenly realm. It
was neither hot nor cold and was neither wet nor dry.
What do you think?
What do you think were the bases of the Greek philosophers’ notions
of elements?

Key Points
 Some Greek philosophers believed that there was only one
element that made up all materials. Anaximenes thought that it
was air; Heraclitus supposed it was fire; Thales believed that it
was water; and Xenophanus assumed it was earth.
 Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth,
were the primordial substances.

 Plato first used the term element. He treated the four elements
geometrically and named them Platonic solids.

 Aristotle described each element using the qualities hot, cold,

wet, or dry. He also added a fifth element, aether.

The Contributions of the Alchemists to the Science of Chemistry

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to describe the contributions of the
alchemists to the science of chemistry.

Long before the fundamentals of chemistry were established, there

was alchemy.Alchemy was a speculative science with goals of finding
the elixir of life and the philosopher’s stone, which could transform
base metals into gold.

How did alchemy evolve into the science of chemistry?

Learn about it!

Alchemy was a protoscientific tradition practiced in Asia, Egypt, and
Europe.

Asian Alchemy
Alchemy developed independently in India. Major accomplishments of
Indian alchemists included isolation of metallic zinc, the invention of
steel, and use of flame to identify metals.

In China, alchemy was started by monks. The creation of gold was an

aim, but the ultimate goal was prolonging life. While trying to find the
elixir of life, the Chinese were able to invent gunpowder. Also, through
their experiments with sulfur, mercury, and arsenic, they were able to
create poisons such as mercuric sulfide.

In Baghdad, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, a famous Islamic alchemist, used

controlled experiments in his investigations. He was diligent in writing
his activities and observations. His works were the first to mention
silver nitrate and red oxide of mercury (mercuric oxide). His writings
also described a handful of laboratory techniques — distillation,
crystallization, reduction, calcination, dissolution, and sublimation.

Learn about it!

Egyptian Alchemy
Alchemy probably evolved from the Egyptian metallurgy, extending
back to 3500 B.C. Some of the Egyptian documents on alchemy
contained manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. They also
contained recipes for dyes and procedures for making artificial
gemstones and fabricating pearls. The recipes and procedures were
combined with the knowledge of the classical elements, air, fire, water,
and earth.

European Alchemy
Alchemy also thrived in Europe. One of the foremost alchemists
was Paracelsus, who believed that the organs of the body worked
alchemically. He proposed that the three essentials or tria prima, salt,
mercury, and sulfur, should be balanced to maintain health. He also
treated diseases with alchemical approach. He used inorganic salts,
minerals, and metals to treat illnesses. He also created laudanum, an
opium tincture used as a painkiller.

Learn about it!

The Death of Alchemy and the Beginning of Chemistry
As time passed by, the writings of alchemists became more and more
cryptic. They used unintelligible names for substances. They borrowed
symbols and words from myths. Even the simplest formula read like a
magic spell. Even though they used common techniques, alchemists
had no standardized scientific practice.

By the 17th century, alchemy began to decline, as the scientific

method was being established. Although alchemists failed in their lofty
goals, they left behind a rich knowledge of chemical information. They
contributed to the vast uses of chemicals such as inks, paints, and
cosmetics. They were able to create procedures to prepare liquors.
They developed porcelain material that became China’s most valuable
commodity. Their contributions had been valuable to advancing
civilization.

Nonetheless, alchemy had been crucial in the development of the field

of Chemistry.
Explore!
Imagine being an alchemist in the Ancient times. What would be your
probable contributions to alchemy?

What do you think?

One of the goals of alchemy was to transform a base metal (such as
nickel or copper) into gold. Why is it difficult with today’s technology?

Key Points
 Alchemy was a speculative science with goals of finding the
elixir of life and transforming base metals into gold.
 Alchemy was a protoscientific tradition practiced in Egypt, Asia,
and Europe.

 Although alchemists failed in their lofty goals, they left behind a

rich knowledge of chemical information.

 Alchemy had been crucial in the development of the field of

Chemistry.

The Atomic Number and the Synthesis of New Elements

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to explain how the concept of atomic
number led to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory.

How does the concept of the atomic number lead to the synthesis of
elements?

Learn about it!

Moseley’s X-ray Spectroscopy
Henry Gwyn-Jefferys Moseley was an English physicist who
demonstrated that theatomic number, the number of protons in an
atom, determines most of the properties of an element. He began his
study of radioactivity in Ernest Rutherford’s laboratory but later
decided to explore more on X-rays.

In 1913, Moseley published a paper on the arrangement of the

elements in the Periodic table based on their atomic numbers. He used
X-ray spectroscopy to determine the atomic number of an element. He
bombarded a beam of electrons to different elements and measured
their X-ray spectral lines. His results clearly showed that frequency of
the X-rays given off by an element was mathematically related to the
position of that element in the Periodic table. The frequency is
proportional to the charge of the nucleus, or the atomic number.

When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers,

there were four gaps in the table. These gaps corresponded to the
atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were later
synthesized in the laboratory through nuclear transmutations.

Learn about it!

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear
transmutation reaction — a reaction involving the transformation of
one element or isotope into another element. He bombarded alpha
particles from radium directed to the nitrogen nuclei. He showed that
the nitrogen nuclei reacted to the alpha particles to form an oxygen
nuclei. The reaction is written as

147N+42He→178O+11H714N+24He→817O+11H
However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively
charged, so they tend to repel each other. Therefore, instead of using
fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing new elements, atomic
nuclei are often bombarded with neutrons (neutral particles) in
particle accelerators.
Learn about it!
The Discovery of the Missing Elements
Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table
corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Two of these
elements were synthesized in the laboratory using particle
accelerators.

A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons

to overcome the repulsion between the protons and the target atomic
nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize
new elements.

In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized element with

atomic number 43 using a linear particle accelerator. He bombarded
molybdenum (Z=42) with fast-moving neutrons. The newly synthesized
element was named Technetium (Tc) after the Greek word "technêtos"
meaning “artificial.” Tc was the first man-made element.

In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered

element with atomic number 85. They bombarded atoms of bismuth
(Z=83) with fast-moving alpha particles in a cyclotron. A cyclotron is a
particle accelerator that uses alternating electric field to accelerate
particles that move in a spiral path in the presence of a magnetic field.
Element-85 was named astatine from the Greek word “astatos”
meaning unstable.

The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were

discovered through studies in radioactivity. Element-61 (Promethium)
was discovered as a decay product of the fission of uranium while
element-87 (Francium) was discovered as a breakdown product of
uranium.

Learn about it!

Synthesis of New Elements
In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic
number 92. Early in 1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an element
having an atomic number 93 could be created. He used a particle
accelerator to bombard uranium with neutrons and created an element
with an atomic number 93 which he named neptunium.

At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized

by Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy, andWahl. They bombarded uranium
with deuterons (particles composed of a proton and a neutron) in a
cyclotron. Element-94 was named plutonium.

Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of

uranium) are calledtransuranium elements. Hence, neptunium and
plutonium are both transuranium elements. They are unstable and
decay radioactively into other elements. All of these elements were
discovered in the laboratory as artificially generated synthetic
elements. They are prepared using nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators. In the next lesson, you will learn the nuclear reactions
involved in the synthesis of these transuranium elements.

Try it!
Research on the latest instruments used in preparing new elements in
the laboratory. What were the instruments used in preparing the
newest four elements, nihonium, moscovium, tennessine, and
oganesson?

What do you think?

Why do scientists study and synthesize new transuranium elements in
the laboratory? What are the uses of these elements?

Key Points
 The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged
particles) in an atom.
 Henry Gwyn-Jefferys Moseley was an English physicist who
demonstrated that the atomic number, the number of protons in
an atom, determines most of the properties of an element.
  In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear
transmutation reaction — a process of transforming one element
or isotope into another element.

 In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table

corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87.
Elements with atomic numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized using
particle accelerators.

 A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the

protons to overcome the repulsion between the protons and the
target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is
used to synthesize new elements.

 Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number

of uranium) are called transuranium elements. They were
discovered in the laboratory using nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators.

The Nuclear Reactions Involved in the Synthesis of New Elements

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to write the nuclear reactions
involved in the synthesis of new elements.

Nuclear reaction is the process where two nuclei collide to produce

new nuclei. There are two types of nuclear reaction: nuclear
transmutation and nuclear decay reaction.

What happens during nuclear transmutation?

Learn about it!

Nuclear Transmutation
A nuclear transmutation is a reaction involving the transformation of
one element into another element. It happens when a nucleus reacts
with a subatomic particle to produce a more massive nucleus. It
occurs only on special conditions such as the collision of the target
nuclei with a beam of particles with high energies.

In 1919, the first successful transmutation was done by Rutherford. He

bombarded nitrogen nuclei with alpha particles to form oxygen nuclei.
In the next decades, other nuclear reactions were discovered by
bombarding other elements with alpha particles. However, since these
particles have a strong repulsive force with the target nuclei (both are
positively charged), the progress in discovering elements was slow.
Scientists then tried other particles with higher energies. In 1932,
major advancements in nuclear reactions took place. Particle
accelerators, which use a projectile of high-energy particles, were
invented.

Transuranium Elements

Transuranium elements are elements whose atomic numbers are

greater than 92. They are all unstable and undergo radioactive decay.
Many of the transuranium elements were prepared using particle
accelerators, and much of this work was facilitated by a group of
scientists led by the American chemist, Glenn Theodore Seaborg, and
later, nuclear scientist Albert Ghiorso in the University of California.

The most effective way of preparing transuranium elements

specifically in the lower members of the series (elements 93 to 95),
was through nitrogen bombardment. As for the heavier transuranium
elements (96 to 101), they were generally prepared with high-energy
positive ions which include the use of deuterons, carbon nuclei, and
ions.

Examples
Neptunium (Z = 93)

The first transuranium element was identified by Edwin McMillan and

Philip Abelson in 1940. It was named neptunium, bearing an atomic
number of 93. They acquired the radioactive isotope of neptunium
through the bombardment of uranium oxide with slow neutrons. This
reaction can be represented as
[%\;{}_{92}^{238}\mathrm U\;+\;{}_0^1\mathrm
n\;\rightarrow{}_{93}^{239}\mathrm{Np}\;+\;{}_{-1}^0\mathrm\beta%]

Plutonium (Z = 94)

After the discovery of Np, the decay of this element led to the
239

discovery of another element, bearing an atomic number of 94.

Seaborg, together with McMillan, Wahl, and Kennedy bombarded
uranium with deuterons to form Np, with a half-life of two days, which
238

then decayed into Pu, with a half life of 92 days. The reactions can be
238

represented as

[%\;{}_{92}^{238}\mathrm U\;+\;{}_1^2\mathrm D\;\;\rightarrow\;

{}_{93}^{238}\mathrm{Np}\;\;+\;2\;{}_1^0\mathrm n\;%]

[%{}_{93}^{238}\mathrm{Np}\;\rightarrow\;{}_{94}^{238}\mathrm{Pu}\;+
{}_{-1}^0\mathrm\beta%]

Learn about it!

Nuclear Decay Reaction
Nuclear decay reaction, also known as radioactive decay, is a reaction
in which the nucleus emits radiation and transforms into a new
nucleus. The parent nuclei are unstable, and the resulting daughter
nuclei are more stable, having lower mass and energy. Transuranium
elements are unstable that they undergo radioactive decay resulting in
more stable elements.

The nuclear decay reactions involved in the synthesis of transuranium

elements are alpha decay, beta decay, and spontaneous fission.

Alpha Decay

The alpha decay is a reaction that emits helium-4 nucleus or alpha

particle, [%{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha%]. This decay produces a daughter
nucleus with an atomic number reduced by two, and a mass number
reduced by four compared with the parent nucleus. Most nuclei with
mass numbers greater than 200 undergo this type of decay. The
general reaction can be represented as
[%\;{}_\mathrm Z^\mathrm A\mathrm X\;\rightarrow\;{}_{\mathrm Z-
2}^{\mathrm A-4}\mathrm Y\;+\;{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha\;%]

where A is the mass number, Z is the atomic number, X represents the

parent nucleus, and Y represents the daughter nucleus.

For example, neptunium-237, the most abundant isotope of neptunium,

undergoes alpha decay to form protactinium-233. The nuclear reaction
is represented as

[%\begin{array}{l}
{}_{93}^{237}\mathrm{Ne}\rightarrow{}_{91}^{233}\mathrm{Pa}+
{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha\\\end{array}%]

Beta Decay

In beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton and emits an

electron in the form of a beta particle. The atomic number goes up by
one while its mass number remains the same. The general reaction
can be represented as

[%\;{}_\mathrm Z^\mathrm A\mathrm X\;\rightarrow\;{}_{\mathrm

Z+1}^\mathrm A\mathrm Y\;+\;{}_{-1}^0\mathrm\beta%]

For example, curium-249 undergoes decay by beta particle emission to

form berkelium-249. The balanced equation for this reaction is
represented as

[%\begin{array}{l}{}_{96}^{249}\mathrm{Cm}\rightarrow\end{array}
{}_{97}^{249}\mathrm{Bk}+{}_{-1}^0\mathrm\beta%]

Spontaneous Fission

In spontaneous fission, the nucleus breaks into pieces into different

atomic numbers and mass numbers. This occurs in very massive
nuclei. For instance, californium-254 undergoes spontaneous fission,
making various sets of fission products. One possible set can be
represented as

[%{}_{98}^{254}\mathrm{Cf}\rightarrow{}_{46}^{118}\mathrm{Pd}\;+
{}_{52}^{132}\mathrm{Te}\;+\;{}_0^4\mathrm n%]
Tip
In nuclear reactions, the parent nucleus is on the left side of the
equation. The daughter nucleus and the emitted particle are on the
right side. The number of nuclei is always conserved.

Try it!
Problem 1: Plutonium-242 undergoes alpha decay. The reaction is represented as

[%{}_a^{242}\mathrm{Pu}\rightarrow{}_{92}^\mathrm b\mathrm U+{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha%]

What are the values of a and b in the balanced equation?

Problem 2: Fermium-256 undergoes [%\underline{\hspace{3cm}} %]. The reaction is

represented as

[%{}_{100}^{256}\mathrm{Fm}\rightarrow{}_{54}^{140}\mathrm{Xe}+
{}_{46}^{112}\mathrm{Pd}+4{}_0^1\mathrm n%]

Try it! Solution

Solution to Problem 1: When plutonium-242 undergoes alpha decay, the reaction produces a
daughter nucleus with an atomic number less than two and a mass number reduced by four
compared to the parent nucleus, [%{}_{94}^{234}\mathrm{Pu}%]. Hence, [%
{}_{94}^{234}\mathrm{Pu}%] decays to [%{}_{92}^{238}\mathrm U%]. The balanced
equation is represented as

[%{}_{92}^{242}\mathrm{Pu}\rightarrow{}_{91}^{238}\mathrm U+{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha%]

The value of a is 92 while the value of b is 238.

Solution to Problem 2: Fermium-256 has a massive nuclei. Nuclei with mass number greater
than 200 tend to undergo alpha emission, but even heavier nuclei undergoes spontaneous fission.
[%{}_{100}^{256}\mathrm{Fm}%] can undergo both of these reactions. Based on the given
equation, [%{}_{100}^{256}\mathrm{Fm}%] had fission products, xenon, palladium, and
neutrons. Therefore, [%{}_{100}^{256}\mathrm{Fm}%] had undergone spontaneous fission.

Try it!
Write the balanced equation that describe the given reactions.

1. the alpha decay of [%{}_{98}^{252}\mathrm{Cf}%]

2. the spontaneous fission of [%{}_{95}^{243}\mathrm{Am}%]

What do you think?

Can less massive elements, such as lead, be transformed into gold
through particle accelerators?

Try it!
Write the balanced equation that describe the given reactions.

1. the alpha decay of [%{}_{98}^{252}\mathrm{Cf}%]

2. the spontaneous fission of [%{}_{95}^{243}\mathrm{Am}%]

What do you think?

Can less massive elements, such as lead, be transformed into gold
through particle accelerators?

Key Points
 Nuclear reaction is the process where two nuclei collide to
produce new ones.
 There are two types of nuclear reaction: nuclear transmutation
and nuclear decay reaction.

 Nuclear transmutation is a reaction involving the transformation

of one element or isotope into another element. This process
occurs only in special conditions such as the collision of target
nuclei with a beam of particles with high energies.

 Transuranium elements are elements whose atomic numbers are

greater than 92. They are all unstable and undergo radioactive
decay.
  High-energy positive ions which include the use of deuterons,
carbon nuclei, and ions are used for synthesizing massive nuclei.

 Nuclear decay reaction is a reaction in which the nucleus of an

element emits radiation and transforms into another nucleus.

 The nuclear decay reactions involved in the synthesis of

transuranium elements are alpha decay, beta decay, and
spontaneous fission.

 Alpha decay produces daughter nucleus with an atomic number

reduced by two and a mass number reduced by four compared
with the parent nucleus.

 In beta decay, the atomic number of the nucleus increases by

one while its mass number remains the same.

 In spontaneous fission, several fission products are produced

from the parent nucleus. The sum of their mass numbers is equal
to the mass number of the parent nucleus. Similarly, the sum of
their atomic numbers is equal to the atomic number of the parent
nucleus.

Understanding the Concept of the Chemical Elements: The

Contributions of John Dalton
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Objectives
In this lesson, you will be able to cite the contributions of John Dalton
toward the understanding of the concept of the chemical elements and
explain how Dalton’s theory contributed to the discovery of other
elements.

Who is John Dalton? What are his contributions to the concept of

chemical elements?

Learn about it!

Dalton’s Atomic Theory
John Dalton was an English chemist known for his pioneering work in
the development of the atomic theory. In his theory, he proposed that
elements differ due to the mass of their atoms.

The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are:

1. All matter is composed of very small, indivisible particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical in properties and masses but
differ from another element’s.

3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.

4. Atoms of the same or different elements may combine with each other
in a fixed, whole number ratios.

5. Atoms may combine, separate, or rearrange in chemical reactions.

The atomic theory had been revised over the years with the discovery
of isotopes, subatomic particles, and nuclear reactions. However,
Dalton’s atomic theory has been widely recognized because it became
the foundation of the modern concept of the atom.

Learn about it!

Dalton’s Atomic Theory
John Dalton was an English chemist known for his pioneering work in
the development of the atomic theory. In his theory, he proposed that
elements differ due to the mass of their atoms.

The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are:

1. All matter is composed of very small, indivisible particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical in properties and masses but
differ from another element’s.

3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.

4. Atoms of the same or different elements may combine with each other
in a fixed, whole number ratios.

5. Atoms may combine, separate, or rearrange in chemical reactions.

The atomic theory had been revised over the years with the discovery
of isotopes, subatomic particles, and nuclear reactions. However,
Dalton’s atomic theory has been widely recognized because it became
the foundation of the modern concept of the atom.

Learn about it!

Dalton's Table of Elements
Dalton published his atomic theory in New System of Chemical
Philosophy. Back then, he needed to propose a new set of standard
symbols for chemical elements because the Greeks' and alchemists'
symbols for elements were not supported by his theory. He first
published his table of elements according to increasing relative atomic
weights. The elements were hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,
and phosphorus. He assumed that the atomic weight of hydrogen was
one, and calculated the rest of the elements' atomic weights based on
hydrogen. After more experiments, he listed 20 elements with different
symbols and atomic weights.
Learn about it!
Law of Multiple Proportions
In 1806, French chemist Joseph Proust published his law of definite
proportions. This law states that a chemical compound is formed by
elements in fixed mass ratios. For example, carbon monoxide
([%\mathrm{CO}%]) is comprised of one carbon and one oxygen. By
mass, carbon monoxide can be described by the fix ratio of 12:16
(mass of carbon:mass of oxygen), and simplified as 3:4.

Expanding on the work of Proust, Dalton developed the law of multiple

proportions. This law was based on Dalton's observations of the
reactions of atmospheric gases. It states that when two or more
elements can form multiple combinations, the ratio of the elements in
those compounds can be expressed in small, whole numbers. For
example, carbon and oxygen can combine to form carbon monoxide
([%\mathrm{CO}%]) and carbon dioxide ([%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]). In
[%\mathrm{CO}%], the ratio of carbon to oxygen is 1:1. It is a fixed
ratio of whole numbers. In [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%], the fixed ratio is 1:2.

Dalton used this law to explain possible combinations of atoms. He

published seventeen compounds in the New System of Chemical
Philosophy. He listed the compounds as binary, ternary, quaternary,
quinquenary, sextenary, and septenary.

A binary compound is formed by two elements. For example, two atoms

of azote (nitrogen) may combine to form a binary compound.

A ternary compound is formed by three atoms. For example, when one

atom of nitrogen combines with two atoms of oxygen, then the
resulting compound, nitrogen dioxide, is ternary.

Similarly, quarternary compounds are made of four

atoms; quinquenary are made of five; sextenary are made of six;
and septenary are made of seven.

Dalton’s system of naming elements and compounds were then

replaced with the chemical symbols and formulae by Jons Berzelius.
Berzelius’ symbols are the ones we use today.

Try it!
Using Dalton’s symbols of elements, draw the symbol for each
compound.

1. Methane, [%{\mathrm{CH}}_4%]
2. Sulfur dioxide, [%{\mathrm{SO}}_2%]

3. Water, [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

Which notation is easier to memorize, Dalton’s or Berzelius’?

What do you think?

Why are the chemical symbols and formulae we use today different
with those proposed by Dalton?

Key Points
 John Dalton developed the atomic theory, which has been widely
recognized because it became the foundation of the modern
concept of the atom.
 Dalton published his atomic theory together with his symbols of
chemical elements in the New System of Chemical Philosophy.

 Dalton developed the law of multiple proportions, which states

that atoms of elements combine in small whole numbers, not in
fraction numbers, to form a number of possible compounds.

The Polarity of a Molecule Based on Its Structure

THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to determine if a molecule
is polar or nonpolar given its structure.

In your previous Chemistry lessons, you have learned that a molecule

has a certain shape or geometry.
Did you know that such molecule may exhibit polarity based on its 3-
dimensional shape?

Learn about it!

There are millions of different molecules, and there are many ways to
sort them. One way to classify them is based on
polarity. Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and a negative end.
Based on polarity, molecules can be polar or nonpolar.

Polar molecules have dipoles. Their dipole moments do not add up to

zero (or do not cancel out). Water and carbon monoxide are examples
of polar molecules.

Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their dipole

moments add up to zero (they cancel out). Carbon tetrachloride and
methane are examples of nonpolar molecules.

Generally, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on:

 its structure or shape

 the polarity of the individual bonds present in the molecule

Learn about it!

Steps in Determining the Polarity of a Molecule

1. Draw the correct Lewis structure and molecular geometry of the

molecule.
2. Identify the polarity of each bond present in the molecule. A bond
is polar when the atoms in the bond have different
electronegativities. Recall thatelectronegativity is the measure
of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons.
(You may use the periodic table to determine the
electronegativity values of the atoms.)
 3. Draw the dipole moment vectors for polar bonds. The dipole
moment vector points to the more electronegative atom.

4. Determine the sum of the dipole moment vectors. If the dipole

moments cancel out each other, the molecule is nonpolar;
otherwise, it is polar.

Examples
Example 1

Carbon dioxide ([%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]) is the gas that you exhale.

1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:

2. Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. Therefore, the C—O

bonds are polar.
3. Since [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] has a linear symmetrical structure,
the dipole moments of the C—O bonds cancel out.
[%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] is a nonpolar molecule.
Example 2

Sulfur dioxide ([%{\mathrm{SO}}_2%]) is a colorless toxic gas formed by

burning sulfur in air.

1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:

2. Oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur. Therefore, the S—O

bonds are polar.
3. Since the molecule is bent-shaped, the dipole moments do not
cancel out.

[%{\mathrm{SO}}_2%] is a polar molecule.

Tip
Note that the shape or structure does not directly determine whether
the molecule is polar or nonpolar. However, you need to know the
shape of the molecule to know if the dipole moments cancel out.

Explore!
Consider the examples below to help you understand the concept of
polarity.

Below are the images of a magnet bar, a block of wood, and a battery.
Which of the three show(s) polarity?

Try it!
Ammonia ([%{\mathrm{NH}}_3%]) is a colorless gas. A solution of
ammonia in water is used as a cleaning agent. Determine if ammonia
is polar or nonpolar.

What do you think?

Are all linear molecules polar? Why or why not?

Key Points
 Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and a negative end.
Based on polarity, molecules can be polar or nonpolar.
 Polar molecules have dipoles. Their dipole moments do not add
up to zero (or do not cancel out).
 Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their
dipole moments add up to zero (they cancel out).
  In general, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based
on the shape of the molecule and the polarity of the individual
bonds present in the molecule.

The Properties of a Molecule Based on Its Polarity

THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the polarity of a
molecule to its properties.

Why is sucrose (table sugar) soluble in water? In the previous lesson,

you have learned that both sucrose and water are polar molecules.

In this lesson, you will continue to learn about polar and nonpolar
molecules. But this time, you will relate the polarity of the molecules
to their observable properties.

Learn about it!

The properties of the molecules are related to their polarity. To
understand the relationship, you must be able to describe the force of
attraction between the molecules.

Polar molecules have partially positive and negative ends. When two
polar molecules are near each other, the negative end of one molecule
is attracted to the positive end of the other. The separation of charges
result in a strong force of attraction between the molecules.

On the other hand, nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative

ends. Between two neighboring nonpolar molecules, the attraction is
very minimal.

How do you relate the strength of attraction between the molecules to

their observable properties?

Solubility
Do you remember the rule of thumb “like dissolves like” in your
previous Chemistry lessons? This rule is applied on the concept of
solubility of molecules. Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents. For
example, sucrose is soluble in water because both of them are polar
molecules. On the other hand, nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar
solvents. For example, hexane ([%{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_{14}%])
and benzene ([%{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_6%]) are nonpolar
molecules because they only contain nonpolar C-H bonds. The
combination of these molecules form a solution.

Learn about it!

Melting point

Melting point is the temperature at which a solid turns into liquid. Heat
is needed to break the forces of attraction between the molecules.
Because the polar molecules have relatively stronger forces of
attraction compared to nonpolar ones, greater amount of heat must be
applied to break these forces. Therefore, in general, polar molecules
have higher melting points than nonpolar molecules. For example,
hydrogen fluoride ([%\mathrm{HF}%]) is polar while fluorine ([%
{\mathrm F}_2%]) is nonpolar. [%\mathrm{HF}%] has higher melting
point than [%{\mathrm F}_2%].

Boiling point

Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid turns into gas.

Similar to melting point, greater amount of heat is needed to break the
forces of attraction of polar molecules compared to nonpolar ones.
Generally, polar molecules have higher boiling points than nonpolar
molecules. For example, methanol ([%{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{OH}%])
is a polar molecule while methane ([%{\mathrm{CH}}_4%]) is nonpolar.
The boiling of [%{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{OH}%] is higher than that of
[%{\mathrm{CH}}_4%].

Example
Study the illustrations below to compare a polar and a nonpolar
molecule.
Water molecules are polar. The partially negative end of one molecule
is attracted to the partially positive end of another molecule.

Carbon dioxide molecules are nonpolar. There is a minimal force of

attraction between the molecules.

Based on the interaction of molecules, water is expected to have

higher melting and boiling points than carbon dioxide.

Below are the actual melting and boiling points of the compounds.
Try it!
Predict which has higher boiling point, water or corn oil.

Place a cup of water in a beaker or a pan. Then heat it using a hot

plate or stove. Place a thermometer in the liquid and record the
temperature at which it starts to boil. Repeat the experiment, but this
time, use corn oil instead of water.

Is your prediction correct? Explain the results of your experiment.

Tips
Molecular weight is also a factor in assessing the melting and boiling
points of molecules. For example, carbon monoxide ([%\mathrm{CO}%])
is a polar molecule. However, it has a lower boiling point ([%-
191.5\;^\circ\mathrm C%]) compared to hexane
([%\mathrm{BP}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm
H}_{14}\;=\;68\;^\circ\mathrm C%]) because its molecular weight is
much lower. You will learn more about this in the next lessons.

What do you think?

Why is ethanol ([%{\mathrm C}_2{\mathrm H}_6\mathrm O%]) soluble in
water? What products in the market use the solution of ethanol and
water?

Key Points
 Polar molecules have stronger attractive forces compared to
nonpolar molecules.
  In general, polar molecules have higher boiling and melting
points compared to nonpolar ones.

 “Like dissolves like.” Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents

while nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents.

Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the general
types of intermolecular forces of attraction.

What are the types of intermolecular forces that can be present

between molecules?

Learn about it!

Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces present between
molecules. Generally, they are called van der Waals forces, named
after the Dutch scientist Johannes van der Waals.

The different types of intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) are:

 London dispersion forces (LDF)

 Dipole-dipole forces

 Hydrogen bonding

Learn about it!

London dispersion forces

 present in all molecules

 caused by fluctuations in the electron distribution within atoms
or molecules
  weak type of IMFA

Example
In a nonpolar molecule, such as [%{\mathrm O}_2%], there are no
positive or negative ends. However, the electrons of this molecule are
constantly moving. There are times when electrons move to one end,
making such end partially negative while the other end becomes
partially positive. Hence, the molecule can have an instantaneous
dipole.

The temporary dipole of a molecule induces instantaneous dipoles on

neighboring molecules.

Tip
In assessing the relative strengths of London dispersion forces
between two different substances, compare their molecular weight
and size. Larger and more massive molecules are more polarizable (i.e.
they have a greater tendency to have distorted electron clouds) and
have stronger IMFA.

Learn about it!

Dipole-dipole forces
  attractive forces between polar molecules
 result of the electrical interactions among dipoles on neighboring
molecules

 moderately strong type of IMFA

Example
HCl is a polar molecule. It has partially positive and partially negative
ends.

The partially positive end of the molecule is attracted to the partially

negative side of another molecule.
Tip
In assessing the relative strengths of dipole-dipole forces between two
different substances, compare their polarities. A more polar substance
will have stronger dipole–dipole forces compared to a less polar one.

Learn about it!

Hydrogen bonding

 a special kind of dipole-dipole force

 an attractive force between a hydrogen atom of one molecule
and a highly electronegative atom (O, N, or F) of another molecule

 strongest type of IMFA

Example
Consider the water molecule, [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%].
The hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the oxygen atom of
another molecule.
Try it!
Identify the types of intermolecular forces present between molecules
of the following substances:

1. [%{\mathrm{CCl}}_4%]
2. [%\mathrm{HF}%]

3. [%\mathrm{HI}%]

Tips
 The intermolecular forces discussed here are all attractive in
nature. However, keep in mind that repulsive forces also exist
between molecules.
 A compound can have more than one type of IMFA.

What do you think?

During respiration, we inhale oxygen gas ([%{\mathrm O}_2%]) and
exhale carbon dioxide ([%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]). Why do you think these
compounds exist as gases at room temperature?

Key Points
 Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces between
molecules.
 The three types of IMFA are London dispersion forces, dipole-
dipole forces, and hydrogen bonding.
The Properties of a Substance as Effect of Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
Recall the different types of intermolecular forces of attraction:

 London dispersion forces (LDF) – present in all molecules

 Dipole – dipole forces – present in polar molecules

 Hydrogen bonding – present in molecules with a hydrogen bonded

to an electronegative atom (O, N, or F)

How are these intermolecular forces related to the observable

properties of different substances?

Learn about it!

The properties of molecules depend on the type and strength of their
intermolecular forces of attraction.

Properties Dependent on IMFA

Phase at room temperature

When molecules have strong intermolecular forces of attraction, they
are packed close together. They often exist as condensed phase (solid
or liquid) at room temperature.

When molecules have weak intermolecular forces of attraction, they

are far apart from each other. They often exist as gas at room
temperature.

Solubility

Solubility refers to the ability of a substance to dissolve in a given

amount of solvent at a specified temperature. Recall the rule “like
dissolves like.” When the solute and the solvent both exhibit the same
intermolecular forces of attraction, they form a solution.

Learn about it!

Melting point

Melting point is the temperature at which the substance changes from

solid to liquid. Stronger intermolecular forces means greater amount of
energy is needed to break the attractive forces between
molecules. Substances with stronger IMFA have higher melting
points compared to those with weaker IMFA.

Boiling point

Boiling point is the temperature at which the substance changes from

liquid to gas. Similar to melting point, stronger intermolecular forces
means greater amount of energy is needed to break the attractive
forces between molecules. Substances with stronger IMFA have higher
boiling points compared to those with weaker IMFA.

Surface Tension

Surface Tension is the tendency of a fluid to acquire the least possible

surface area.
Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces will exert greater
cohesive forces and acquire less surface area (higher surface tension)
than those with weaker IMFA.
Viscosity

Viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Molecules

with stronger intermolecular forces have greater resistance to flow,
and thus, higher viscositycompared to those with weaker IMFA.

Vapor Pressure

Vapor Pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with

its liquid phase in a closed system. Molecules with stronger
intermolecular forces have less tendency to escape as gas, and
thus lower vapor pressure compared to those with weaker IMFA.

Learn about it!

Strengths of Intermolecular Forces

When comparing the strengths of intermolecular forces, check the

difference in molecular weight. If the difference is too large (>1000),
then generally, the molecule with greater molecular weight has
stronger intermolecular forces. Otherwise, you may use the following
strategy:

1. Check which molecule exhibits hydrogen bonding. This molecule

will have stronger intermolecular forces.
2. Check which molecule is polar. Polar molecules have stronger
intermolecular forces.

3. Compare London dispersion forces. More massive molecules have

stronger intermolecular forces.
Examples
Example 1

Which has higher boiling point, [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O\;%]or [%

{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm S%]?

Answer:

[%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O\;%]exhibits hydrogen bonding. It has

stronger intermolecular forces. Therefore, it has higher boiling point
than [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm S%].

Example 2

Which is most likely solid, [%{\mathrm F}_2%] or [%{\mathrm I}_2%]?

Answer:

Both fluorine and iodine are nonpolar molecules. They exhibit London
dispersion forces only. Because iodine has higher molecular mass, it
has stronger London dispersion forces. It is most likely to be solid.
(Indeed, [%{\mathrm I}_2%] is solid while [%{\mathrm F}_2%] is gas at
room temperature.

Try it!
Compare the intramolecular forces of attraction present in the
following compounds and answer the questions.

1. Which has higher melting point, [%\mathrm{HBr}%] or

[%\mathrm{HF}%]?
2. Which is most likely gas at room temperature, [%
{\mathrm{CH}}_4%] or [%{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{Cl}%]?

What do you think?

What do you think are the intermolecular forces of attraction present
in sucrose (table sugar)?
Why is this compound soluble in water?

Key Points
 The properties of molecules depend on the type and strength of
their intermolecular forces of attraction.
 “Like dissolves like.” When the solute and the solvent both exhibit
same intermolecular forces of attraction, they form a solution.

 When comparing properties, stronger intermolecular forces result

in higher boiling and melting points, higher viscosity, higher
surface tension, and lower vapor pressure.

 Increasing strengths of IMFA: London dispersion forces, Dipole-

dipole forces, H-bonding

The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and

Structures: Medical Implants
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the properties
and structures of medical implants to their function.

Atoms and molecules combine to form hundreds of thousands of

different materials people use every day. The properties of these
materials are influenced by their chemical structures. In turn, their
properties determine their uses.

In this lesson, you will focus on the materials used for medical
implants. How are the basic structures of implants related to their
properties and uses?

Learn about it!

A medical implant is a chemical substance or a device used to replace,
support, or improve a part of the human body. It should be stable, inert,
heat-resistant, biocompatible, and long-lasting.

Materials Used for Medical Implants

In general, the materials used for implants can be categorized into

three, namely,metals, ceramics, and polymers.

Metals

Metals have particles that are held together by strong metallic bonds.
They are strong and durable. They are also good conductors of
electricity because of the free flowing electrons.
Alloys are combinations of one or more metals held together by
metallic bonds. They contain atoms that have different sizes, which
distort the regular arrangement of atoms. This distortion makes it
more difficult for the layers of atoms to slide over each other, so alloys
are harder and stronger than most pure metals.

Examples
Alloys are often used for load-bearing implants because of their high
strength, durability, and inertness. For example, stainless steel is one
of the most common alloys used in orthopaedic implants, which are
medical devices that can replace a missing joint or support a damaged
bone.

Pure metals can also be used as implants. Pure titanium is best used
as a pacemaker case. A pacemaker is a device which uses electrical
impulses to regulate heart beats. Titanium is used because of its high
resistance to corrosion and superior biocompatibility.
Learn about it!
Ceramics

Ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic solids with ionic or covalent

bonds. They are commonly used in dental implants, such as crowns,
cement, and dentures. They are hard, inert, and durable materials.

Example
Zirconia ceramic ([%{\mathrm{ZrO}}_2%]) is a crystalline solid held
together by covalent bonds. The strong bonds and the regularity of the
crystalline structure give rise to the high strength and toughness of
the material.
Zirconia is often used in restorative crowns because of its
biocompatibility and smooth surface finish.

Learn about it!

Polymers

Polymers are molecules with a large number of repeating units of

covalently bonded chain of atoms. They are versatile biomaterials with
applications on facial, orthopaedic, and dental prosthesis.
Example
A common polymer used in implants is silicone. Silicone is polymerized
siloxanes. It contains silicone-oxygen backbone chain with organic
side groups bonded to the silicon atoms.

Silicone has a long polymer chain. The intermolecular forces of

attraction between the chains are very strong. Therefore, silicone has
high strength and durability. Also, its long chains can uncoil and slide
past each other, making the material flexible.

Because of its strength and flexibility, silicone is often used to replace

original joint surfaces.
Try it!
Interview a person that works in the medical field (e.g. nurse, doctor,
dentist) or someone who has experience with medical implants. Try to
find out the pros and cons of having medical implants and the proper
ways of taking care of them.

What do you think?

What are the properties of materials used for bone replacements?

Key Points
 Medical implants are substances or devices used to replace,
support or enhance a biological part of the human body.
 Materials used for medical implants can be categorized into
three types: metals, ceramics, and polymers.

 Metals for implants can be pure or alloys (combinations of one or

more metals). They are held together by metallic bonds.

 Ceramics are made up of inorganic and nonmetallic atoms held

together by ionic or covalent bonds.

 Polymers are molecules with a large number of repeating units of

covalently bonded chain of atoms.

The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and

Structures: Sports Equipments
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the properties
and structures of sports equipment to their function.
In this lesson, you will learn about the different materials used in
making sports equipment. How are the basic structures of sports
equipment related to their properties and uses?

Learn about it!

Sports equipment is any necessary item that is used to play sports,
can be a game equipment (ball, racket, net) or a player's equipment
(shoes, pads, clothes).

Materials Used for Sports Equipment

In the field of sports, material selection is very important for the

success and performance of any athlete. The characteristics of the
materials should include strength and durability for each sports
equipment to perform its purpose well.

In general, the materials used in making sports equipment are also the
same with the materials in making medical implants. It can also be
categorized into three types:metals, ceramics, and polymers. However,
some of the materials also are made of natural materials like wood.

Metals

Metals are composed of particles held together by strong metallic

bonds, making them strong and durable.

Examples
Alloys are usually used in sports equipment that requires strength or
stiffness in weight performance. They are made of two or more metals
and other substances which improve the strength, hardness, durability,
formability, and tensile strength of the metal. For example, aluminum
alloy is one of the most common alloys used in the frameset of a
bicycle. This material does not only support the weight of the person
but also provide a lightweight feel without sacrificing its durability.
Stainless steel is commonly used in making golf clubs. Titanium
alloys are used in making baseball bats over wood because some
players tend to break the bats after hitting the baseball.

Learn about it!

Ceramics

Ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic solids with ionic or covalent

bonds. They are commonly used in sports equipment parts that receive
impact. They are lightweight, durable, and has wear resistance than
many plastic materials.

Example
Ceramic fibers are not traditionally used in sports equipment. However,
with the advancement and innovation of manufacturers, they have
developed sports equipment and parts which contain ceramics. For
example, carbon-ceramic rotors are used in race car brakes. The
ceramics used together with carbon makes the car breaks lightweight
as well as durable.

Ceramic fibers are also used in several head tennis racquets which
add power whenever hitting the ball.
Learn about it!
Polymers

Polymers have molecules with a large number of repeating units of

covalently bonded chain of atoms. They are used to make protective
sports equipment. They are known for durability and flexibility.

Example
Polycarbonate is a strong, shatter-free polymer that is usually found in
protective sports equipment such as in biking and equestrian
competitions. They can be also seen in protective visors and
sunglasses as well as swimming goggles.

Polyurethane is commonly used in soccer balls. It is a synthetic

material that coats the leather material in the ball and protects it from
damages like tears, scuffs, and scratches.
Try it!
Research about other sports equipment. Find out what are the
innovations and advancements made the materials used in making
these equipment.

What do you think?

What are the different properties of the materials used in making a
baseball bat?

Key Points
 Sports equipment is any necessary item that is used to play
sports, can be a game equipment (ball, racket, net) or a player's
equipment (shoes, pads, clothes).
 In general, the materials used in making sports equipment are
also the same with the materials in making medical implants. It
can also be categorized into three types: metals, ceramics, and
polymers.

 Metals are composed of particles held together by strong

metallic bonds, making them strong and durable.
  Ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic solids held together by ionic
or covalent bonds which make them lightweight, durable, and has
wear resistance than many plastic materials.

 Polymers are molecules with a large number of repeating units of

covalently bonded chain of atoms which are usually used in
making protective sports equipment .

The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and

Structures: Electronic Devices
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the properties
and structures of electronic devices to their uses.

In the age of technology, almost everyone owns a device that has

electronic devices, such as capacitors, inductors, and resistors.

Have you ever wondered what materials make up the electronic

devices?

Learn about it!

Electronic devices are components for controlling the flow of electrons
or electricity. Common examples include capacitors, inductors, and
resistors. They are often small and combined into packages
called integrated circuits.

Capacitors

A capacitor stores electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. It

has two electrical plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric is an
insulator that stores energy when polarized.
The electrical plates are made of conductive materials, such as metals
and electrolytes. On the other hand, the nonconducting dielectrics are
often made of ceramic, plastic film, and glass.

Example
Film capacitors are the most common type of capacitors. Their
dielectrics are made of plastic films, such as polystyrene. Polystyrene,
a synthetic polymer made from the monomer styrene, has no free
flowing electrons, so it has superior insulating properties.

On the other hand, metals like aluminum are used as electrical plates
in film capacitors. Metals have free flowing electrons, so they are good
conductors of electricity. Long thin strips of the metal foil with the
dielectric material are sandwiched together and then wound into a
tight roll.
Learn about it!
Inductors

An inductor resists changes in electric current passing through it. It is

often comprised of conductors wound into a magnetic core. When an
electric current passes through its coil, it produces a magnetic field,
which in turn produces electric current. In other words, an inductor
stores energy on the basis of reactive magnetic flux.

Example
A typical inductor has copper wires, which are good electrical
conductors, wound around a magnetic iron or ferrite core. Ferrites are
ceramic materials comprised of iron oxides combined with nickel, zinc,
or manganese compounds. They have high magnetic permeability and
high electrical resistivity.

Learn about it!

Resistors

A resistor reduces the amount of current and lowers the voltage levels
within circuits. The reduction in current or voltage results in the
transformation of electrical energy into heat. A resistor is necessary in
devices that need circuit adjustments, such as those that need control
of volume or dimming of light.

Example
The most common type of resistor is the carbon resistors, which are
cheap general purpose resistors. They are mainly composed of a
mixture of conducting graphite or carbon powder and a nonconducting
ceramic powder.
The resistive value of the resistor depends on the ratio of graphite to
ceramic (conductor to insulator). If the amount of carbon is higher,
then the overall resistance is lower. The mixture is then placed in an
insulating material with metal wires connected to each end.

What do you think?

Why do scientists and engineers need to study the properties of
different materials used in electronic devices?

Key Points
 Electronic devices are components for controlling the flow of
electrons or electricity.
 A capacitor stores electrical energy temporarily in an electric
field. It has two electrical plates separated by a dielectric. The
dielectric is an insulator that stores energy when polarized.

 An inductor resists changes in electric current passing through

it. It is often comprised of conductors wound into a magnetic
core.

 A resistor reduces the amount of current and lowers the voltage

levels within circuits. It is often comprised of a mixture of
conductors and insulators.
The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and
Structures: Construction Supplies
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the properties
and structures of construction materials to their uses.

In the previous lessons, you have learned about the uses of metals,
ceramics, and polymers in medical implants, sports equipment, and
electronic devices. In this lesson, you will learn about the uses of
these materials in construction supplies.

What are the properties of materials considered in designing and

building homes, schools, and other infrastructures?

Learn about it!

Materials Used for Construction Supplies

In general, the materials used for construction supplies can be

categorized into three, namely, metals, ceramics, and polymers.

Metals

Metals are strong and durable construction materials because of the

strong metallic bonding between metal atoms. They have a wide range
of applications in construction, including roofing, drainage
components, and handrails.

As the structural framework of buildings, metals should be durable and

corrosion resistant. Corrosion, the process by which something
deteriorates because of oxidation, is a major factor in assessing the
longevity of the metallic material.

Example
Steel is one of the oldest known construction material. It is an alloy
composed primarily of iron and carbon. It is widely used in
construction because of its high tensile strength and low cost.

When chromium is added to steel, the alloy is referred to as stainless

steel. The addition of about 10.5 to 30% chromium gives rise to
superior corrosion- and stain-resistant properties.

Steel forms iron oxide (rust) in the presence of oxygen. In comparison,

stainless steel does not form rust. Instead, it spontaneously forms a
chromium oxide layer on its surface on contact with oxygen. This
passive layer is impermeable and has the ability to repair itself.

Learn about it!

Ceramics

Ceramics are inorganic, nonmetallic materials comprised of metal,

nonmetal, or semimetal atoms held together by ionic or covalent
bonds. These materials are often used in the construction industry.
They are used as abrasive, flooring, roofing and wall tiles, and
countertops.

Example
Silicon carbide (SC) is a compound of silicon and carbon. It is a
nonmetallic ceramic material that behaves almost like a diamond. It is
the lightest and the hardest ceramic material. It has high tear
resistance. It is also highly resistant to strong acids and bases.

SC is a construction supply and is often used as an abrasive because

of its high tear resistance and durability. An abrasive is a material that
finishes a workpiece through rubbing. For instance, SC is used in
stripping and finishing flooring materials, such as wood.

Learn about it!

Polymers

Polymers are large molecules with repeating units called monomers.

They have a wide range of applications in construction including
flooring, windows pipes, insulation, and signage. For instance, plastics,
which are synthetic polymers that can be molded or extruded into
different shapes, are used as the replacement for glass and metal
pipes.

Example
Polymethylmethacrylate or acrylic is a synthetic polymer of methyl
methacrylate.
Acrylic has high molecular weight and strong London dispersion
forces. It is a shatterproof and transparent plastic. Hence, it is used as
a replacement for glass.

Like glass, acrylic can be molded into different shapes. Granules of

acrylic are poured into a machine that heats them up. As the
temperature of the polymer is increased, intermolecular forces are
disrupted turning the polymer into a viscous liquid. At high
temperatures, it can be placed in molds and upon cooling, it solidifies
having the shape of its container.

Try it!
Take a look around your school. Observe your classroom, canteen,
library, and the rest of the school buildings. Do you recognize any
construction materials made of metals? How about those made of
polymers and ceramics?
What do you think?
What are the properties of materials used for walls and flooring?

Key Points
 Metals, which are materials held together by strong metallic
bonds, are used as roofing, drainage components, and handrails.
 Ceramics, which are inorganic, nonmetallic materials held
together by ionic or covalent bonds, are often used in the
construction industry as abrasive, flooring, roofing and wall tiles,
and countertops.

 Polymers, which are large molecules with repeating units, have a

wide range of applications in construction including flooring,
windows pipes, insulation, and signage.

The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and

Structures: Household Gadgets
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the properties
and structures of household gadgets to their uses.

Household appliances or gadgets are electrical and/or mechanical

machines which can (1) accomplish some household functions such as
cooking; (2) make the living space more comfortable by cooling the
surroundings; or (3) provide entertainment.

What are the materials used in making household appliances? How are
the properties of these materials determine their uses?

Learn about it!

Cooking Appliances

Cooking appliances are used to heat food ingredients during the

cooking process. Examples include toaster, oven, boiler, coffee maker,
hot plate, and rice cooker. Most of the cooking appliances are powered
by electricity. Hence, they are mostly made of electrical conductors
such as steel, aluminum, and copper. To protect the users from electric
shock, their handles are often made of polymers for electrical
insulation.

Example
An oven toaster is an appliance that uses electricity to heat and toast
bread. An important part of the toaster is the heating element.
The heating element is often made of nichrome wire, which is an alloy
of nickel and chromium. It converts electricity into heat through a
process called resistive heating. Electric current passes through the
element and encounters resistance. Because of the resistance, the
electrical energy is converted into heat. Nichrome is an ideal material
for heating element because of its high resistance. It also forms a thin
layer of chromium oxide when it is heated for the first time. This layer
protects the nichrome from breaking or burning out.

Learn about it!

Cooling Appliances

Cooling appliances are used to lower the temperature and circulate

the air in a room. They are often used during hot weather to make the
living space more comfortable. Electric fans and air conditioners are
examples of cooling appliances. They are powered by electricity so
many of their components are made of metals. Their covers are often
made of polymers or plastics.

Example
An electric fan is an appliance that uses rotating blades (or paddles) to
circulate air. Unlike an air conditioner, a fan does not cool air. However,
it produces a cooling effect by moving the air around the room. The
moving air or breeze allows your skin to evaporate sweat faster,
cooling your skin.

An important part of an electric fan is the motor, which converts

electric energy into mechanical energy, often through an interaction of
magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. Copper is a metal
commonly used in coil windings, bearings, and connectors of motors
because of its high electrical conductivity (due to its free flowing
electrons), high electrical efficiency, and low cost.
The motor is then attached to the fan blades through a shaft. The
blades are often made of wood, iron, aluminum, or plastic. It is
important for the blades to be light, durable, tough, and easily molded
or cut into shapes.

Learn about it!

Home Electronics

Consumer electronics or home electronics are equipment intended for

everyday use. They are often used for entertainment. They include
television, DVD players, video recorders, and video game consoles.
They have software embedded within the hardware of electronic
components.

Example
Most home electronics have electronic panel displays. A typical
example of material used in display is the liquid-crystal display (LCD).
LCD is made up of liquid crystal, a state of matter between solid and
liquid. A liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules are
oriented in a crystal-like manner.
If you look closely on an LCD TV screen, you will notice that the
images are made of millions of tiny blocks called pixels (picture
elements). Each pixel can be switched on or off very rapidly to make
the images move. These pixels are controlled electronically using
liquid crystals.

Try it!
Select one household appliance that you often use at home or in
school. Research how it was invented and how it works. Also, find out
what materials are used to build it. Then design a future version of
that appliance.

What do you think?

Why is it necessary to continue the research on materials that can be
used for the manufacturing of household devices?

Key Points
 Household appliances or gadgets are electrical and/or
mechanical machines which can (1) accomplish some household
functions such as cooking; (2) make the living space more
comfortable by cooling the surroundings; and/or (3) provide
entertainment.
 Many appliances are powered by electricity so they are mostly
made of electrical conductors such as metals and alloys.
Polymers are used in covers and handles as electrical insulation.

 Most home electronics have electronic panel displays made up of

liquid crystals, a state of matter between solid and liquid.
The Structures, Properties, and Functions of Biomolecules
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the
structures of biological macromolecules such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids determine their properties and
functions.

Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s

processes, such as respiration and metabolism. There are numerous
biomolecules with different structures and functions. They are
generally classified into four major groups – proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, and nucleic acids.

In this lesson, you will look into the general structure, properties, and
functions of each of these groups of biomolecules.

Learn about it!

Proteins

Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. Amino

acids are organic molecules that have a central carbon atom bonded
to four different groups — an amino group ([%-{\mathrm{NH}}_2%]), an
acidic carboxyl group ([%-\mathrm{COOH}%]), a hydrogen atom, and a
variable side chain, R. The side chain can range from a single hydrogen
atom to complex ring structures.
In a protein, the amino acids are linked via a peptide bond. This
peptide bond is formed between an amino group of one amino acid and
an acid carboxyl group of another amino acid. A chain of two or more
amino acids linked together by peptide bonds is called a peptide.

The smallest protein has about 50 amino acids. However, large

proteins can have as many as 1000 amino acids, arranged in any
possible sequence. It is estimated that human cells can create
between 80 000 to 100 000 different proteins.

The shape of a protein is important so that it can carry out its

function. Long chains of amino acids fold into a unique three-
dimensional shape. Some areas of the protein may twirl into helices,
like the coils of a telephone cord. Other areas may be repeatedly bent
into a pleated sheet, like the folds of an accordion. An important
intermolecular force of attraction that dictate and maintain the shape
of a protein is the hydrogen bonding.

Properties
Proteins can participate in neutral, acidic, or basic reactions because
their amino acids have an acidic carboxyl end and a basic amino end.
The amino acids are amphotericwhich means they can function either
as an acid or a base. Also, proteins have high molecular weights
because they are comprised of many amino acids.

Functions

The sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s shape and

function. Proteins play many important roles in living cells. They can
hasten chemical reactions, transport substances, and provide
structural support.

Many proteins function as enzymes, which are molecules that catalyze

or speed up chemical reactions in the body. The reactant molecules
bind to the active site of the enzymes, where they react to form
products. Enzymes have shapes that are highly specific for their
functions. A slight change to their structures will inhibit them to do
their function.

Transport proteins carry small particles throughout the body. For

example, the protein haemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood from the
lungs to the rest of the body. An important part of hemoglobin is its
iron group (called heme), the part to which oxygen binds.

Structural proteins are fibrous proteins which have long, thin

structures. A typical example of a structural protein is keratin, which
is a component of the protective covering of most animals – hair, nails,
skin or feathers.

Learn about it!

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen,

and oxygen. They have a general formula of [%{\mathrm C}_\mathrm
n{\mathrm H}_{2\mathrm n}{\mathrm O}_\mathrm n%]. They can be
grouped depending on the number of their monomer units
called saccharides.
Carbohydrates can be divided into three major groups:
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They contain

either five or six carbon atoms. They have open-chain and cyclic forms.
A typical example of monosaccharide is glucose, [%{\mathrm
C}_6{\mathrm H}_{12}{\mathrm O}_6%], one of the products of
photosynthesis in plants.

Disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded to each other. The

monosaccharides are linked through an ether ([%\mathrm C-\mathrm
O-\mathrm C%]) group. A common example of a disaccharide is the
sweetener sucrose, or table sugar. Sucrose is formed by glucose and
fructose.
Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units. They are
also calledcomplex carbohydrates. Similar to disaccharides, the
monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are linked through an ether
bond. An example of a polysaccharide is starch, which is used to store
energy in plants. It is comprised solely of glucose subunits.

Properties

Monosaccharides and disaccharides are small molecules with multiple

polar groups so they are water soluble. Because they exhibit hydrogen
bonding in their structures, they have high melting points.

In comparison, polysaccharides are less soluble due to their large

sizes and complex shapes. For example, starch and glycogen are both
insoluble in water. On the other hand, cellulose, also water-insoluble,
cannot be digested by humans because the appropriate enzyme to
breakdown cellulose into simpler monosaccharides is lacking. Hence,
nutritionists call cellulose as dietary fiber because it just passes
through the digestive system unchanged.

Functions

The main function of carbohydrates is to store and provide energy.

They are broken down into smaller glucose units that can be easily
absorbed by the cells. When glucose is further broken down, the
energy released by breaking its chemical bonds are used or stored by
the body in the form of glycogen.

Some carbohydrates also serve as the framework of cellular

structures. For example, cellulose makes up the cell wall of plant cells.
Chitin, another carbohydrate, forms the exoskeleton of arthropods and
the cell wall of fungal cells.

Learn about it!

Lipids

Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules. They are mainly composed of

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Unlike proteins and carbohydrates,
lipids are not polymers with repeating monomer subunits. They have
many kinds including triglycerides, waxes, and steroids.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are lipids composed of glycerol and fatty

acids. Glycerol is a molecule with three carbons, each containing a
hydroxyl ([%-\mathrm{OH}%]) group while fatty acid is a long chain of
carboxylic acid.

When three fatty acids bond to glycerol, they form ester bonds.
Triglycerides can be solid or liquid at room temperature. If solid at
room temperature, they are called fats. Fats, such as lard and butter,
are produced by animals. If liquid at room temperature, they are
called oils. Oils, such as coconut and olive oils, are produced by plants.

Waxes

Waxes are lipids that are composed of a fatty acid with a long chain of
alcohol. They are produced by both plants and animals. Plants often
produce wax that coats their leaves which prevents them from drying
out. Animals such as bees also produce wax. Bees create their
honeycomb structures from beeswax.
Steroids

Steroids are lipids without fatty acid chains. Instead, they have
multiple rings in their structures. They are built from the basic four-
ring steroid structure.

An example of a steroid is dietary lipid cholesterol. Cholesterol is the

precursor of hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. Recall that
hormones are molecules that communicate between organs to
regulate physiology and behavior.

Properties

Lipids such as triglycerides and waxes are mostly made of nonpolar

hydrocarbon chains, making them generally insoluble in water. The
hydrocarbon chains are the “hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails” of
lipids. On the other hand, their hydroxyl, ester, and ether groups can
interact with water. These groups are called “hydrophilic (water-loving)
heads.” When lipids are mixed with water, they arrange themselves in a
spherical form called a micelle.
Functions

Lipids are the reserved sources of energy. The energy stored in their
bonds is used by the body for fuel. When the energy is abundant, cells
store the excess energy in the fatty acids of triglycerides.

Lipids like waxes are used as a protective coating of organisms.

Because they are hydrophobic, lipids protect plants and animals from
drying out by controlling evaporation.

Learn about it!

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids, discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869, are

biomolecules that are made up of repeating units of
nucleotides. Nucleotides are monomers with three components, a 5-
carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The
nucleotides are linked through phosphodiester bonds.
If the sugar is ribose, then the nucleotides make up the ribonucleic
acid (RNA). On the other hand, if the sugar is deoxyribose, then the
nucleotides make up thedeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Both DNA and
RNA have nitrogenous bases. The five common nitrogenous bases are
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).
Properties

DNA and RNA are very stable molecules because of the stacking
interaction between their hydrophobic parts. Also, hydrogen bonding
present between the polar parts of the molecule plays a role in
maintaining the structure of the nucleic acid.

Functions

DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and

functioning of organisms. This genetic information is converted by the
RNA into amino acid sequences of proteins. RNA has three
types, messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), andtransfer
RNA (tRNA). The mRNA carries the genetic sequence information
between the DNA and ribosomes. In ribosomes, proteins are
synthesized. The rRNA catalyzes the peptide bond formation while the
tRNA serve as the carrier molecules of the amino acids that make up
the protein.

Try it!
A concept map is a graphic organizer that illustrates the connection
between terms, ideas, concepts, and processes. Make a concept map
of the four types of biomolecules and their properties and functions.

What do you think?

How are nucleic acids related to proteins? What will happen to the
protein being synthesized in the ribosomes if an error occurs in the
genetic information passed from the DNA to the RNA?

Key Points
 Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to
life’s processes. They are generally classified into four major
groups – proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
 Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. The
sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s shape and
 function. In the human body, proteins hasten chemical reactions,
transport substances, and provide structural support.

 Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen. They have a general formula of [%{\mathrm
C}_\mathrm n{\mathrm H}_{2\mathrm n}{\mathrm O}_\mathrm n%].
Their functions are to store energy and serve as the framework of
cellular structures.

 Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules mainly composed of

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They function as reserved sources
of energy and protective coating of organisms.

 Nucleic acids are biomolecules that are made up of repeating

units of nucleotides, which are made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. They encode, transmit,
and express genetic information.

The Collision Theory and Factors Affecting the Rate of a Chemical

Reaction
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain the collision
theory and describe the factors affecting the rate of reaction such as
concentration, temperature, and particle size.

Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that studies reaction

rates and factors affecting rates.

Chemical reactions happen when the reactants collide. But will all
collisions result in a reaction or are there requirements for a reaction
to occur after collision?

Learn about it!

According to the collision theory, the rate of a chemical reaction is
directly proportional to the number of collisions between the
reactants. However, only those which collide effectively will result in a
chemical reaction. For an effective collision to happen, the following
conditions should be met by the reactants:

1. They must be properly oriented when they collide.

2. They must be energetic enough to surpass the activation energy
or the energy barrier.

Proper Orientation

Consider the reaction [%2\mathrm{CO}\;+\;{\mathrm

O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] which has an activation energy
of [%277\;\frac{\mathrm{kJ}}{\mathrm{mol}}%].

Above are the structures of [%\mathrm{CO}%] and [%{\mathrm O}_2%]

(grey = C, red = O), and below are three possible ways the molecules
can collide with one another:

Among the collisions (A, B, and C), only B is expected to proceed in a

reaction because it is the one which is properly oriented. This is based
on the fact that this collision is expected to form a bond between the C
atom of [%\mathrm{CO}%] and O atom of [%{\mathrm O}_2%] which is
what is seen from the structure of [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] (shown
below).

Because the molecules are not properly oriented in Collisions A and C,

they will not lead to the formation of the product.

Learn about it!

Energy Higher than Activation Energy

The activation energy or the energy barrier is the energy needed to be

surpassed by the reactants for a reaction to occur. When the energy
barrier is higher, the reaction is slower.

It should be noted that not all properly oriented collisions have enough
energy to result in the transformation of the reactants. The kinetic
energy of the reactants should be high enough to exceed the activation
energy. Therefore, for [%\mathrm{CO}%] to react with [%{\mathrm
O}_2%], the kinetic energy of the reactants should be greater than
[%277\;\frac{\mathrm{kJ}}{\mathrm{mol}}%].

Try it!
Consider the reaction [%{\mathrm N}_2\;+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;
{\mathrm N}_2{\mathrm O}_2%]. Refer to the structures of [%{\mathrm
N}_2%], [%{\mathrm O}_2%], and [%{\mathrm N}_2{\mathrm O}_2%]
below (blue = N, red = O):
Make a diagram showing the correct orientation of collision between
the reactants to form the product.

Learn about it!

Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction

The three factors that can affect the rate of a chemical reaction are
concentration of reactants, temperature, and particle size.

Concentration

An increase in concentration increases the rate of reaction.

Reason: Concentration is the number of molecules present in a

specified volume. When the concentration is high, more particles are
present; therefore, there is a higher frequency of effective collisions.

Temperature

An increase in temperature increases the rate of reaction.

Reason: Energy is applied to increase the temperature. The added

energy provides additional kinetic energy to the reactant molecules.
Higher kinetic energies means greater frequency of effective
collisions.

Particle size

The smaller the particle, the faster the rate of reaction.

Reason: Smaller particles have larger surface area. The greater the
surface area, the more sites of collision there will be.
Try it!
Determine which condition (A or B) will make the reaction go faster.

Try it! Solution

What do you think?

Another factor that increases reaction rate is the presence of a
catalyst. A catalyst is a chemical species that participates in the
reaction but does not get used up. How does a catalyst speed up the
reaction?

Key Points
 According to the collision theory, the rate of reaction is directly
proportional to the number of collisions between the reactants.
  An effective collision is characterized by reactants colliding with
proper orientation and enough energy to surpass the activation
energy.

 The activation energy or energy barrier is the energy needed to

be surpassed by the reactants so that they will be transformed
into products.

 There are three factors that affect the rate of the reaction:
1) concentration, 2)temperature, and 3) particle size.

 Increasing the concentration or the temperature of the reaction

leads to an increase in reaction rate. On the other hand,
decreasing the particle size increases the reaction rate.

Catalysts: How Reaction Rate Is Affected

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to define catalyst and
describe how it affects the reaction rate.

Reaction rate is the change in the concentration of reactant or product

per unit of time. In the previous lesson, you have learned that the
concentration of reactants, temperature, and particle size are factors
affecting the reaction rate. In this lesson, you will learn about the
catalyst, which is another factor affecting the rate of a chemical
reaction.

What is a catalyst? How does it affect reaction rates?

Learn about it!

A catalyst is a substance that increases the reaction rate without
being consumed by the reaction. It provides a new pathway for the
reaction, one which has a lower activation energy.
Consider the points A and B separated by a cliff.

The way to get from points A to B is to go around the cliff following the
red path. It would take a lot of time and energy to reach point B.

What happens when a bridge is built between points A and B?

The path from Point A to B is shorter so it would take less time to
reach point B. In addition, there is less energy required to reach point
B.

Similarly, in chemical reactions, reactants (A) are combined to form

products (B).

[%\mathrm A\rightarrow\mathrm B%]

For uncatalyzed reactions (red path), the time it takes for the reaction
to be completed is relatively longer. However, for catalyzed reactions,
the catalysts (bridge) speed up the reaction by providing an alternate
path with less required energy for reactants to turn into products.

Learn about it!

Mechanism of Catalysis

A catalyzed reaction often involves a series of steps.

1. Bonding – The catalyst forms a bond with the reacting molecules.

2. Reaction – The reacting molecules combine or rearrange to form
the product.

3. Separation – The product separates from the catalyst.

After separation, the catalyst is free again to form a bond with other
reacting molecules.
Energy Diagram of a Catalyzed Reaction

Below is the energy diagram for a chemical reaction. The red line
represents the uncatalyzed reaction while the blue one is the
catalyzed reaction. Notice that the energies of the reactants and the
products are the same for both catalyzed and uncatalyzed
reactions. What is the difference between a catalyzed and an
uncatalyzed reaction? The catalyzed reaction has lower activation
energy or energy barrier. When there is less energy required for a
reaction to proceed, then the reacting molecules will form the
products in less time.
Learn about it!
Types of Catalysts

A catalyst can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.

A homogeneous catalyst exists in the same phase as the reaction it

catalyzes. It is often in gas or liquid phase. For example, the
decomposition of ozone in the atmosphere is catalyzed by chlorine
atoms.

[%\mathrm{Cl}+{\mathrm O}_3\rightarrow{\mathrm{ClO}}_3%]

[%{\mathrm{ClO}}_3\rightarrow\mathrm{ClO}+{\mathrm O}_2%]

[%\mathrm{ClO}+\mathrm O\rightarrow\mathrm{Cl}+{\mathrm O}_2%]

Overall reaction: [%{\mathrm O}_3+\mathrm O\rightarrow{\mathrm

O}_2%]

The chlorine atom is a catalyst that is regenerated at the end of the

reaction.

A heterogeneous catalyst exists in a different phase as the reaction it

catalyzes. It often involves gaseous reactant molecules being
adsorbed on a solid catalyst surface. For example, gaseous ethylene is
hydrogenated to form ethane in the presence of a palladium catalyst.
Learn about it!
Enzymes

Enzymes are homogeneous, highly specific, and efficient biological

catalysts. They speed up biological reactions even at relatively low
temperatures within the body. They have a shape-specific active
site that forms bonds with the reacting molecules calledsubstrates.
The substrates react and form the product, which then detaches from
the catalyst.
Example
An example of an enzyme is sucrase, which catalyzes the hydrolysis of
sucrose to glucose and fructose. The first step of the catalysis is the
binding between the enzyme sucrase and the substrate sucrose. In the
second step, the presence of water hydrolyzes or breaks sucrose into
glucose and fructose. The third step involves the release of the
products. In the fourth step, the active site of the sucrase is available
for another molecule of sucrose.

Tips
How do you identify a catalyst in a chemical reaction? Recall that
catalysts are substances that are not consumed in the reaction, or
they are regenerated at the end of the reaction.

For example, the esterification reaction of acetic acid ([%

{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{COOH}%]) and methanol ([%
{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{OH}%]) is an acid-catalyzed reaction.
[%{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{COOH}+{\mathrm H}_3\mathrm O^++
{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{OH}\;\rightarrow{\mathrm{CH}}_3{\mathrm{COO
CH}}_3+{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O+{\mathrm H}_3\mathrm O^+%]

The hydronium ion, [%{\mathrm H}_3\mathrm O^+%], is present both in

the reactant and product sides of the reaction. It is part of the
chemical reaction, but it is regenerated after product formation.

What do you think?

Some reactions are reversible, meaning that a reactant A, can be
converted into product B. In the reverse reaction, B is the reactant that
can be turned into a product A.

[%\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\
;\;\;\;\;\mathrm A\leftrightarrow\mathrm B%]

What will be the effect of adding a catalyst for this reaction? Will it
increase the rate of the forward reaction? How about for the reverse
reaction?

Key Points
 A catalyst is a substance that increases the reaction rate
without being consumed by the reaction.
 A catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by lowering the
activation energy of a reaction.

 A homogeneous catalyst exists in the same phase as the

reaction it catalyzes.

 A heterogeneous catalyst exists in a different phase as the

reaction it catalyzes.

 Enzymes are homogeneous, highly specific, and efficient

biological catalysts.
Calculating the Amount of Reactants and Products in a Chemical
Reaction
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to calculate the amount of
reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships between

the amounts of reactants used and amounts of products formed in a
chemical reaction.

Consider the formation of water from the reaction between [%{\mathrm

H}_2%] and [%{\mathrm O}_2%].

[%2{\mathrm H}_2\;+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O%]

How many moles of water can be formed from two moles of hydrogen
gas?

Learn about it!

Mole Ratios

The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation indicate the

relationships between the moles of reactants and products. They are
used to express the mole ratios. Mole ratios are ratios between the
moles of any two substances in a balanced chemical equation. For
example, water forms from molecular hydrogen and oxygen as
presented by the equation below.

[%2{\mathrm H}_2\;+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O%]

What mole ratios can be written for this reaction?

Two moles of hydrogen react with one mole of oxygen.

[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm
O}_2}%]

Two moles of hydrogen produce two moles of water.

[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O}%]

One mole of oxygen produces two moles of water.

[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm O}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O}%]

You can then use the knowledge about mole ratios to calculate the
amounts of reactants or products in a chemical reaction.

Learn about it!

Mole-to-Mole Stoichiometry

Suppose you know the number of moles of reactants. You then want to
know how many moles of products will be formed in the reaction.

Sample Problem:

If 1 mole [%{\mathrm H}_2%] is used up in the reaction, how many

moles of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] will be formed?

How to Do
To solve the problem:

Step 1: Determine the mole ratio between [%{\mathrm H}_2%] and [%

{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%].

[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O}%]

Step 2: Assign a variable to the unknown.

Let [%x=%] moles of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] formed from 1 mole
[%{\mathrm H}_2%].

Step 3: Set up the proportion.

[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O}=\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm H}_2}x%]

Step 4: Rearrange the equation to get an expression to solve for [%x

%].

[%x=\frac{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O)
(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm H}_2)}{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2)}
%]

Step 5: Solve for [%x%].

Solving for [%x%], you get 1 mole [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]. This
means that you will produce 1 mole [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] if
you have 1 mole [%{\mathrm H}_2%].

[%x=1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

Learn about it!

Mass-to-Mass Stoichiometry

In laboratory experiments, you do not measure the moles of the

reactants. Instead, you measure their masses. But how do you convert
number of moles into mass? In converting mass to moles, or vice-
versa, you can use the equation below.

[%\mathrm{moles}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}}
{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mas}}%]

Given the mass of one reactant, you can calculate the required mass
of the other reactant.

Sample Problem 2:
How many grams of [%{\mathrm O}_2%] is needed to react with 1.00 g
[%{\mathrm H}_2%]?

How to Do
The solution to this problem is similar to the previous one, but
additional steps are needed.

Step 1: Determine the mole ratio between [%{\mathrm H}_2%] and [%

{\mathrm O}_2%].

[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm
O}_2}%]

Step 2: Convert the given mass of [%{\mathrm H}_2%] to moles [%

{\mathrm H}_2%].

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;
{\mathrm H}_2}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm
H}_2}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2=\frac{1.00\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm H}_2}

{2.016\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2=0.496\;\mathrm{mol}%]

Step 3: Assign a variable to the unknown.

Let [%x=%] moles of [%{\mathrm O}_2%] that reacts with 0.496 mole
[%{\mathrm H}_2%].

Step 4: Set up the proportion.

[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm
O}_2}=\frac{0.496\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}x%]

Step 5: Rearrange the equation to get an expression to solve for [%x

%].

[%x=\frac{0.496\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{(1\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm O}_2)(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2)}\;%]
Step 6: Solve for [%x%].

Solving for [%x%], you get 0.248 mole [%{\mathrm O}_2%].

[%x\;=\;0.248\;\mathrm{mol}%]

Step 7: Convert the calculated moles [%{\mathrm O}_2%] to mass [%

{\mathrm O}_2%].

[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm O}_2=(\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm O}_2)\;(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm O}_2)%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm O}_2=(0.248\;\mathrm{mol})\;
(32\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm O}_2=7.94\;\mathrm g%]

Therefore, you need 7.94 g [%{\mathrm O}_2%] to react with 1.00 g [%

{\mathrm H}_2%].

Try it!
Ammonia is produced from the reaction between nitrogen and
hydrogen.

[%{\mathrm N}_2\;+\;3{\mathrm H}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm{NH}}_3%]

How many grams of [%{\mathrm N}_2%] and [%{\mathrm H}_2%] is

needed to produce 10.0 g [%{\mathrm{NH}}_3%]?

Use the following molar masses: [%{\mathrm N}_2\;=\;28\;\frac{\mathrm

g}{\mathrm{mol}}%], [%{\mathrm{NH}}_3\;=\;17\;\frac{\mathrm g}
{\mathrm{mol}}%], and [%{\mathrm H}_2\;=\;2\;\frac{\mathrm g}
{\mathrm{mol}}%].

Try it! Solution

Step 1: Determine the mole ratio between the reactants and the
product.
[%\frac{3\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3}%]

[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm N}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3}%]

These ratios are based on the balanced chemical equation.

Step 2: Convert the given mass of product to moles.

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3=\frac{10.0\;\mathrm g\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3}{17\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}\;}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3=0.588\;\mathrm{mol}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3%]

Step 3: Assign variables to the unknown quantities. You may use more
than one variable.

Let [%x=%] moles [%{\mathrm H}_2%] needed to form 0.588 mole [%

{\mathrm{NH}}_3%].
Let [%y=%] moles [%{\mathrm N}_2%] needed to form 0.588 mole [%
{\mathrm{NH}}_3%].

Step 4: Set up the necessary proportions.

[%\frac{3\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3}=\frac x{0.588\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}%]

[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm N}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3}=\frac y{0.588\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}\;%]

Step 5: Rearrange the equation to get an expression to solve for the

variables.

[%x=\frac{(3\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2)(0.588\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3)}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}\;\;%]
[%y=\frac{(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm N}_2)(0.588\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3)}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}\;\;%]

Step 6: Solve the unknowns.

[%x=0.882\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm H}_2\;\;%]

[%y=0.291\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm N}_2\;\;%]

Step 7: Convert the calculated moles to grams.

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2=(0.882\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm H}_2)\;

(2\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})\;\;%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2=1.76\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm H}_2%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm N}_2=(0.291\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm N}_2)\;

(28\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})\;\;%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm N}_2=8.15\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm N}_2%]

What do you think?

Do all experiments yield the calculated amount of product? Why or why
not?

Key Points
 Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships
between the amounts of reactants used and amounts of products
formed in a chemical reaction.
 Mole ratios are ratios between the moles of any two substances
in a balanced chemical equation.

 You can then use the knowledge about mole ratios to calculate
the amounts of reactants or products in a chemical reaction.

Calculating the Percent Yield in a Chemical Reaction

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to calculate the percent
yield (% yield) of a reaction.

Imagine that you have 100 chances to shoot a ball inside the ring.
Theoretically, you can make all the 100 shots. However, in actuality,
you may not make all them. There would be a difference between your
theoretical and actual outcomes.

In chemical reactions, there are also theoretical and actual outcomes.

In this lesson, you will learn that there is a theoretical amount of
product that will be formed in a reaction. However, it is often different
from the actual amount that you get from your experiment.

How can you express the difference between theoretical and actual
product yields?

Learn about it!

In the previous lesson, you have calculated the amount of product that
will be formed from a given amount of reactant. This amount of
product is the theoretical yield of the reaction. The theoretical yield is
the maximum amount of product that can be formed from a given
amount of reactant.

Consider the reaction below.

[%2\mathrm{NaOH}+{\mathrm
H}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4\rightarrow{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4+2{\mat
hrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

What is the theoretical yield (in grams) of [%

{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%] that will be formed when 4 moles of
[%\mathrm{NaOH}%] is used in the reaction?
How to Do
Step 1: Determine the mole ratio between [%\mathrm{NaOH}%] and [%
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%].

[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4}%]

Step 2: Assign a variable to the unknown.

Let [%x=%] moles of [%{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%] formed from

4 moles of [%\mathrm{NaOH}%].

Step 3: Set up the proportion.

[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4}=\frac{4\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{Na
OH}}x%]

Step 4: Rearrange the equation to get an expression to solve for [%x

%].

[%x=\frac{(4\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH})(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4)}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}
%]

Step 5: Solve for [%x%].

Solving for [%x%], you get 2 moles [%

{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%]. This means that the theoretical
yield is 2 moles [%{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%] for every 4 moles
[%\mathrm{NaOH}%].

[%x=2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%]

Step 6: Convert moles to mass.

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4=(\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4)(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4)%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4=(2\;\mathrm{mol}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4)(142\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4=284\;\mathrm g\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%]

Therefore, the theoretical yield is 284 g [%

{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%].

Learn about it!

Percent Yield

In reality, however, reactions are not always 100% successful. This

means that the actual amount of products formed from an experiment,
or the actual yield, may be lower than the theoretical yield. The actual
yield is also called experimental yield.

After performing an experiment, you can calculate how efficient your

reaction is in producing the desired product. Percent yield is one way
of expressing the efficiency of a chemical reaction. It is the ratio of
the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as percent.

[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=\frac{\mathrm{actual}\;\mathrm{yie
ld}}{\mathrm{theoretical}\;\mathrm{yield}}\times100%]

In using the formula, it is important that the actual and theoretical

yields have the same units (either in moles or mass) so you can cancel
their units.

Consider again the reaction between sodium hydroxide and sulfuric

acid.

[%2\mathrm{NaOH}+{\mathrm
H}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4\rightarrow{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4+2{\mat
hrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

Suppose you use 40 g [%\mathrm{NaOH}%] and produced 15 g [%

{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]. What is the % yield of [%{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%]?
Use the following molar masses: [%\mathrm{NaOH}=40\;\mathrm
g/\mathrm{mol}%] and [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=18\;\mathrm
g/\mathrm{mol}%].

How can the formula be used?

Step 1: Convert the mass of [%\mathrm{NaOH}%] to moles.

[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaO
H}}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}=\frac{40\;\mathrm
g\;\mathrm{NaOH}}{40\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}=1\;\mathrm{mol}\;\mathrm{NaOH}%]

Step 2: Determine the mole ratio between [%\mathrm{NaOH}%] and [%

{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%].

[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O}=\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}x%]

Step 3: Assign a variable to the unknown.

Let [%x=%] moles of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] formed from 1 mole

of [%\mathrm{NaOH}%].

Step 4: Rearrange the equation to solve for [%x%].

[%x=\frac{(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;\mathrm{NaOH})(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O)}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}%]

Step 5: Solve for [%x%].

[%x=1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

Step 6: Convert moles of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] to mass of [%

{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%].
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O)(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm
O)%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(1\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O)(18\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=18\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O%]

Take note that this is the theoretical yield of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm

O%].

Step 7: Take note of the actual yield given in the problem.

[%\mathrm{actual}\;\mathrm{yield}=15\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%]

Step 8: Use the formula to calculate the % yield [%{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O%] from the reaction.

[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=\frac{\mathrm{actual}\;\mathrm{yie
ld}}{\mathrm{theoretical}\;\mathrm{yield}}\times100%]

[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=\frac{15\;\mathrm g}{18\;\mathrm
g}\times100%]

[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=83\%%]

Try it!
Consider the synthesis of [%\mathrm{NaCl}%] from [%\mathrm{Na}%]
and [%{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%]. The reaction is represented by the balanced
chemical equation below.

[%2\mathrm{Na}+{\mathrm{Cl}}_2\rightarrow2\mathrm{NaCl}%]

When 10.0 g of [%{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%] is used, the reaction produced

12.5 grams [%\mathrm{NaCl}%]. What is the % yield of the reaction?
Use the following molar masses: [%{\mathrm{Cl}}_2=70.9\;\mathrm
g/\mathrm{mol}%] and[%\mathrm{NaCl}=58.5\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}
%].

You may follow the steps below.

Step 1: Convert mass of reactant to moles.

Step 2: Determine the mole ratio between the reactant and the
product.

Step 3: Let [%x=%] moles of product formed from the given mass of
reactant.

Step 4: Set-up the proportion.

Step 5: Rearrange the equation to solve for [%x%].

Step 6: Solve for [%x%].

Step 7: Convert moles of product to mass. This is your theoretical

yield.

Step 8: Take note of the actual yield.

Step 9: Calculate % yield using the formula.

Try it! Solution

Step 1: Convert mass of reactant to moles.

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;
{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2=\frac{10.0\;\mathrm g\;
{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2=0.141\;\mathrm{mol}\;
{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%]
Step 2: Determine the mole ratio between [%\mathrm{NaCl}%] and [%
{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%].

[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}
{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaCl}}%]

Step 3: Assign a variable to the unknown.

Let [%x=%] moles of [%\mathrm{NaCl}%] formed from 10.0 g [%

{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%].

Step 4: Set-up the proportion.

[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}
{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaCl}}=\frac{0.141\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}x%]

Step 5: Rearrange the equation to solve for [%x%].

[%x=\frac{(0.141\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2)
(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaCl})}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}%]

Step 6: Solve for [%x%].

[%x=0.282\;\mathrm{mole}\;\mathrm{NaCl}%]

Step 7: Convert moles of product to mass. This is your theoretical

yield.

[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaCl}=(\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaCl})\;
(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaCl})%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaCl}=(0.282\;\mathrm{mol}\;\mathrm{NaCl})
(58.5\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaCl}=16.5\;\mathrm g\;\mathrm{NaCl}%]

Step 8: Take note of the actual yield.

[%\mathrm{actual}\;\mathrm{yield}=12.5\;\mathrm g\;\mathrm{NaCl}%]
Step 9: Calculate % yield using the formula.

[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=\frac{\mathrm{actual}\;\mathrm{yie
ld}}{\mathrm{theoretical}\;\mathrm{yield}}\times100%]

[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=\frac{12.5\;\mathrm g}
{16.5\;\mathrm g}\times100%]

[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=75.8\%%]

What do you think?

Photosynthesis is the process in which plants produce their food
glucose, [%{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_{12}{\mathrm O}_6%], from [%
{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%], [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%], and sunlight. It is
represented by the equation below.

[%6{\mathrm{CO}}_2+6{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm
O+\mathrm{energy}\rightarrow{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_{12}{\mathrm
O}_6+6{\mathrm O}_2%]

Sugarcane is only 8% efficient in doing photosynthesis. How many

moles of [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] will be needed by sugarcane if it needs
to produce 10 moles of glucose?

Key Points
 The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can
be formed by a chemical reaction from the given amount of
reactant.
 The actual yield, also called the experimental yield, is the real
amount of product formed from the reaction when the experiment
is performed.

 The ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield multiplied by 100 is

the percent yield(% yield).

 Chemical reactions do not always go into completion (not 100%

successful). Therefore, percent yields are usually less than 100%.
Calculating the Amount of Products by Determining the Limiting
Reactant
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to determine the limiting
reactant and calculate the amount of product formed in a chemical
reaction.

Chemical reactions begin when the reactants are combined under the
right conditions, such as correct temperature and pressure. But when
do the reactions stop?

Learn about it!

A chemical reaction stops when one of the reactants is completely
used up. In most chemical experiments, the reactants are not in exact
ratios specified by the balanced chemical equation. Often, one of the
reactants is used in excess, and the reaction is allowed to proceed
until one of the reactants is used up. The reactant that is completely
used up in a chemical reaction is called limiting reactant. As its name
implies, it limits the extent of the reaction, and thereby determines the
amount of product that will be formed. On the other hand, the reactant
that still remains after the reaction stops is called the excess
reactant. As its name implies, it is in excess in the reaction.

How can you identify the limiting reactant and the maximum amount of
product that can be formed in a chemical reaction?

Consider the reaction below.

[%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O+2\mathrm{HCl}\rightarrow2\mathrm{KCl}
+2{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

If 10.0 g [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%] is made to react with 10.0 g

[%\mathrm{HCl}%], how many grams of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]
will be formed?
Use the following molar masses: [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm
O=94\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%], [%\mathrm{HCl}=36.5\;\mathrm
g/\mathrm{mol}%], and [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=18\;\mathrm
g/\mathrm{mol}%].

How to Do
Step 1: Convert the mass of both reactants to their corresponding
moles.

Moles [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%]:

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;

{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm
K}_2\mathrm O}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O=\frac{10.0\;\mathrm g}

{94\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O=0.106\;\mathrm{mol}\;

{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%]

Moles [%\mathrm{HCl}%]:

[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl}\;=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{HCl}}
{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{HCl}}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl}\;=\frac{10.0\;\mathrm g}{36.5\;\mathrm
g/\mathrm{mol}}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl}\;=0.274\;\mathrm{mol}\;\mathrm{HCl}
%]

Step 2: Calculate the moles of product that can be formed from each
reactant.

Moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O

%]:
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(0.106\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O)\frac{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O)}{(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O)}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=0.212\;\mathrm{moles}\;

{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

Moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%\mathrm{HCl}%]:

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm
O=(0.274\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl})\frac{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O)}{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl})}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=0.274\;\mathrm{moles}\;

{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

Step 3: Compare the moles of product formed from each reactant.

Moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%]

is less than moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%\mathrm{HCl}
%].

Step 4: Tag the reactant that gives a lower amount of product as the
limiting reactant.

Since moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%{\mathrm

K}_2\mathrm O%] is less than moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from
[%\mathrm{HCl}%], [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%] is the limiting
reactant.

Step 5: Convert the moles of product formed from the limiting reactant
to mass. The calculated mass is the maximum amount of product that
you can form from the reaction.

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O)(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm
O)%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(0.212\;\mathrm{mol})

(18\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=3.82\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%]

Try it!
Consider the combustion of butane, one of the main components of
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

[%2{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}+13{\mathrm

O}_2\rightarrow8{\mathrm{CO}}_2+10{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

How many grams of [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] is produced when 100 g [%

{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%] undergoes combustion with 200 g [%
{\mathrm O}_2%]?

Use the following molar masses: [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm

H}_{10}=58\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%], [%{\mathrm O}_2=32\;\mathrm
g/\mathrm{mol}%], and [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2=44\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}
%].

You may follow the steps below.

Step 1: Convert the mass of each reactant to their corresponding

moles.

Step 2: Calculate the moles of product that can be formed from each
reactant.

Step 3: Compare the moles of product formed from each reactant.

Step 4: Tag the reactant that gives a lower amount of product as the
limiting reactant.

Step 5: Convert the moles of product formed from the limiting reactant
to mass.

Try it! Solution

Step 1: Convert the mass of each reactant to their corresponding
moles.
Moles [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm
H}_{10}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}}
{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}=\frac{100\;\mathrm

g}{58\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}=1.72\;\mathrm{mol}\;

{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%]

Moles [%{\mathrm O}_2%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm O}_2=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm O}_2}

{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm O}_2}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm O}_2=\frac{200\;\mathrm g}{32\;\mathrm

g/\mathrm{mol}}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm O}_2=6.25\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm O}_2%]

Step 2: Calculate the moles of product that can be formed from each
reactant.

Moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%]:

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=(1.72\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10})\frac{(8\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2)}
{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10})}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=6.88\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm{CO}}_2\;%]

Moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm O}_2%]:

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=(6.25\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
O}_2)\;\frac{(8\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2)}{(13\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm O}_2)}%]

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=3.85\;\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm{CO}}_2\;%]
Step 3: Compare the moles of product formed from each reactant.

Moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm O}_2%] is less than the

moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%].

Step 4: Tag the reactant that gives a lower amount of product as the
limiting reactant.

Since moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm O}_2%] is less than

moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%],
[%{\mathrm O}_2%] is the limiting reactant.

Step 5: Convert the moles of product formed from the limiting reactant
to mass. This is maximum amount of product you can form from the
reaction.

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=(\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2)
(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2)%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=(3.85\;\mathrm{mol})
(44\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=169\;\mathrm g%]

What do you think?

The hydrogenation of benzene is an exothermic process, that is, energy
(in kilojoules, kJ) is released when the reaction happens.

[%{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_6+3{\mathrm H}_2\;\rightarrow{\mathrm

C}_6{\mathrm H}_{12}+208\;\mathrm{kJ}%]

How much energy (in kJ) is released when 2 moles [%{\mathrm

C}_6{\mathrm H}_6%] is made to react with 2 moles [%{\mathrm H}_2%],
and the reaction is only 80% successful?

Key Points
  The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up
in a chemical reaction. It determines the maximum amount of
product that can be formed from the reaction.
 The excess reactant is the reactant that is still present after the
reaction stops.

Chemical Reaction: Endothermic and Exothermic

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how chemical
reactions are accompanied by energy changes.

Chemistry is defined as the science that studies matter — its

properties, changes, and the energy associated with these changes.

Have you ever wondered how energy participates in chemical

reactions?

Learn about it!

A chemical reaction occurs when two or more substances react to
form new substances or products. It is often accompanied by energy
changes. It can be classified either as endothermic or exothermic,
depending on the energy changes ([%\mathrm{ΔE}%]) it undergoes.

[%\mathrm{ΔE}\;=\;\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm
E\;–\;\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm E%]

Endothermic reactions require energy for it to proceed. This means

that the final energy of the reaction is higher compared to its initial
energy due to the added energy. Therefore, the [%\mathrm{ΔE}%] is
positive.

[%\mathrm{Reactants}\;
+\;\mathrm{Energy}\;\rightarrow\;\mathrm{Products}%]
For example, the high-temperature electrolysis of water is an
exothermic reaction. This reaction is used to make hydrogen fuel and
breathable oxygen.

[%2{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O\;

+\;\mathrm{Energy}\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm H}_2\;+\;{\mathrm O}_2%]

On the other hand, exothermic reactions release energy. This means

that the final energy of the reaction is lower compared to its initial
energy because energy is given off. Therefore, the [%\mathrm{ΔE}%] is
negative.

[%\mathrm{Reactants}\;\rightarrow\;\mathrm{Products}\;
+\;\mathrm{Energy}%]

Explosions involve exothermic reactions. For example, the

decomposition of ammonium nitrite yields water and nitrogen and
releases a large amount of heat.

[%{\mathrm{NH}}_4{\mathrm{NO}}_2\;\rightarrow\;{\mathrm
N}_2\;+\;2{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O\;+\;\mathrm{Energy}%]

Examples
Are the following reactions endothermic or exothermic?

Example 1:

When [%{\mathrm H}_2%] combines with [%{\mathrm O}_2%], an

explosion may be observed as [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] is being
formed.

The balanced chemical equation that represents this reaction is:

[%2{\mathrm H}_{2\;}+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O%]

Where is the energy in the reaction?

To answer this, take note that explosion is observed as [%{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%] is being formed. Explosions occur when energy is
released.

The reaction is written as:

[%2{\mathrm H}_{2\;}+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O\;+\;\mathrm{Energy}%]

Because energy is on the product side, the reaction is exothermic.

Example 2:

When [%{\mathrm{CaCO}}_3%] is heated, it decomposes to

[%\mathrm{CaO}%] and [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%].

The balanced chemical equation that represents this reaction is:

[%{\mathrm{CaCO}}_3\;\rightarrow\;\mathrm{CaO}\;+\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]

Where is the energy in the reaction?

To answer this, take note that the reaction proceeds when [%

{\mathrm{CaCO}}_3%] is heated. Heat is a form of energy and it must
be applied for the reaction to occur. The reaction is written as:

[%{\mathrm{CaCO}}_3\;+\;\mathrm{Energy}\rightarrow\;\mathrm{CaO}\;+\;
{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]

Because energy is on the reactant side, the reaction is endothermic.

Explore!
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce their food
glucose ([%{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_{12}{\mathrm O}_6%]) along with
[%{\mathrm O}_2%] from [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] and [%{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%]. Is photosynthesis an endothermic or an exothermic
process?

To answer this, you should know where the energy is placed in the
reaction (either reactant or product side). In what form is the energy
involved in photosynthesis? What does the plant do with the energy for
photosynthesis to occur?

Try it!
Matches are lighted by striking the head of the matchstick against the
specially prepared pad found along the side of the matchbox. The head
of the matchstick contains [%{\mathrm{KClO}}_3%] while the strip
contains [%{\mathrm P}_4%].

1. Obtain a matchstick and a matchbox.

2. Strike the head of the matchstick against the pad in the
matchbox.

3. Feel the surroundings near the lighted matchstick.

4. Based on your observation, is the reaction between [%

{\mathrm{KClO}}_3%] and [%{\mathrm P}_4%] endothermic or
exothermic? Explain your answer.

Warning: Do not play with matches. Use only one to two matchsticks at
a time when doing the activity to avoid causing large fires.

What do you think?

Exothermic reactions give off heat. Thus, they are good sources of
energy. How do you think are the heat from these reactions harvested
to convert them to usable forms of energy (e.g. mechanical,
electrical)?

Tip
Common misconception is that exothermic reactions are accompanied
by increase in energy while endothermic reactions are accompanied
by decrease in energy.

To avoid this, remember the following:

  The term exothermic came from the Greek words exo meaning
"outside" andtherme meaning "heat." So the energy EXits
in EXothermic reactions, hence the energy becomes lower.
 On the other hand, the term endothermic came from the Greek
words endomeaning "outside" and therme meaning "heat." So
energy ENters in ENdothermic reactions, hence the energy
becomes higher.

Key Points
 Endothermic reactions are accompanied by an increase in energy
because the energy is absorbed ([%\mathrm{ΔE}%] is positive) by
the reactants.
 Energy is found on the reactant side for an endothermic reaction.

 Exothermic reactions are accompanied by a decrease in energy

because energy is released ([%\mathrm{ΔE}%] is negative) when
products are formed.

 Energy is found on the product side for an exothermic reaction.

 [%\mathrm{ΔE}\;=\;\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm
E\;–\;\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm E%]

Harnessing Energy from Different Sources

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how energy is
harnessed from different sources of energy.

Where does the electricity we use every day come from and how are
they generated?

Learn about it!

There are several sources of energy that are harnessed to generate
the power distributed by our electricity providers. These energy
sources include fossil fuels, biogas, geothermal, hydrothermal,
batteries, solar cells, and biomass.

Fossil fuels and Biogas

Fossil fuel is the general term given to combustible products of buried

organic matter that decayed under extreme temperature and pressure.
Fossil fuels include crude oil (e.g., octanes [%{\mathrm C}_8{\mathrm
H}_{18}%]), natural gas or biogas ([%{\mathrm{CH}}_4%]), and coal
([%\mathrm C%]).

Biogas is a gas produced from anaerobic (absence of oxygen)

decomposition of organic matter.

How is energy harnessed?

The components of fossil fuels are heated and vaporized to steam

which drives the turbines and generate electricity.

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy refers to the heat produced inside the Earth. This
energy is harnessed from the molten rocks near volcanic regions.

How is energy harnessed?

The molten rocks heat the groundwater to steam which drives the
turbines to generate electricity.

Learn about it!

Hydrothermal Energy

Hydrothermal energy refers to the heat obtained from hot water from
hydrothermal vents or seawater in contact with hot rock beds.

How is energy harnessed?

Hot water from hydrothermal vents is collected into a heat exchanger.
The heat from the water is transferred to another fluid (e.g. isobutane)
which evaporates and drives the turbines to generate electricity.

Batteries

Batteries are also called electrochemical cells. They are devices that
store and convert chemical energy into electrical energy. They can be
disposable or rechargeable. The energy from batteries comes from a
chemical reaction (e.g. redox reaction between [%
{\mathrm{CuSO}}_4%] and [%\mathrm{Zn}%] to form [%
{\mathrm{ZnSO}}_4%] and [%\mathrm{Cu}%]).

How is energy harnessed?

When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes move

within the battery, and chemical reactions are completed at the two
terminals of the battery. The flow of electrons in the reactions
generate the current (flowing charges) and delivers electricity to the
external circuit.

Learn about it!

Solar Cells

Solar cells are devices that can collect light energy from the sun and
convert it into electricity.

How is energy harnessed?

Light energy is collected over solar panels. The collected energy can
be stored in batteries or can be directly converted to electricity.

Biomass

Biomass refers to the organic matter from living organisms and often
refers to plants or plant-based materials that can be converted to
energy. It is the oldest source of energy known to man.

How is energy harnessed?

The biomass is burned to generate heat. The heat produced can be
directly used to do daily chores such as cooking.

Electricity may also be generated from biomass. The components of

biomass are burned in a boiler. The generated heat is used to produce
steam which drives the turbines to generate electricity.

Learn about it!

Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy

Energy sources may be renewable or nonrenewable. Renewable

energy sources are those that are naturally replenished. Biogas and
biomass are renewable energy sources. Geothermal, hydrothermal, and
solar energies can also be considered renewable. In
contrast, nonrenewable energy sources are finite, so they will get
depleted over time. Crude oil is a nonrenewable energy resource.

How about batteries? Disposable batteries are nonrenewable.

Rechargeable batteries can be classified as nonrenewable or
renewable, depending on the energy source used for recharging (e.g., if
solar energy is used to recharge the batteries, then it is renewable).

Electricity from Power Plants

Power plants are designed to generate electricity from energy

harnessed from different sources. Common among power plants are
vapor-driven turbines. The turbines are rotated by the vapor and in turn
spin a generator. The spinning generator then produces electricity that
is transported by transmission lines to the distributors and to our
homes.

Try it!
Research on the following and classify the type of energy source they
use to generate electricity.

1. Daniell Cell
2. Malampaya power plant
 3. Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban) power plant

4. islaSOL II

5. Sultan Energy Philippines

6. Green Power Bukidnon Phil. Inc.

What do you think?

What other energy sources do we harness for power? Are they
renewable or not?

Key Points
 Energy is harnessed from the following sources: fossil fuels,
biogas, geothermal, hydrothermal, batteries, solar cells, and
biomass.
 Energy sources may be renewable or nonrenewable.

 Renewable energy sources are those that do not get depleted.

 Nonrenewable energy sources are finite, so they will get depleted

over time.

 Common structures in all power plants are the steam- or vapour-

driven turbines which spin generators to produce electricity.

Household Cleaning Products

THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give examples of
household cleaning products and explain the need to use them.

Cleaning products contain substances that remove dirt, stain, and bad
smell. There are different cleaning products, and some of them are
used to clean surfaces such as bathroom tiles, floors, sinks, and
drains. Others are used to clean clothing, blankets, and curtains.

Cleaning products include detergent, bleach, air freshener or purifier,

and disinfectant. What are the cleaning products you use at home?

Learn about it!

Detergent
A detergent contains surfactants, which are substances with cleaning
properties. Surfactants have long water-insoluble hydrocarbon tail and
water-soluble polar heads. When these molecules are placed in water,
they form micelles. They orient themselves with the hydrocarbon tails,
sticking to one another while the polar heads are pointing outwards
and into the water.

A mixture of detergent and water is a colloid. Micelles are dispersed

throughout the water, so the mixture appears cloudy. When oil or
grease is present, the micelle disperses and entraps the grease. When
the detergent is rinsed out, the grease comes with it.

Learn about it!

Bleach
Bleach is a household cleaning agent used to remove dyes and whiten
clothing. The color that stains white fabrics typically arise from
organic dyes and pigments. For example, when carrot juice spills on
your white garment, the pigment beta-carotene binds with the fabric.

Chlorine-based bleach is used to break the chemical bonds of the

pigment. The pigment is changed to a different substance that do not
absorb visible light. Hence, the stained garment appears white again.

Learn about it!

Air freshener or Purifier
Air freshener or purifier is used to emit fragrance in different spaces at
home, especially in restrooms. It can be in the form of spray, candle,
oil, bead, or gel. Its main purpose is to eliminate or mask unpleasant
odors. Its name is misleading though because it does not really
freshen or purify the air.

Solid or liquid air fresheners (candle, oil, bead, or gel) have volatile
fragrant molecules. These molecules easily change from solid or liquid
into gas, even at room temperature. When they mix with air, they move
via diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of particles from higher
concentration to lower concentration. Hence, the air freshener
molecules spread out across the room.
Spray air fresheners are aerosols. Aerosols are colloids of solid or
liquid particles in gas. The fragrant molecules dissolve in air. When
these molecules are allowed to escape their spray containers, they
mix with air, and the fragrant smell spreads.

Learn about it!

Disinfectant
A disinfectant is an antimicrobial household product. It kills
microorganisms on surfaces of inanimate objects. Note that it is
different from antiseptics, which are used on living things to kill
microorganisms. The effectiveness of a disinfectant depends on the
number of microorganisms, environment (temperature), time of
exposure, and nature of microorganisms.

Most disinfectants, such as alcohol and chlorine, work by denaturing

proteins of microorganisms. When their proteins are damaged,
metabolic processes are disrupted, causing death.
Explore!
Check the cleaning agents you use at home. What are the kinds of
surfaces those agents clean? What are the things you consider in
buying those cleaning products?

What do you think?

What are the safety precautions that must be done when using
cleaning products?

Key Points
 Cleaning products contain substances that remove dirt, stain,
and bad smell. They come in different physical forms such as
solids, liquids, and aerosol.
 Cleaning products include detergents, bleaches, deodorizers, and
disinfectants.

Active Ingredient in Product Labels

THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the active
ingredient in common household products used for cleaning.

The active ingredient is the compound that acts to fulfill the function
of a said product. A finished household product is usually a mixture of
many different compounds.

How can we identify the active ingredient of a product assuming it is a

mixture?

Learn about it!

All products have an active ingredient that enables it to work. Some
products only have one active ingredient while others may have more
than one. Here are some important pointers in determining the active
ingredient.

 The active ingredient can be classified as acidic, basic, or

neutral.
 The determination of its acidity or alkalinity often dictates how
the product will work.

 The active ingredient must always be labelled in consumer

goods.

Learn about it!

Importance of an Active Ingredient

Knowing the active ingredient in certain products will tell you what
function they can serve. Product labels are required to put down their
active ingredients. Some of these ingredients may be toxic to the user
or even to the environment. In some cases, a few household products
will share the same active ingredient, allowing them to be used for
different purposes. While other products may have the same function,
they have different active ingredients.

Example
The table below contains different cleaning products with specific
active ingredients and their specific functions.

Learn about it!

Different active ingredients have different modes of action on how they
are able to clean certain materials. The basic idea for most of these
ingredients is to convert a “dirt” substance into something that is
soluble in water.

The active ingredient determines the mode of action of a specific

product.

 Dissolution - A common mode of action based on the principle of

like-dissolves-like and the concept of solvent – solute
interactions.
 Acid–Base - Certain substances are either acidic or basic. An
acid will react with a base, or vice versa, allowing it to be
dissolved or carried away by water.

 Reduction – Oxidation - Oxidizing agents work to convert certain

substances into water-soluble ions.

 Surfactants - Detergents and soaps can be classified as

surfactants. They form tiny vessels known as micelles that carry
away the undesired material.
  Disinfectant - The reagent targets a biological organism
responsible for an undesired effect.

Example
Micelles form from amphiphatic molecules. Amphiphatic molecules are
molecules that have polar and non-polar regions in their structure. This
amphiphatic nature allows them to form micelles.

The micelles are soluble in water due to the polarity of the head, and
the nonpolar tail interacts with oils and greases that allow it to be
carried in a vessel that can dissolve in water.

Explore!
Product development is an essential part of the industry. A little
knowledge in chemistry is a useful skill in finding alternative products
because active ingredients may share similar properties. These
ingredients can be found in everyday materials. Homemade cleaning
materials using similar ingredients can be made from common items
such as vinegar, citrus fruits (lemons and calamansi), and baking soda.

Can you give examples of how baking soda (sodium carbonate, basic
properties) or vinegar (acetic acid, acidic properties) can be used as
substitute cleaning products?

Try it!
Given the different modes of action of specific active ingredients, list
down as many possible chemical reagents you can find in your house
that may fit under these modes of actions.

Key Points
 Active ingredient is the reactive and functional ingredient of a
household product.
 An active ingredient may have several mechanisms where it can
remove stains, ranging from acid-base, oxidation – reduction,
disinfectants, surfactants, and dissolution (via solvent – solute
interaction).

 Two different products can have similar modes of action as long

as their active ingredients have similar properties.

Other Uses of Ingredients in Cleaning Agents

THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the common
ingredients (other than active ingredient) in cleaning agents and their
uses.

Active ingredients are only a part of the entire mixture that we call the
product or in this case, the cleaning agent. For all cases of
practicality, the product cannot be sold as a pure active ingredient for
commercial and practical reasons. Other components of the mixture
have specific purposes in making the cleaning agent.

Learn about it!

A cleaning agent is a mixture of many compounds. They are
considered as additive ingredients. These additive ingredients have
some functions in the product. Some ingredients are added to mixtures
while others have more complex mechanisms.

Some functions if additive ingredients include: solvents, fragrance

enhancers, masking agents, builders, preservatives, antimicrobial
agents, and bubble enhancers.

Solvents

A solvent is often used to increase the quantity of the cleaning agent.

The solvent is used to dilute the cleaning agent to its minimum
functional concentration. For instance, ethanol which is used as a
disinfectant is functional at 40% solution while bleach can be
functional as low as 5% solution.

Fragrance enhancers

In other cases, fragrance enhancers are added to products to mask a

more putrid smell. Particularly, bathroom cleaners use these added
fragrances. Fragrances often come in the form of essential oils.

Learn about it!

Masking agents
A scent of a product is often underestimated in terms of its toxic
effects. Some cleaning agents have masking agents to remove
fragrance for chemically sensitive users or people who present with
allergies. However, the molecule of fragrance still remains in the
product.

Builders

The term 'builders' is something used in discussing surfactants. In the

case of cleaning agents, these builders are often present in
detergents. Builders are substances that prevent other contaminants
from reacting with the active ingredient in the detergent.

Learn about it!

Preservatives

Cleaning agents that are stored for long term periods need some sort
of preservative to keep the active ingredient functional. These may
come in the form of salts, organic reagents, or buffers that maintain pH
balance

Antimicrobial reagents

Microbes are often the cause of infection or cause some products to

degrade. The purpose of a cleaning agent is to maintain the
appearance or use of a certain material. Therefore it would make
sense for antimicrobials to be present in cleaning agents.

Bubble enhancers

Adding bubble enhancers to allow detergents to do their job more

effectively by enhancing the covered area of the surfactant. The
formation of foam/bubbles facilitates the surfactant by aiding in the
accumulation of unwanted particles.

To summarize, the functions of additive ingredients are (but not limited

to the following):
  serve as disinfectant for hygienic purposes and to prolong the
shelf life of the product
 enhance or mask a specific property; and

 protect the active ingredient from attacking other molecules

Examples
Triclosan is an example of an antimicrobial additive that reduces or
prevents bacterial contamination. They are usually present in
toothpastes and soaps.

Sodium tripolyphosphate is a common example of a builder found in

detergents. It allows surfactants to work at their full potential. It also
acts as a pH buffer and prevents deposition of soil.

Explore!
Unscented products can be misleading in some cases and can still
cause an allergic reaction for people who have a reaction to it. Why is
this so?

Try it!
Collect various samples of water (from the streams, seawater or tap
water) and a control of distilled water. Add a drop of detergent in
approximately the same amount of water. Shake well, and try to
quantify the appearance of bubbles. What can you say about the
bubbles?

Key Points
 Additive ingredients are not innate, and they have a specific
function in making the product what it is.
 There is a variety of additive ingredients with a variety of
functions such as masking agents, enhancing agents, or
preservatives.

Personal Care Products

THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give common examples
of personal care products used to enhance the appearance of the
human body.

There are numerous personal care products you can find in grocery
stores and shopping malls worldwide. What are these personal care
products? And why do people use them?
Learn about it!
Personal care products are consumer products used in personal
hygiene and for beautification. These products have two
classifications, personal hygienic items and cosmetics though there is
only a small distinction between the two. Personal hygienic items are
the products people use to keep themselves clean while cosmetics are
often described as luxury products used for enhancement of physical
beauty.

Products for Personal Hygiene

Shampoo and Conditioner

Shampoo and conditioner are both haircare products. They are viscous
liquids used to clean hair. They are used by applying them to wet hair,
massaging them into the scalp, and rinsing them.

Shampoos are particularly used to remove the unwanted buildup of

dust and other particles on the hair without stripping out
sebum. Sebum, a mixture of triglycerides, wax, and fatty acids, is
secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans. The main function of
sebum is to lubricate the hair and keep it manageable.

Hair conditioners are used to change the texture and appearance of

hair. When shampoos strip out much sebum, hair conditioners provide
the oils (EFAs - essential fatty acids) which function as natural sebum.
These EFAs keep the hair softer and more pliable. Conditioners also
often contain moisturizers, which hold moisture in the hair.
Learn about it!
Soap

Soap is a personal care product used for bathing and cleaning the skin.
It can remove the oil and dirt particles adhered to the skin. These
particles are often insoluble in water so they cannot be washed off by
water alone. Soap breaks up these particles into smaller sizes and
mixes them with water.

How does soap mix the insoluble particles with water?

Soap is made up of fatty acids, which are molecules with two different
ends – hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends. When mixed with water, the
soap molecules form a micelle. The hydrophobic ends attach to the
unwanted particle while the hydrophilic ends are attracted to water. So
when water is used to rinse off the soap, dirt particles are washed
away.

Facial Cleanser
Have you ever wondered why there are marketed cleansers especially
made for the face? Is there really a difference between the facial
cleansers and body soaps?

The skin on your face has more sebaceous glands than most parts of
the body. Sebaceous glands produce sebum which lubricates the skin
and protects it from bacteria. Sebum reaches the surface of the skin
through the hair follicles. When sebaceous glands become overactive,
too much sebum is produced. The sebum is combined with dead cells
(keratin) which are naturally present in the skin, and their combination
results in a plug. Because the follicle is plugged, the bacteria
called Propionibacterium acnes present in the skin proliferate. The
bacterial growth causes acne, the painful inflammation and swelling of
the facial skin. Acne and other facial skin diseases are often prevented
using facial cleansers.

Facial cleansers remove makeup, dead skin cells, and dirt that can
clog the pores. Best facial cleansers should have a pH near 4.7, the
average pH of the skin’s surface. Bar soaps with high pH (9 to 10) can
disrupt the pH balance of the skin and favor the overgrowth of P.
acnes. Also, the cleanser should not have thickeners which are
present in bar soaps. These thickeners allow the soaps to form a rigid
bar shape, but they can clog the pores resulting in acnes. Lastly, bar
soaps may remove natural oils from the facial skin and cause
sebaceous glands to overproduce sebum, which eventually lead to
clogged pores.

Learn about it!

Deodorant and Antiperspirant

There are two types of sweat glands found in the skin, eccrine and
apocrine glands. Eccrine glands can be found on almost all over the
body, with the highest density in palms and soles. They produce sweat,
an odorless substance comprised mostly of water and sodium chloride.
They are active in thermoregulation because the evaporation of sweat
has a cooling effect on the body. On the other hand, apocrine
glands are found only in certain areas of the body, including armpits
and some parts of external genitalia. These glands secrete an oily fluid
which is odorless before microbial activity. The oily fluid is comprised
of fats and proteins which are broken down by bacteria into certain
acids with bad smell. The bad smell in the armpits is often masked
using personal care products such as deodorant and antiperspirant.

The terms deodorant and antiperspirant are often used

interchangeably, but they actually differ. Antiperspirants control sweat
and body odor by preventing sweat to reach the skin surface and by
reducing the bacteria that cause body odor. Deodorantsonly contain
antimicrobial agents to prevent body odor, but they do not control
sweat. However, both of these products contain fragrances that mask
the smell of body odor.

Toothpaste

When you eat, some food stays on your teeth. This food can be broken
down by mouth bacteria to form a sticky film called dental plaque.
When plaque builds up and hardens, it forms tartar. Tartar is a crusty
deposit that traps stains on the teeth and causes discoloration. When
tartar forms, bacteria will build up and damage the gums. Pockets
between gums and teeth will form when the gums are infected with
the bacteria. So to prevent the formation of plaque and occurrence of
gum disease, teeth must be cleaned by brushing. Plaque begins
forming 4 to 12 hours after brushing so it is important to brush teeth at
least twice a day.

Toothpaste is a paste or gel used with a toothbrush to remove food

from the teeth and kill the bacteria which cause bad breath. It
contains abrasives which scrub away stains and plaque on your teeth.
Abrasives also polish the teeth so they look fresh and clean after
brushing.

Learn about it!

Cosmetics
Cosmetics are substances or products used to enhance the
appearance or scent of the body without affecting the body’s structure
and functions. Common cosmetics include facial makeup and
fragrances.

Facial Makeup

Generally, women use more cosmetics than men. Many women apply
facial makeup to enhance their facial features or cover imperfections
of the skin. They use products such as foundation, concealer, lipstick,
lip gloss, lip balm, blush, eyeshadow pencil, mascara, and eyeliner.

Foundation is used to cover blemishes and even out skin color. When
extra coverage is needed to conceal acne and undereye circles, a
concealer is used. A concealer is often thicker and more solid than
foundation so it can provide longer lasting coverage of skin
imperfections.

Lipstick is intended to add color and texture to the lips. It is different

from a lip glosswhich is intended to add shine to the lips. Lip balm is
also used to add color, but its main purpose is to moisturize and
protect the lips from chapping.

Blush or rouge is used to add color to the cheeks to make them look
more defined. Different colors of blush compliment different skin
tones.

Eyeshadow, eyebrow pencil, and mascara are all used to accentuate

the eyes. The eyeshadow is used to add color on the eyelids and under
the eyebrows to make the eyes more attractive while eyebrow pencil is
used to darken the eyebrows to make them more defined. Mascara is
applied to darken the eyelashes and make them appear longer and
thicker.
Fragrances

Have you ever flipped through a catalogue of beauty products and

found different names for fragrances?

Cologne, eau de toilette, and perfume are the common names of

fragrances. They all contain essential oils, such as vanilla, rosehip, and
peppermint oils, that are diluted with a solvent such as ethanol,
propylene glycol, and water. The difference among these fragrances is
the concentration of the essential oil.

Cologne is a shortened version of “eau de Cologne.” Eau is the French

word for water while Cologne came from the French city “Koln” where
a particular scent was first made. Cologne is the most diluted
fragrance, with about 2 to 5% essential oils. It often smells sweet and
fruity. Because it has less essential oils and higher percent alcohol, its
smell do not last very long compared to other fragrances. It is not
viscous so it is often applied by “splashing” it in the body.

Eau de toilette or toilet water has more concentration of essential oil

compared to cologne. It has about 5 to 15% oil. Because it has more oil
compared to alcohol, it is more viscous and is often sold in spray
bottles.

Perfume is the most concentrated of all the fragrance options so it is

also the most expensive. It has about 15 to 40% essential oils. It has
thicker and oilier consistency so it is often in stopper bottles.
Try it!
Find the personal care products you use at home. What are the
purposes of these products? What are your reasons for choosing the
brand of your personal care products?

What do you think?

Why is it important for you to understand the chemistry of personal
care products?

Key Points
 Personal care products are consumer products used in personal
hygiene and for beautification.
 Personal care products include shampoo, hair conditioner, soap,
facial cleanser, deodorant, antiperspirant, toothpaste, facial
makeup, and fragrances.

The Major Ingredients of Personal Care Products

THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the major
ingredients of personal care products.

In the previous lesson, you have learned about personal care products
and the reasons why people use them. Some of their ingredients may
differ from how cleaning agents work but one thing is certain–the
active ingredients for cosmetic products need to have a non-toxic
concentration on humans.

Learn about it!

Personal care products are products that people use for personal
hygiene and beautification.

Different personal care products that we usually use are listed below
as well as their active ingredients.

Deodorants

The major ingredients of deodorant include aluminum-based

compounds such as aluminum chloride, aluminum chlorohydrate, and
aluminum zincronium.

A complex coordination compound involves a central atom (usually a

metal ion) and ligands that share its electrons with the electropositive
central atom.
In deodorants, the aluminum compound usually forms a complex
coordination compound. Aluminum chlorohydrates is a general group
of compounds that have coordinate covalent bonds. These compounds
block pores and the sweat glands in the armpit.

Body Lotions

Body lotions can be classified as emulsions. Emulsions are dispersions

of fine particles that do not dissolve in a medium. An emulsifier is a
class of surfactant that is usually added to make two immiscible
substances miscible. Cetearyl alcohol is an example of an emulsifier.

Note the evident formation of micelles by the emulsifier molecule,

allowing two immiscible phases to dissolve.

The ability of a certain molecule to attract atmospheric moisture or

moisture, in general, is called hygroscopicity. Compounds such as
glycerol are added to products that are meant to be retained on the
skin.

The structure of glycerol makes it a very viscous substance due to

very strong intermolecular forces. Furthermore, it is also a polar
molecule which allows it attract water molecules. The glycerol
molecule is also the backbone of a triglyceride molecule. A triglyceride
molecule, upon hydrolysis, will release one molecule of glycerol and
three molecules of fatty acids.

Learn about it!

Perfume

A perfume will contain essential oils and glycerol as its major

components. Essential oils are naturally extracted oils from plant or
animal sources that have a strong fragrance. You will notice that most
of these compounds are organic by nature, and will require an organic
solvent.

Essential oils are a group of volatile organic compounds. In contrast to

glycerol, they have relatively weak intermolecular forces, allowing
their scent to be easily dispersed. As with most organic compounds,
essential oils can be classified as alcohols, aldehydes, esters, and
others. Unsaturated molecules generally have weaker intermolecular
forces compared to their saturated counterparts.
Shampoo/Conditioner

Major ingredients of shampoos include surfactants that form micelles.

These shampoos usually use ammonium compounds due to their high
versatility to function as a surfactant and thickening agents.

Ligands such as EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid) is added to

help preserve the shampoo from reacting with metals which can ruin
the quality of the product. EDTA is a commonly used chelating agent
with a high affinity towards most metals

Learn about it!

Soaps

Specialized soaps for skin are still made of surfactants that act the
same way as detergents. The application of surfactants can also be
found in hand lotions, shampoos, and conditioners.

Make-ups
Make-ups are usually made up of colored pigments and/or metal
oxides.

Pigments and metal oxides give color due absorption of visible light at
a certain wavelength. This absorption is possible due to certain
structural configuration or electronic transitions.

Electronic transitions are made possible by movement of electrons to

empty orbitals as with the case of adjacent double bonds (conjugation)
or transition metals.

Such is the case with carminic acid which gives the color red, due to
the presence of multiple conjugated sites.

Explore!
The realm of cosmetics is not an invention of the 20th century due to
fashion and a high standard of living. Cosmetics has been in practice
as early as the time of the Greeks, all the way to modern civilization.
Furthermore, not all cosmetic practices today have been modernized,
more than beautification, cosmetics have a cultural impact. What are
some examples of ancient cosmetic products that have their closest
modern day contemporaries?

What do you think?

How do we make sure that our personal care products remain safe?
What hazards are present in handling these products?

Key Points
 Personal care products are products that people use for personal
hygiene and beautification.
 Cosmetic products can have more than one major ingredient that
works hand in hand to make a certain product functional.

 Active ingredients have multiple mechanisms such as

surfactants, coordination complexes, moisturizers, emulsions and
special receptor interactions. Others work due to their natural
properties such as scent and color.

The Precautionary Measures Indicated in Various Cleaning Products

and Cosmetics
THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the
precautionary measures indicated in various cleaning and personal
care products.
How do you choose a cleaning or personal care product? How do you
read their labels?

Learn about it!

You often choose a cleaning or personal care product based on its
effectiveness, popularity, and price. Have you also considered its
effect on your health and on the environment?

Effects on Human Health

Personal care products are applied on the body, so there is a
possibility that their ingredients enter the body through skin
absorption or by ingestion. Therefore, it is important that these
products are healthy and nontoxic.

When choosing a personal care product, learn to read the labels. Be

aware of toxic substances that may be found in the product you want
to buy. Below are some of the substances you have to avoid.

 Poisonous heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, and mercury can be

found in a wide range of personal care products. When these heavy
metals enter the body, they can accumulate and replace the metals
that are normally present for specific functions in the body. They can
often be found in products such as whitening toothpaste, lipstick,
sunscreen, and concealers.
 Hydroquinone is often found in skin lighteners and facial cleansers.
This substance has been reported as a cancer-causing agent and
respiratory tract irritant. It has been banned in Europe and restricted in
Canada. However, many products sold in Asia still contain
hydroquinone.

 Phthalates are substances often found in color cosmetics, fragrance

lotions, and hair care products. They are linked to endocrine disruption
and reproductive toxicity. They are often written in labels as phthalate,
DEP, DEHP, or DBP. Choose products labelled "phthalate-free," but
consider their other ingredients.

 Nitrosamines are substances produced by diethanolamine (DEA) and

truethanolamine (TEA) which are both found in nearly every kind of
personal care product. They cause organ system toxicity and endocrine
system disruption. It is safe to avoid products containing DEA and TEA.
Learn about it!
Effects on the Environment
Cleaning products are often disposed in the environment. For instance,
detergents are mixed with water that goes down the drain. Hence, the
detergent may find its way into the ground and into bodies of water. It
is important that these products are safe for the environment. Below
are some properties you need to consider in buying products.

Corrosive

These corrosive products are often presented in dilute amounts, some,

may not be even harmful upon acute exposure. However, prolonged
exposure (if not immediately washed and rinsed with water) can lead
to corrosive burns.

These also serve as a warning to keep away from the eyes and nose.
Aerosolized products once dispersed can be light enough to linger in
the air. These molecules can then make contact with the eye, or be
inhaled.

Poison/Toxic

As mentioned in previous topics, certain products are really meant to

act as a poison. A pesticide is harmful towards certain organisms. But
remember, toxicity is a function of concentration. If you are exposed
constantly, certain toxins may accumulate.

Learn about it!

More than symbols, product labels provide certain information that is
essential for the product’s use and maintenance.

Storage Instructions

Products contain information about specific storage instructions to

keep their functionality.

Directions for Use

Products such as pesticides have specific instructions to better use

the product while maintaining the health of the user and the materials
which these household products are applied to.

Manufacturing and Expiration Date

Keeping track of the expiration date has obvious reasons. You would
not want the product to be expired before using it. However, the
manufacturing date is also important to keep track of. In the event of
an incident (poisoning, etc.), manufacturers can track the product
down in order to make sure that the batch of products is recalled for
further testing and analysis. This is a process called quality
assurance wherein products are randomly tested for the concentration
of their ingredients and other parameters.

What do you think?

What do you think we should do to lessen the effects of various
compounds from a variety of cosmetics and cleaning products to the
environment given that we are continuously creating new products?

Key Points
 Cleaning products and cosmetic products have various warning
hazards that include flammability, corrosiveness, toxicity, and
harmful to the environment.
 Important details to note in a product label are (but not limited
to) the following: storage, directions, and manufacturing and
expiration dates.

Aristotelian Mechanics
THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain what the Greeks
considered to be the three types of terrestrial motion.

What were the early ideas of Greek philosophers regarding motion?

Learn about it!

How do objects move? How do moving objects stop from moving? The
Greek philosophers sought answers to these questions about motion.
Their ideas on motion were significantly influenced by Aristotle, a
Greek philosopher and astronomer. His ideas were accepted because
they were based on observations and made logical sense.
Ancient Greeks believed that the cosmos or the universe was divided
into two realms – celestial and terrestrial. The motion of the objects in
the celestial realm was perfect and circular. They all revolved around
Earth. On the other hand, the motion in the terrestrial realm was
unstable and imperfect, and there should be a cause for motion.

Learn about it!

Types of Terrestrial Motion
According to Aristotelian mechanics, there are three types of motion:
natural motion, voluntary motion, and involuntary motion.

Natural Motion

Ancient Greek philosophers believed that all things in the terrestrial

realm were made out of the four elements – air, earth, fire, and water.
Their natural motion is to go back to their natural state depending on
the element that composed them. Their motion was either upward or
downward.

The natural state of objects made of earth was in the geosphere. For
example, when a rock, an object made of the element earth, was
thrown upward, its tendency was to go back to its natural state.
Therefore, it would move downward, towards the Earth’s center. On the
other hand, the natural state of objects made of air was in the
atmosphere. For example, the smoke from a flame would move upward
to go back to its natural state.

Similarly, the natural state of objects made of water was in the

hydrosphere while those made of fire was in the thermosphere.

Learn about it!

Voluntary Motion

According to Aristotle, voluntary motion was an innate characteristic

of humans and animals. The cause of their motion was in themselves
because they have the will to move.
Involuntary Motion

Involuntary motion was the characteristic motion of plants and

minerals. They could not move because they do not have the will to do
so. They could only move due to mechanical forces.

Explore
Many years after Aristotle’s time, an Italian physicist, Galileo Galilei
contradicted Aristotle’s ideas on motion. What are his ideas on
motion?

What do you think?

How do ancient Greek philosophers describe the motion of celestial
bodies?

Key Points
The three types of terrestrial motion according to the Aristotelian
mechanics are:

 natural motion where objects tend to go back to their natural

state, which is based on the element that composes them;
 voluntary motion of humans and animals due to their innate will
to move; and
 involuntary motion of minerals and plants due to mechanical
forces.

Diurnal Motion, Annual Motion, and Precession of the Equinoxes

THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain diurnal motion,
annual motion, and precession of the equinoxes.
When you look at the night sky, you will notice that stars appear to be
attached to an imaginary spherical surface. This spherical surface is
known as the celestial spherewhose center is the Earth.

How do celestial bodies move in the celestial sphere?

Learn about it!

The movement of different celestial bodies can be described as diurnal
motion, annual motion, and precession of the equinoxes.

Diurnal Motion

Diurnal motion is the apparent daily revolution of the celestial sphere

around the celestial poles as a direct effect of the Earth’s rotation on
its axis. In other words, it refers to the apparent movement of stars
and other celestial bodies around Earth. The circular path that the
celestial bodies take to complete the diurnal motion is called diurnal
circle.

The apparent motion of celestial bodies viewed from Earth is east to

west. If you observe the night sky, the stars seem to move in a
counter-clockwise direction (from east to west) with respect to Polaris
or North Star. Similarly, the apparent daily motion of the sun, which is
the closest star to Earth, is counter-clockwise. You can observe that
the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

Some stars, called circumpolar stars, never seem to go away from the
horizon, or never set or rise. The closer you get to the poles, the larger
the circle of circumpolar stars is. On the other hand, the nearer you get
to the equator, the circle of circumpolar stars decreases until it
vanishes at the celestial poles.

Learn about it!

Annual Motion
Annual motion is the apparent yearly movement of the stars as
observed from Earth as a direct effect of the Earth’s revolution around
the sun.

The sun revolves 360 degrees a year around a path on the celestial
sphere called the ecliptic. The sun moves eastward with respect to the
stars on the celestial sphere. It can be observed that the sun’s altitude
changes with season. Its altitude is at maximum during summer
solstice and at minimum during winter solstice. Also, sunrise and
sunset points in the horizon changes with season. The sun rises north
of east in the summer, and south of east in the winter.

As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, different stars and

constellations appear on the horizon throughout the year. These are
known as the constellations of the Zodiac.

Learn about it!

Precession of the Equinoxes

As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, it intersects the celestial

equator twice during a year at two points. These points are called the
equinoxes: vernal and autumnal. During an equinox, the length of
daytime is almost equal to the length of nighttime. Vernal or spring
equinox happens every March 20 while autumnal equinox occurs every
September 22. The gravitational force of the sun and the moon on
Earth causes the cyclic precession or “wobbling” of the Earth’s axis of
rotation.

Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the equinoxes

along the ecliptic as Earth ‘wobbles,’ and this motion happens about
every 26 000 years. At present, Earth’s North Pole points to Polaris.
However, it will eventually point to another star, Vega, because of
precession.

Explore!
Different stars and constellations appear on the horizon throughout
the year. These are known as the constellations of the Zodiac.
Research what these constellations of the Zodiac are and how they
move as the Earth wobbles.

What do you think?

How did astronomers know that the Earth is spherical?

Key Points
 Diurnal motion is the apparent daily motion of the stars, including
the Sun as seen from the Earth due to the Earth’s rotation.
 Annual motion is the apparent yearly motion of the stars,
including the Sun as seen from the Earth due to the Earth’s
revolution around the Sun.
 Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the
equinoxes along the ecliptic as the Earth wobbles.

How the Greeks Knew That the Earth Is Spherical

THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how the Greeks
knew that the Earth is spherical.

The shape of the Earth is oblate spheroid. It has bulging equator and
squeezed poles.

Have you ever wondered what the early philosophers thought about
the shape of the Earth?

Learn about it!

Around 500 B.C., most Greeks believed that the Earth was round, not
flat. It was Pythagoras and his pupils who were first to propose a
spherical Earth.
In 500 to 430 B.C., Anaxagoras further supported Pythagoras' proposal
through his observations of the shadows that the Earth cast on the
Moon during a lunar eclipse. He observed that during a lunar eclipse,
the Earth's shadow was reflected on the Moon's surface. The shadow
reflected was circular.

Around 340 B.C., Aristotle listed several arguments for a spherical

Earth which included the positions of the North star, the shape of the
Moon and the Sun, and the disappearance of the ships when they sail
over the horizon.

North Star
The North Star was believed to be at a fixed position in the sky.
However, when the Greeks traveled to places nearer the equator, like
Egypt, they noticed that the North Star is closer to the horizon.

The Shape of the Sun and the Moon

Aristotle argued that if the Moon and the Sun were both spherical, then
perhaps, the Earth was also spherical.

Disappearing Ships
If the Earth was flat, then a ship traveling away from an observer
should become smaller and smaller until it disappeared. However, the
Greeks observed that the ship became smaller and then its hull
disappeared first before the sail as if it was being enveloped by the
water until it completely disappeared.

Learn about it!

The Size of the Spherical Earth
Ancient scholars tried to provide proof of a spherical Earth and its
circumference through calculations. It was Eratosthenes who gave the
most accurate size during their time. While he was working at the
Library of Alexandria in Northern Egypt, he received correspondence
from Syene in Southern Egypt which stated that a vertical object did
not cast any shadow at noontime during the summer solstice. But this
was not the case in Alexandria where, at noon time during the summer
solstice, a vertical object still casts a shadow. These observations
could only mean that the Sun, during this time in Alexandria, was not
directly overhead.

Eratosthenes then determined the angle the Sun made with the
vertical direction by measuring the shadow that a vertical stick cast.
He found out that in Alexandria, the Sun makes an angle of 7.2° from
the vertical while 0° in Syene. To explain the difference, he
hypothesized that the light rays coming from the sun are parallel, and
the Earth is curved.

From his measurements, he computed the circumference of the Earth

to be approximately 250 000 stadia (a stadium is a unit of
measurement used to describe the size of a typical stadium at the
time), about 40 000 kilometers.

Try it!
Prepare a flashlight and two ping pong balls. In a dark room, align the
flashlight and the balls horizontally. Illuminate one ball with the
flashlight and observe the shadow it casts on the ball behind it.

What is the shape of the shadow? How is the result of the experiment
related to Aristotle's arguments about the shape of the Earth?

What do you think?

What could life on Earth be like if it is not a sphere?

Key Points
The following observations led the Greeks to conclude that the Earth
is sphere:

 The Earth casts a circular shadow on the Moon during a lunar

eclipse.
 The North Star has different positions depending on the location
of the observer.

 The Moon and the Sun are both spherical.

 A sailing ship becomes smaller and then its hull disappears first
before the sail as if it is being enveloped by the water until it
completely disappears.

 The angle of the Sun with the vertical direction at noon time
during a summer solstice varies from place to place.

How Plato's Problem of "Saving the Appearances" Constrained Greek

Models of the Universe
THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how Plato’s
problem in “saving the appearances” constrained Greek models of the
universe.

How did Plato’s ‘saving the appearances’ disproved the Greeks models
of the universe?

Learn about it!

Greeks' Notion on the Movement of Planets
In Greek Astronomy, the philosophers favored a broader approach
when it comes to theories on the movement of planets. Greeks were
able to formulate a scheme of planetary motion based on the present
observations that they account that time. The two most notable
principles of Greek philosophers in describing the motion of the stars,
the sun, and the planets include the theory of planetary motion and the
apparent motion of the planets.

The theory of planetary motion assumed that the planets must move
‘perfectly’ in a circular motion. In the same way, the Greeks believed
that the apparent motion of the planets were based on the uniformity
of their behavior as move on their orbits, without considering the
irregularities in their movement. For example, in the celestial sphere,
the stars appear to rotate uniformly, from east to west, until they
return back to their starting point. From these ideas, Plato posed an
important question to his students that revolved in the two main
principles of the Greek philosophers.

Plato’s ‘Saving the Appearances’

Before he posed his question, Plato first cited his observations about
the stars and the planets. He explained that the stars appear to move
around the earth in a 'perfect' path. However, he described that some
of the ‘stars’ appear to 'wander' across the sky, giving irregular figures
throughout the year. He accounted the 'wandering stars'
as planets and that they move in a uniform and orderly manner in
circles or in combinations of circles. Finally, he asked his students on
how can they explain all these observations about the planetary
motion and ‘save the appearances’ (in today's term, 'fit the
observations with the data').

He posed the question because the observations about the planetary

motion and the apparent motions of the planets did not seem to
coincide with each other. Given that the planets move in a perfect path
or in a uniform circular motion, there were still apparent irregular
motions of the planets or planets that still 'wander' across the sky.

Learn about it!

Plato’s question was not meant for him to answer but instead, it
became the goal of astronomers and philosophers.

The Aristotelian System

Aristotle believed that all matter consists of a mixture of four

elements: earth, water, air, and fire. Each of these elements has a
tendency to reach its ‘natural place’. However, these elements are only
present in terrestrial objects. In the case of the celestial bodies, a fifth
element called aether, was the reason why the heavens were created.
The aether has its own motion based on its nature: pure and absolute.
Its motion has no end and no beginning; thus, its natural place is
a circular motion. However, the Earth was an exception. It cannot have
the circular motion of the aether due to its nature, which was primarily
composed of the element earth.

Based on this philosophy, Aristotle devised a system to explain the

uniform and ordered movement of the celestial bodies. In his system,
the stars were embedded outside the largest sphere where the “prime
mover” is found. The prime mover keeps the stars moving in a constant
motion, causing a friction to the smaller spheres of the outer planets
and the spheres where the sun and the inner planets were located.

Aristotle, however, was not able to explain the apparent motion of

celestial bodies. Using his system, he was not able to explain why the
sun, the moon, Venus, and Jupiter seemed brighter, closer or farther
from the Earth at times. A set of uniform motions of the celestial
bodies around the Earth means that these bodies cannot change their
distance from the Earth.

Learn about it!

The Heliocentric Theory

It was Aristarchus of Samus who first suggested a system that puts

the sun at the center of the universe, where the moon, the earth, and
the five planets, revolved around the sun in different sizes of orbits at
different speeds. However, there were serious flaws that the ancient
people saw in his system.

First, Aristarchus violated their philosophical doctrines: the Earth is

immobile and its natural place is at the center of the universe, and the
position of the sun is differentiated from the celestial bodies. Second,
he was not able to provide mathematical computations and predictions
of the celestial paths. Finally, the Greek thinkers refuted Aristarchus
idea by creative reasoning. They posed a scenario that if the earth
moves around the sun, the large orbit of the earth will carry itself
closer or farther to a certain fixed star in the celestial sphere. Thus,
the angle at which the star is viewed will be different with the
different points as observed in the earth annually (known today as the
annual parallax).
With all these flaws, the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus was
disregarded by the Greek thinkers.

Learn about it!

The Modified Geocentric Model

Apollonius, Hipparchus, and an influential astronomer, Claudius

Ptolemy modified the geocentric theory to answer the question posed
by Plato that had not been answered by the previous geocentric
theory. This modified theory states that:

1. The celestial bodies move in an eccentric path if these bodies do

not move around in a uniform circular motion around the
stationary earth.
2. The celestial bodies, such as the sun or a certain planet, have
two uniform circular motions, as depicted with a small circle
(epicycle) and a larger circle (deferent) which take different
speeds and direction. The reversal in the direction of motion is
called retrograde motion. During this motion, the planets appear
brighter because it is closer to the earth.
However, with all these modifications in the previous geocentric
theory, this modified theory still failed to answer the question posed by
Plato.

The Ptolemaic System

Of all the theories, systems, and ideas that had been laid down to
answer Plato's question, Claudius Ptolemy was the only one who was
able to answer Plato's question. He still made a few modifications of
the modified geocentric theory and was able to explain about the
planetary motion and the apparent motion of the planets. This theory
gave an accurate description of what could be observed given the
instruments they use and was based on the Greeks' philosophical and
physical doctrine regarding nature and the celestial bodies.

However, the success of this theory in answering Plato's "saving the

appearances" had been displaced with the heliocentric theory, which
is up to now, has been the accepted model of the universe.
Key Points
 The two most notable principles of Greek philosophers in
describing the motion of the stars, sun, and planets include the
theory of planetary motion and the apparent motion of the
planets.
 From these ideas, Plato posed an important question to his
students that revolved in the two main principles of the Greek
philosophers.

 He explained that the stars, given that they are unchanging

bodies, appear to move around the earth in a perfect path.

 He described that some of the ‘stars’ appear to wander across

the sky, giving irregular figures throughout the year. He
accounted them as planets and defined that these planets move
in a uniform and orderly manner in circles or combination of
circles.

 He asked his students on how can they explain all these

observations in the planetary motion and ‘save the appearances’
(in today's term, 'fit the data').

The Models of the Universe: Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy,

and Copernicus
THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to compare and contrast the
models of the universe by Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and
Copernicus.

What are the models of the universe proposed by different

philosophers?

Learn about it!

Eudoxus’ Model
Eudoxus of Cnidus (born c. 395 – 390 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and
mathematician, was the first to propose a model of the universe based
on geometry. His model composed of 27 concentric spheres with Earth
as the center. The Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the fixed stars have
spheres. Each sphere is attached to a larger sphere through a pole.
The rotation of the spheres on their poles once every 24 hours
accounts for the daily rotation of the heavens. It is unclear whether
Eudoxus regarded these spheres as physical entities or just
mathematical constructions.

Aristotle’s Model
Aristotle (born c. 384 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and astronomer,
considered the model proposed by Eudoxus, but he considered these
spheres as physical entities. He thought that these spheres were filled
with the divine and eternal “ether” that caused the spheres to move.
He introduced the Prime Mover, as the cause of the movement of the
spheres. His model composed of 56 spheres that guided the motion of
the Sun, the Moon, and five known planets. As the spheres move, they
maintained the same distance from the Earth. Also, they moved at
constant speeds.

Learn about it!

Aristarchus' Model
Aristarchus of Samos (born c. 310 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and
mathematician, was the first to hypothesize that the Sun is the center
of the universe. He visualized that the Moon orbits around a spherical
Earth which then revolves around the Sun. He believed that the stars
are very far away from the Earth as evidenced by the absence of
stellar parallax – that is, the stars do not change positions relative to
each other as the Earth revolves around the Sun.

Through geometrical models and mathematical computations, he

concluded that the Sun is 20 times farther from the Earth than the
Moon is to the Earth; the Earth is about three times larger than the
Moon; and the Sun is 20 times larger than the Moon. He also reasoned
out that smaller spheres orbit around larger ones. Thus, the Moon
orbits around the Earth, and the Earth orbits around the Sun.

Learn about it!

Ptolemy’s Model
The Sun, Moon, stars, and planets were believed to move in a uniform
circular motion – the “perfect” motion assigned to celestial bodies by
the ancient Greeks. However, observations showed otherwise. The
paths of the celestial bodies are not circular, and they vary in
distances. Babylonians even showed that some planets exhibit a
retrograde motion – a motion opposite to that of other planets.

To explain “imperfect motions” of heavenly bodies, Claudius

Ptolemy (born c. 90 A.D.), a Greco-Egyptian astronomer and
mathematician, proposed his own geocentric (Earth-centered) model
of the universe. He accounted for the apparent motions of the planets
around the Earth by assuming that each planet moved around a sphere
called an epicycle. The center of the epicycle then moved on a larger
sphere called a deferent.

The Ptolemaic System

1. A planet moves counter-clockwise around the epicycle.

 2. The epicycle’s center also moves counter-clockwise around the center
of the deferent (indicated by the + sign in the image).

3. The center of the epicycle moves around the equant with a uniform
speed.

4. The Earth is not exactly at the center of the deferent, or it is eccentric

(off the center). This explains why, as observed from the Earth, the Sun
or a planet moves slowest when it is farthest from the Earth and moves
fastest when it is nearest the Earth.

5. The motion of the planet can be described by points 1-7 in the figure
below. At point 4, the planet moves in a retrograde (clockwise) motion.
The planet is brightest at this point because it is closest to the Earth.

Learn about it!

Copernicus' Model
In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Renaissance mathematician and
astronomer born in Poland, ended the geocentric astronomy era by
publishing his work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres wherein he explained that the Sun, not the Earth, is the center
of the universe.
In his work, he reiterated the ancient Greek concept that the motion of
spherical heavenly bodies is uniform, eternal, and circular. He then
reasoned that because Earth is spherical, then its motion is circular.
He added that the Earth has three different motions: daily rotation on
its axis, yearly motion around the Sun, and the precession, or change
in orientation, of its axis every 26 000 years.

He also proposed that the fixed stars are immovable. Their apparent
movement is a consequence of the Earth’s rotation. These stars are at
immeasurable distances from the Earth, so there is no observable
parallax.

By placing the Sun at the center of the universe and the orbits of
Mercury and Venus in between the Sun and the Earth, Copernicus’
model was able to account for the changes in the appearances of
these planets and their retrograde motions. The need for epicycles in
explaining motions was eliminated.

Try it!
Parallax is the effect wherein an object’s position appears to change
when viewed by an observer from different positions. You can
demonstrate this by looking at your forefinger at arm’s length. Cover
your left eye and look at your forefinger. Then transfer the cover on
your right eye and observe the position of your forefinger. What did you
observe?

What do you think?

What models of the universe are accepted in the scientific community
today?

Key Points
 Eudoxus’, Aristotle’s, and Ptolemy’s models have the Earth as the
center of the universe while Aristarchus’ and Copernicus’ models
have the Sun as the center.
  Eudoxus’ model has 27 concentric spheres for the Sun, Moon,
planets, and the stars whose common center is the Earth.

 Aristotle’s model of the universe is composed of 56 spheres

guiding the motion of Sun, Moon and the five known planets.

 Aristarchus said that smaller celestial bodies must orbit the

larger ones and since the Sun is much larger than the Earth, then
the Earth must orbit around the Sun.

 Ptolemaic model introduced the concepts of epicycle, deferent,

and equant to explain the observed “imperfect” motions of the
planets.

 Copernicus’ model recognized that the Earth rotates on its axis,

revolves around the Sun, and undergoes precession.

Astronomical Phenomena Known to Ast

ronomers before the Advent of Telescopes
THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to cite examples of
astronomical phenomena known to astronomers before the advent of
telescopes.

Which planets are easily seen in the sky without the aid of telescopes?

Learn about it!

Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are easily seen in the sky
without the aid of telescopes. These planets can be easily confused
with stars and are only seen at specific times of the day. The best time
to look for these planets would be before sunrise and after sunset.

Even before the invention of the telescope, ancient people have

already observed different astronomical phenomena. The most
observable objects in the sky are the sun and moon.
Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a primitive version of a
sundial, called gnomon, in systematically observing the motion of the
sun. By looking at the shadows that the gnomon casts, they were able
to observe that the sun rises in the eastern part of the sky, reaches its
highest point in midday, and sets in the western part of the sky.

Also, they recorded that the points where the sun rises and sets on the
horizon varies over a year and these variations happen periodically.
They observed that these variations are related to weather and so
concluded that seasonal changes in climate happen during a course of
one year.

Learn about it!

Phases of the Moon

Ancient people have observed that the moon changes its path and its
appearance within a period of 29.5 days. They observed that the moon
changes its appearance from thin semi-circular disk to full circular
disk. These phases of the moon is the basis of ancient calendars.

Lunar Eclipse
Besides their observation in the different phases of the moon, they
also noticed that there are times when the moon or part of it seemed
to be covered by a shadow for a brief moment. A lunar eclipse occurs
when the Earth casts its shadow on the moon when the Earth is
between the Sun and the Moon.
A phenomenon such as this is known as a lunar eclipse wherein the
moon changes into a dark or blood red color.

Solar Eclipse

Aside from lunar eclipse, the occurrence of a solar eclipse was also
observed. Solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is in between the Sun
and the Earth and the moon partially or completely blocks out the sun.

The Motion of the Stars

It was also observed that the stars appear to be attached to a celestial
sphere that rotates around an axis in one day. This axis intersects the
celestial sphere at a point in the northern sky and is presently close to
the northern star, Polaris. Also, the constellations’ positions in the
night sky vary depending on the time of the year.

Visibility of Planets

Astronomers have discovered that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and

Saturn are planets because they have noticed that the stars are in a
fixed position with respect to each other (like how constellations are
always grouped). But there are very bright stars that change positions
periodically. These “stars” do not belong to any group of constellations
in the sky. Thus, they are called "wanderers” or planetes in Greek
terms.

Explore!
Without using a telescope, try locating the planets Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn in the night sky. Do this every month to see if
there are changes in their positions.

Try it!
Observe how and when a specific constellation changes its position in
the night sky.

Key Points
Even before the advent of the telescopes, ancient astronomers were
able to observe the:

 rising and setting of the Sun in the east and the west,
respectively,
 point where the Sun rises and sets in the horizon varies in a year,

 phases of the moon,

 lunar eclipse,
  solar eclipse,

 daily and annual motion of the stars, and

 planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

Models of Astronomical Phenomena: Copernican, Ptolemaic and

Tychonic
THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE
Astronomical
Phenomena
Copernican
Ptolemaic
Tychonic

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to compare and contrast
different models of astronomical phenomena (Copernican, Ptolemaic,
and Tychonic).

In Modern Science, what are the members of the present known Solar
System?

Learn about it!

Today, the Solar System consists of eight planets namely Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. All these
planets revolve around a massive ball of helium and hydrogen known
as the Sun. There are other bodies within the Solar System such as
moons that revolve around the planets, asteroids, and planetoids.

Before this knowledge of our present-day Solar System, classical

astronomers have developed various models to explain how bodies in
the universe are positioned with respect to each other. Three of the
most popular models are the Copernican, Ptolemaic and Tychonic
models.

Ptolemaic Model
The Ptolemaic model known as the Geocentric model, was developed
by an Egyptian astronomer Claudius Ptolemy. It came from the Greek
words geo meaning Earth and centric meaning center. This model
explains that the Earth is the center of the universe and everything
else revolves around it. Each planet moves in a circular path
called epicycle which moves around a larger circular path
called deferent. The moon revolves around the Earth followed by the
other planets.

Learn about it!

Copernican Model

This is also known as the Heliocentric model developed by a Polish

mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus. It came from the Greek
words helios meaning sun and centricmeaning center. This model
explains that the center of the universe is the Sun and that the
majority of the planets revolve around it. Also, the epicycle moves in
an elliptical motion not circular. The moon revolves around both the
Earth and the Sun while Earth revolves around the Sun.

Tychonic Model

This model was developed by a Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. It was

the combination of Ptolemaic and Copernican models. This explains
that the planets of the Solar System revolve around the Sun but the
Earth is the center of the universe.
The Sun, due to its massive size, attracts the remaining planets and
drags them along its revolution around the Earth - like metals attracted
to a magnet! Simply put, the Sun revolves around the Earth and the
planets revolve around the Sun.

Explore!
Observe the night sky for a week. What do you notice at the stars? Why
do they change position every night? Also, why do you think the night
sky changes with the seasons?
Try it!
Get a tablespoon of sand, a piece of paper, and a magnet. Place the
sand on top of the piece of paper and the magnet at the bottom of the
paper. Move the magnet at any direction. What do you notice in the
sand? Why do you think the sand moved in the same direction the
magnet did? How will you relate it to our topic for today?

What do you think?

Which of the three models of the Universe is most similar to the
present day description of the Solar System?

Key Points
 Ptolemaic model – The Earth is at the center of the universe and
everything in the universe revolves around the Earth.
 Copernican model – The Sun is at the center of the universe and
majority of the bodies in the universe revolves around the Sun.

 Tychonic model – The Earth is at the center of the universe. The

sun revolves around the Earth and all the other planets revolve
around the Sun.

Galileo's Astronomical Discoveries

THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how Galileo’s
astronomical discoveries disprove Greek beliefs of the universe.

How did Galileo's astronomical observations help astronomers look at

the universe in a different point of view?
Learn about it!
Galileo Galilei, a Renaissance Italian astronomer, used
the telescope to observe the cosmos and his discoveries provided
evidence to prove or disprove existing Greek beliefs and models of the
universe

Galileo’s Astronomical Discoveries and Observations

The Ptolemaic Model of the Universe proposed by a Greco-Egyptian

astronomer Claudius Ptolemy posed that the Earth is stationary and is
the center of the universe and that the stars, planets, and the Sun
revolve around it.

Phases of Venus

The Ptolemaic model believed that the Earth was stationary and all
the others including the stars, planets, and the Sun are revolving
around it.
Galileo observed that the brightest planet, Venus, as seen from Earth,
behaved similarly like the Moon. He noticed that Venus has a
systematic change in shadows and lighting,

just like the lunar phases.

Galileo observed that Venus is in its “new phase” when it is in between

the Earth and the Sun and waxes as it moves in its orbit. During this
phase, we cannot see Venus because no light from the Sun is reflected
towards us. Venus is in its “full phase” when the Sun is in between
Venus and Earth. It is still not visible from Earth because the Sun is
blocking it. Through these observations, Galileo disproved that the
other planets revolve around the Earth.
Moons of Jupiter

Prior to the use of telescopes, the satellites or moons of Jupiter were

unknown. When Galileo observed Jupiter, he noticed that there were
planet-like bodies close to it. He first noted that there were four bodies
moving around Jupiter. After some time, one of them disappeared and
“hid” behind Jupiter. He later named the bodies or satellites as Io,
Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa.

The discovery of the moons of Jupiter disproved Ptolemaic Model by

showing that not everything revolves around the Earth.

Learn about it!

Supernovas

Before Galileo concretized the concept of supernovas, scientists have

already observed new stars appearing in the sky. These stars are
called stellar nova or new stars. In 1604, Johannes Kepler, a German
astronomer, observed a nova in Prague. This nova was called
a supernova because the nova exuded enormous amount of light in just
a short period indicating that it was exploding. It was also labelled
as Kepler’s nova.

At the time, Kepler was working as a mathematician at Imperial court

and as Galileo was also a mathematician, they were able to compare
their data of their observations of the said nova all over Europe. They
measured the parallax of the nova from different locations.
A parallax is the angle that can be measured when an observer looks
at the same object from different locations. The greater the distance
between the two locations, the greater the parallax and the closer the
object is to the observer, the greater the parallax. Galileo and Kepler’s
sets of data showed that there were no measurable parallax for the
nova and the fixed stars which means that they were at immeasurable
distances from the Earth even farther than the moon. These
observations were able to show that the sky is changing.

Sizes of the Stars

Ancient Greek philosophers, led by Aristotle, believed that the sky was
perfect and unchanging. Also, the Ptolemaic model states that since
everything revolves around the Earth, the stars’ distance from the
Earth would not change and they should be located at specific
positions as seen from the Earth.
Given that the Earth is moving, the stars should appear to vary in
sizes. However, Galileo noticed that “fixed stars” did not change in size
when observed with the naked eye and observed through a telescope.
He then postulated that if the stars have significant and immeasurable
distances from the Earth, then their size as observed from the Earth
should remain constant. He was able to prove this through his
observations of the supernova in 1604.

Learn about it!

Lunar Craters

Ancient Greeks assumed that the moon had a smooth surface.

Galileo discovered that the surface of the moon was uneven and rough.
He also observed that it had high points (mountains and hills) and low
points (trenches and ditches).

Sunspots

Greek philosophers have expressed the Sun as a source of light, but no

other information about it is available at the time.
Observers back then just thought that the spots found on the Sun are
planets. Galileo clarified this idea. He observed the movement of the
sunspots and noticed that one spot took approximately 14 days to
travel from one side to the other while maintaining its constant speed.
From these observations, he was able to deduce that the Sun also
rotates on an axis.

Explore
The invention of the telescope helped us discover more about the
universe. As technology advances, newer versions of the telescope are
developed. How did the telescope evolve through the years after the
Greeks’ version? What astronomical discoveries were made by the
succeeding versions and who are the scientists behind these
discoveries?

Try it!
Create a concept map of how Galileo’s discoveries proved and
disproved both the Geocentric and Heliocentric models of the
Universe.

Key Points
 The Ptolemaic Model of the Universe posed that the Earth is
stationary, the center of the universe, and that the stars, planets,
and the Sun revolve around it.
 Galileo’s astronomical observations helped weaken the
Ptolemaic model by showing that the stars, planets, and the Sun
do not revolve around the Earththrough his observations of
the phases of Venus, and the moons of Jupiter.
 He showed that the Earth is not stationary through his
observations of the sizes of the stars showing that they appear to
have identical size because of the movement of the Earth and
their immeasurable distance from the Earth.
 Galileo disproved the belief that the sky, the Moon and the Sun
are perfect and unchanging by showing his observations of
the supernova, lunar craters, and sunspots.
Johannes Kepler's Discoveries from Tycho Brahe's Collection of
Astronomical Data
THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how Brahe’s
innovations and extensive collection of data in observational
astronomy paved the way for Kepler’s discovery of his laws of
planetary motion.

How did Johannes Kepler develop his laws of planetary motion from
Tycho Brahe’s astronomical data?

Learn about it!

Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer and nobleman who made

accurate observations of the movement of celestial bodies in an
observatory built for him by King Frederick II of Denmark in 1576. He
was able to invent different astronomical instruments, with the help of
his assistants, and made an extensive study of the solar system. He
was able to determine the position of 777 fixed stars accurately.

Johannes Kepler

When King Frederick II died, and the successor did not fully support
Brahe’s work, he moved to Prague in 1599 where he was supported by
Emperor Rudolf II and worked as an imperial mathematician. Emperor
Rudolf II recommended Johannes Kepler to work for him as an
assistant. Kepler was born to a poor German family and studied as a
scholar at the University of Tübingen in 1589.

Brahe and Kepler's Work

Brahe and Kepler had an unsteady working relationship. Kepler was

Brahe's assistant. However, Brahe mistrusted Kepler with his
astronomical data in fear of being shadowed by his assistant.
Brahe assigned to Kepler the interpretation of his observations of
Mars, whose movement did not match Brahe’s calculations. Kepler was
tasked to figure out what path Mars followed as it revolved around the
Sun. It was believed by many scientists that Brahe gave this task to
Kepler to keep him occupied and left Brahe to develop his laws of
planetary motion.

Learn about it!

Kepler's Discoveries from Brahe's Data

Kepler postulated that there must be a force from the Sun that moves
the planets. He was able to conclude that this force would explain the
orbit of Mars and the Earth, including all the other planets, moved
fastest when it is nearest from the Sun and moved slowest when it is
farthest from the Sun.

Eventually, Brahe decided to give all his data to Kepler hoping that he
would be able to prove his Tychonic system and put together new
tables of astronomical data. This table was known as Rudolphine
Tables, named after the Roman emperor and was useful in determining
the positions of the planets for the past 1000 years and the future
1000 years. This table was the most accurate table that is known to
the astronomical world.

After Brahe died in 1601, Emperor Rudolf II assigned Kepler as the new
imperial mathematician, and all of Brahe’s writings, instruments, and
the Rudolphine tables were passed on to him. From Brahe’s data,
Kepler was able to formulate his laws of planetary motion: the law of
ellipses, the law of equal areas, and the law of harmonies.

Learn about it!

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

The Law of Ellipses

When Kepler tried to figure out Mars’ orbit, it did not fit the then-
famous theory that a planet follows a circular path. He then postulated
that instead of a circular path, planets follow an oval or an ellipse
orbit.

This orbit matched his calculations and explained the “irregularities”

in the movement of Mars. He was able to formulate his first law of
planetary motion, the law of ellipseswhich describes that the actual
path followed by the planets was elliptical, not circular, with the Sun at
one focus of the ellipse.

The Law of Equal Areas

The second law, which is the law of equal areas states that when an
imaginary line is drawn from the center of the Sun to the center of a
planet, the line will sweep out an equal area of space in equal time
intervals.
The law describes how fast a planet moves in its orbit. A planet moves
fastest when it is nearest the Sun and slowest when it is farthest from
the Sun, and still, the same area is swept out by the line in equal
amounts of time.

The Law of Harmonies

The law of harmonies, which is the third law, describes that the square
of a planet’s orbital period (T2) is proportional to the cube of a planet’s
average distance from the Sun (R3). It states that that the ratio of the
squares of the periods of two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes
of the average distances of these two planets from the Sun or:

2
T1/2T2=3R1/3R2
where the subscript 1 indicates planet 1 and subscript 2 indicates
planet 2.

What do you think?

How does Kepler's third law of planetary motion apply to objects in the
solar system?

Key Points
  Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer and nobleman who made
accurate observations of the movement of celestial bodies.
 Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician
who worked as an assistant to Brahe and formulated the three
laws of planetary motion based on Brahe’s extensive
astronomical data.

 The Law of Ellipses which states that planets follow an elliptical

orbit.

 The Law of Equal Areas states that when an imaginary line is

drawn from the center of a planet to the center of the Sun, an
equal amount of space is swept in equal amount of time.

 The Law of Harmonies states that the ratio of the squares of the
period of two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of the
planets’ average distance from the Sun.

Kepler's Third Law of Planetary Motion

THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to apply Kepler’s third law
of planetary motion to objects in the solar system.

How can Kepler's third law of motion be applied to objects in the solar
system?

Learn about it!

How many Earth years does it take for Jupiter to revolve around the
Sun if it is approx. km away from the Sun?

In previous lesson, you have learned how Johannes Kepler used Tycho
Brahe’s extensive astronomical data to come up with the three laws of
planetary motion.
While Kepler’s laws have successfully described the distance and
period of planet’s orbits, Isaac Newton deepened the laws by
integrating his law of universal gravitation. This is highly evident in his
derivation of Kepler’s third law, which, not only describes the planets
discovered during Kepler’s time but predicts the motion of most
planets and local bodies orbiting the Sun that were discovered
thereafter.

Kepler's Third Law of Motion

The proportionality in Kepler’s third law requires the introduction of a

constant k to make it into a functional equation, or

T2=kR3T2=kR3
Newton showed using the law of universal gravitation that

T2=4π2GMsR3T2=4π2GMsR3
where:

T is the period of orbit in seconds (s)

R is in meters (m)

G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2 Nm2/kg2, also known as

universal gravitational constant
MsMs is the mass of the Sun
approximately 1.989x1030kg1.989x1030kg kg
This equation is a good approximation for bodies that revolve around
the Sun where the Sun’s mass is dominant compared to the bodies. It
also neglects relativistic effects. Finally, it is a good approximation for
bodies with low eccentricities.

From this equation, it can be deduced that the farther the body is from
the Sun, the longer it will take complete its orbit.

How can this formula be used?

Step 1: Identify what is asked.

time in Earth years

Step 2: Identify what are the given. Make sure the units are consistent
while solving:

R=778x106km=778x109mR=778x106km=778x109m
G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2
Ms=1.989x1030kgMs=1.989x1030kg
Step 3: Identify the right equation to use. Derive if necessary. For this
problem, the equation should be

T2=4π2GMsR3T2=4π2GMsR3
T=4π2GMsR3−−−−−−√T=4π2GMsR3
Step 4: Substitute the given values to the formula, and solve for what
is being asked.

T=4(3.14)2(6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2)(1.989x1030kg)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−−−√(778x109m)3T=4(3.14)2(6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2)(1.989x1030kg)
(778x109m)3
T=3.74x108sT=3.74x108s
Step 5: Examine the final answer. Check if it answers the problem. For
this problem, T should be in Earth years, therefore,

T=3.74x108s(1hr3600s)(1day24hr)(1Earthyear365.26days)T=3.74x108s(1hr3600s)
(1day24hr)(1Earthyear365.26days)
T=11.9EarthyearsT=11.9Earthyears
This mean it takes Jupiter 11.9 years to complete one orbit around the
Sun.

Try it!
Estimate how far is Earth from the Sun if it takes 365.25 days for it to
complete one orbit. Express the answer in kilometers.

Try it! Solution

Step 1: Identify what is asked.
R in kilometers.

Step 2: Identify what is given.

T=365.25daysor31557600sT=365.25daysor31557600s
G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2
Ms=1.989x1030kgMs=1.989x1030kg
Step 3: Identify the right equation to use.

T2=4π2GMsR3T2=4π2GMsR3
R3=T2GMs4π2R3=T2GMs4π2
R=T2GMs4π2−−−−−−√3R=T2GMs4π23
Step 4: Substitute the given.

R=T2GMs4π2−−−−−−√3R=T2GMs4π23
R=(31

557600s)2(6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2(1.989x1030kg)4(3.14)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−√3R=(31557600s)2(6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2(1.989x1030kg)4(3.14)23
R=1.50x1011mR=1.50x1011m
Step 5: The problem is asking for R in kilometers. Therefore,

R=1.50x1011m(1km1000m)R=1.50x1011m(1km1000m)
R=1.50x108km

What do you think?

How many days would it take for Mars to revolve around the Sun once
if it is away from the Sun?

Key Points
 According to Newton, Kepler’s third law of planetary motion not
only describes the planets discovered during Kepler’s time but
 predicts the motion of most planets and local bodies orbiting the
Sun that were discovered thereafter.
 The farther the body is from the Sun, the longer it will take
complete its orbit.

Aristotelian Conceptions: Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and

Projectile Motion
UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain Aristotle’s
conceptions in motion (vertical motion, horizontal motion, and
projectile motion).

Aristotle is one of most influential Greek philosophers whose ideas

were the basis for many concepts that time.

How did he view and explain the motion of objects?

Learn about it!

Aristotle’s view on motion was based on his observations, which made
his ideas acceptable and stood for many years.

Motion is an object’s change in position with respect to time.

According to Aristotle, motion can either be a natural motion or a
violent motion.

Natural Motion
An object will move and will eventually return to its natural state
depending on the composition that the object is made of. An object
made of material similar to earth will return to earth or an object that
is similar to air will return to the air. For example, a ball mostly
resembles the earth so when it is thrown upward its natural tendency
is to go back to Earth, its natural state or the smoke mostly resembles
the air so its natural tendency is to go up the atmosphere.

Violent motion
An object will move if an external force such as pushing or pulling is
applied to it. No motion will take place unless there is a 'mover' in
contact with an object.

Learn about it!

Aristotle’s View on Projectile Motion

Aristotle believed that the motion of an object is parallel to the ground

until it is the object's time to fall back into the ground. An impetus will
be kept by the object until such time that the initial force is forgotten,
and the object returns to its natural state to stop moving and fall to
the ground.

Example
A cannon is fired which give the cannonball an impetus that will
dictate its course until such time that the impetus is forgotten, and the
cannonball will naturally fall to the ground.

What do you think?

What ideas challenged the Aristotelian principle of motion?

Key Points
 According to Aristotle, motion can either be a natural motion or a
violent motion.
 An object will move and will eventually return to its natural state
depending on the composition that the object is made of. This
referred as the natural motionof an object.
  An object will move if an external force such as pushing or
pulling is applied to it. This is referred as the violent motion of an
object.

 The motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it is the

object's time to fall back into the ground. This is referred as
the projectile motion of an object.

Galilean Conceptions: Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and

Projectile Motion
UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to describe how Galileo used his
discoveries in mechanics (and astronomy) to address scientific
objections to the Copernican model.

Why do objects move?

Scientists and philosophers alike have been trying to answer this

question even before 300 B.C. One of the well-known philosophers who
attempted to do this was Aristotle. His attempt was based on
inductive-deductive reasoning and was accepted for centuries.

However, Galileo Galilei challenged the Aristotelian view of motion

when he had his actual and thorough experiments. He disagreed with
most of Aristotle’s claims and provided his own description of motion.

Learn about it!

Galilean Conceptions vs. Aristotelian Conceptions

According to Aristotle, motion can be either natural or violent motion.

In a natural motion, the object will move and will return to its natural
state based on the object's material or composition. In contrast, an
object moving in a violent motion requires an external force (push or
pull) for the object to move.
He also had his view on the projectile motion of an object. He believed
that an object thrown at a certain angle is given an impetus—a force or
energy that permits an object to move. It will continue to move in such
state until the object’s impetus is lost, and the object returns to its
natural state, causing it to stop and fall to the ground.

Galileo disproved Aristotle’s claims and believed that the motion of

objects is not simply due to the composition of objects. He mentioned
that motion can be described by mathematics and the changes in
some physical variables such as time and distance. Using his actual
and thorough experiments, he was able to prove that:

1. an object in uniform motion will travel a distance that is

proportional to the time it will take to travel;
2. a uniformly accelerating object will travel at a speed proportional
to some factor of time; and

3. an object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in motion;

an external force is not necessary to maintain the motion.

Learn about it!

Galileo's Conceptions of Motion

Horizontal motion

An object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in motion, and an

external force is not necessary to maintain the motion. If the Earth’s
surface is very flat and extended infinitely, objects that are pushed
will not be impeded. Thus, the objects will continue to move. This kind
of motion, however, is not evident in nature. For example, if a ball is
pushed on an infinitely flat plane, the ball will continue to roll if
unimpeded.
Vertical motion

In the absence of a resistance, objects would fall not depending on

their weight, but in the time of fall. Also, if the object encountered a
resistive force from a fluid equal or greater than its weight, it will slow
down and reaches a uniform motion until it reaches the bottom and
stops. For example, without any resistance, a 1-kg object will be as fast
as a 10-kg object when falling because they fall with the same amount
of time, given that they are released from the same height. Also, a
stone dropped in the ocean will sooner or later travel at constant
speed.

Learn about it!

Projectile motion

Galileo believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in

the horizontal direction and uniformly accelerated motion in the
vertical direction. If it is not impeded, it will continue to move even
without an applied force. For example, when you shoot a ball in a
basketball ring, the ball does not need a force to keep it moving.
Explore!
In a vacuum chamber, a 1-kg object and 10-kg object was dropped at a
certain height and at the same time. Which of the following objects will
reach the ground first?

Try it!
Who has a more acceptable view of falling objects, Aristotle or
Galileo? Try to test it in the following activities below. Take note that in
every activity, both objects should be dropped at the same time and at
the same height.

1. Drop a book and a flat sheet of paper coming.

2. Drop a book and a sheet of paper crumbled to a ball.

3. Drop a book with a small flat sheet of paper on top of it.

In all three cases, which object reach the ground first? Whose view is
more acceptable then, and why?

Key Points
 Galileo believed that an object in uniform motion will travel a
distance that is proportional to the time it took to travel; a
uniformly accelerating object will travel with a speed
 proportional to some factor of time; and an object in motion, if
unimpeded, will continue to be in motion; an external force is not
necessary to maintain the motion.
 Galileo believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform
motion in the horizontal direction and uniformly accelerated
motion in the vertical direction.

How Galileo Inferred That Objects in Vacuum Fall with Uniform

Acceleration
UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how Galileo
inferred that objects in vacuum fall with uniform acceleration.

Recall that a body moving with uniform acceleration changes its speed
by a constant value per unit of time.

Imagine yourself holding a bowling ball and a ping pong ball. If you
drop these balls simultaneously, which ball do you think would have
greater acceleration upon reaching the ground? Why?

Learn about it!

Galileo proved with his experiments that when objects are dropped
simultaneously, they will reach the ground at the same time regardless
of their masses and air resistance. In another set of experiments, he
discovered that objects fall with uniform acceleration.

Galileo was fascinated by the behavior of falling objects. He knew that

falling objects increase their speed as they go down. This change in
speed is acceleration. However, he did not have any equipment to
measure this change, so he used inclined planes to lessen the
acceleration of the moving bodies. He was then able to investigate the
moving bodies carefully.
On his experiment, he had observed the following:

 A ball rolling down an inclined plane increases its speed by the

same value after every second. For example, the speed of a
rolling ball was found to increase by 2 m/s every second. This
means that the rolling ball would have the following speeds for
every given second

 As the inclined plane becomes steeper, the acceleration of the

rolling ball increases.
 The maximum acceleration of the rolling ball was reached when
the inclined plane was positioned vertically as if the ball is
simply falling

These observations lead Galileo to conclude that regardless of the

mass of objects and air resistance, falling objects would always have
uniform acceleration.

Example
Hold a book and a piece of paper at the same height, then drop them
simultaneously. Did the objects reach the ground at the same time? If
no, which object reached the ground first?
Now, perform the same procedure, but this time, crumple the paper.
Did the objects reach the ground at the same time? If no, which object
reached the ground first?

This experiment agrees with Galileo’s findings that when there is little
or no air resistance, objects that are dropped simultaneously will
reach the ground at the same time, regardless of their masses. Given
that both objects (paper and book) reached the ground simultaneously,
we can infer that the increase in speed of each object is equal.
Therefore, falling objects have the same acceleration when there is no
air resistance (e.g. vacuum).

Recall the question at the start of this lesson regarding the bowling
and ping pong balls. When these balls are thrown from the same height
and in a vacuum, they will fall at the same acceleration regardless of
their masses.

Explore
Given two one peso coins, released at the same time, Coin A is
dropped while Coin B is thrown horizontally coming from the same
height. Which one do you think would reach the ground first?

Try it!
If an object falls with an acceleration of 5 m/s what would be its speed
2

after 3 s given its starts at 0 m/s at 0s?

What do you think?

If a speedometer is attached to a falling object and the reading
increases by 10 m/s every second, what is the object’s acceleration?

Key Points
  A body with uniform acceleration changes its speed by a
constant value.
 Galileo proved that when objects are released simultaneously
from a certain height, they reach the ground at the same time,
regardless of their masses and air resistance.

 Galileo discovered that all objects fall with the uniform

acceleration in vacuum.

The Position vs. Time and Velocity vs. Time Graphs of Constant
Velocity Motion
UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the
position vs. time and velocity vs. time graphs of constant velocity
motion are different from those of constant acceleration motion.

Recall the following terms of the basic quantities that describe

motion.

 Distance is the total length or ground covered by an object.

 Displacement is the change in the position of an object or the
shortest distance between the initial and the final position of an
object .

 Speed is how fast the object is moving and can be calculated by

dividing the total distance by the total time spent to cover that
distance.

 Velocity is how fast and where the object is moving and can be
calculated by dividing the displacement of an object to the time
spent.

 Acceleration is the change in the velocity of an object per unit

time. An object accelerates when there is a change in the
object’s speed, direction, or both speed and direction.
Learn about it!
An object is said to be in motion when its position changes relative to
a reference point, usually the ground. The motion of an object can be
described in different ways; it can be described using distance,
displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.

Motion can also be presented graphically like the position vs. time and
velocity vs. time graphs which show the type of motion an object
undergoes in a unit of time.

Position vs. Time Graph of Constant Velocity

A position vs. time graph of a body moving with constant velocity in a

straight path will look like the graph below.

The graph shows that as time goes by, the body changes position by
the same amount; hence, it shows a straight line with a slope slanting
to the right. The slope of a position vs time graph represents velocity.
If we calculate the slope of this line, we will get a constant value that
corresponds to the velocity of the body.

slope=riserun=△y△x=y2−y1x2−x1slope=riserun=△y△x=y2−y1x2−x1
In this graph, the slope at positions 0-2 m is:

slope=y2−y1x2−x1=2m−01s−0=2m/sslope=y2−y1x2−x1=2m−01s−0=2m/s
While the slope at positions 4-6 m is:

slope=y2−y1x2−x1=6m−4m3s−2s=2m/sslope=y2−y1x2−x1=6m−4m3s−2s=2m/
s
The calculated slopes show the same value which means that the
body is moving with constant velocity.

Learn about it!

Velocity vs. Time Graph of Constant Velocity

The velocity vs. time time graph of a body moving with constant
velocity looks like the graph below.

The graph shows that as time goes by, the body's velocity does not
change; hence, the graph is a horizontal line. If we calculate the slope
for this line which corresponds to the body’s acceleration, it will reveal
this value:

In this graph, the slope at 2-3 seconds is:

slope=y2−y1x2−x1=2m/s−2m/s3s−2s=0m/s1s=0m/s2

Learn about it!

Velocity vs. Time Graph of Constant Acceleration
The velocity vs time graph of a body moving with constant
acceleration is shown below.

The graph looks exactly the same with the position vs. time graph of a
body moving with constant velocity but this one means the opposite.
The body in this graph is accelerating with a constant value that can
be shown by calculating its slope.

Slope at positions 2-3 seconds:

slope=y2−y1x2−x1=6m/s−4m/s3s−2s=2m/s1s=2m/s2slope=y2−y1x2−x1=6m/s−4
m/s3s−2s=2m/s1s=2m/s2
Slope at positions 4-5 seconds:

slope=y2−y1x2−x1=10m/s−8m/s5s−4s=2m/s1s=2m/s2

Try it!
Draw the position vs. time and velocity vs. time graph of the following
scenario:

You walk 3 m to the kitchen at a velocity of 1 m/s, pause by the sink for
2 s, and walk back to the living room at 1 m/s.

Key Points
  The position vs. time graph of a body moving with constant
velocity is a straight line that slants to the right and has a
constant slope that corresponds to the body’s constant velocity.
 The velocity vs. time graph of a body moving with constant
velocity is a flat line and has a zero slope which means the body
is not accelerating.

 The velocity vs. time graph of a body moving with constant

acceleration is a straight line slanting to the right and has a
constant value for its slope which corresponds to the body’s
constant acceleration.

Acceleration in Physics
UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to recognize that the
everyday usage and the physics usage of the term “acceleration”
differ.

When does an object accelerate? Does the term only refer to fast-
moving objects?

earn about it!

Acceleration in everyday usage

In everyday terms, acceleration refers to objects which are moving so

fast. This is demonstrated in a speeding race car or a runner who
accelerates to finish a short sprint. On the other hand, a race car that
suddenly slows down or a runner who accidentally stumbles is not
accelerating.

Acceleration in physics
In physics, an object that moves fast may not be accelerating. Also, an
object that moves slowly may be accelerating.

Acceleration is the rate at which an object’s velocity

changes. Velocity is the rate at which an object changes position.
Acceleration indicates how fast an object changes its velocity. Just
like velocity, it is a vector quantity, which means it has both magnitude
and direction. Magnitude refers to the amount or size of a quantity. For
example, 3 m/s.

An object accelerates when its velocity changes in magnitude,

direction, or both

magnitude and direction.

Example
The car in the following situations is accelerating.

A. When the traffic light turned green, the car sped up from 0 km/hr to
20 km/hr.

B. When the driver saw the pedestrian, the car slowed down from 20
km/hr to 0.

C. The driver turned the car to the right while maintaining his speed of
40 km/hr.

In situation A, the car is accelerating because the magnitude of the

car’s velocity changed. It increased from 0 km/hr to 20 km/hr.

In situation B, where the car decreased its velocity from 20 km/hr to 0

is accelerating because there is a change in the magnitude of its
velocity. It accelerates even if it went slower and eventually stopped.

An object which maintains a constant magnitude of velocity but

changes direction is accelerating. This can be seen in situation
C where the driver was initially going 40 km/hr forward and turned 40
km/hr to the right. The car accelerates because there is a change in its
velocity’s direction.
An object that goes from 40 km/hr eastward to 20 km/hr southward
accelerates because there is a change in its velocity’s magnitude and
direction.

Learn about it!

Objects that move in uniform circular motion have constant speeds but
still accelerate because they constantly change in direction as they go
around the circular path.

Satellites orbiting the Earth maintain a nearly circular orbit and travel
very fast at an almost constant speed like the International Space
Station which moves at approximately 27 000 km/hr. Even though
these satellites have constant speeds, they are accelerating because
they constantly change direction as they move in a circular path
around the Earth.

Try it!
Conduct a survey to at least 20 persons about how they perceive
acceleration. How many persons have misconceptions on what
acceleration is?

What do you think?

How is an object’s acceleration related to its mass and the force
applied to it?

Key Points
 In everyday usage, acceleration refers to fast moving objects
such as a speeding race car.
 In physics, acceleration is the rate of change in an object’s
velocity.
  An object accelerates when there is a change in its velocity –
which means there could either be a change in its magnitude,
direction, or both magnitude and direction.

The Three Laws of Motion

UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain each of
Newton’s three laws of motion.

The systematical study of motion started way back from the ancient
civilizations when they started observing and predicting the motion of
stars, planets, and other celestial bodies. Aristotle stated that motion
can be classified as ‘natural’ and ‘violent’ motion.

Natural motion can be observed in nature, such as falling of leaves

while violent motion is one that is unnatural and instigated by other
factors. For example, it is natural for a rock to roll down the hill, but in
order for the rock to move up the hill, someone or something must
push it upward.

Learn about it!

After a couple of millennia, several more scientific studies about
motion has been made.

Sir Isaac Newton in 1687 published his book entitled Philosophiae

Naturalis Principia Mathematica (The Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy) which contains his treatise on motion and the
three laws of motion.

The laws of motion are useful ways of thinking about the motion of
everyday objects. Though considered as a scientific law, it still has
limitations.
The laws of motion are valid when the objects we are analyzing are not
travelling at the speed of light nor the object is too small.

Learn about it!

Inertia

Inertia is the existing state of matter, whether at rest or in uniform

motion in a straight line unless a net external force is applied to
change its state. It is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its
state of motion.

1st Law: The Law of Inertia

An object at rest or in motion will stay at rest or in motion with

constant velocity unless acted upon by a net external force.

According to this law, an object at rest will remain at rest unless you
push or pull them with enough net force.

For instance, when a book is at rest on the table several forces act on
it: the downward force exerted by gravity and the upward or normal
force exerted by the table on the book. When we say net force, the sum
of all the forces acting on the object is equal to zero thus, it is at rest
or there is no change in its speed. In the case of the book, the
downward and normal force are of the same magnitude but opposite in
direction that is why they add up to zero.

The same is true for objects that are moving. If no net force acts on a
moving object, then it will neither increase nor decrease its speed.
Therefore, it will continue to move with constant speed in a straight
line.

For instance, why do we move forward when the driver steps on the
brakes after moving at a constant speed in a straight line? When the
car moves, our body moves with it. Based on the first law, in the
absence of a net force, an object will move at a constant speed. When
net external force is applied, in this case, when the driver steps on the
brakes, then there is a change in the velocity of the car; however,
because of inertia, our body tends to stay in motion that is why our
body moves forward involuntarily.

On the other hand, when we are on a car that is at rest, our body is
also at rest. When a net external force is applied to the car that starts
the car moving, our body tends to stay at rest that is why our body
moves backwards involuntarily.

Inertia and Mass

An object’s inertia depends on its mass. Mass is the amount of matter

in an object. It is a quantity that only depends on the inertia of an
object. This implies that heavier objects are harder to move or when it
is already moving, it is hard to stop. Simply put, the greater the mass,
the greater the amount of inertia.

Learn about it!

2nd Law: The Law of Acceleration

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force

exerted on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.

This can be mathematically expressed as

a=Fma=Fm
where

a is the acceleration of an object

F is the force applied on an object

m is the mass of an object

The second law picks up where the first law ends. The law of
acceleration describes the change that will happen if a force is applied
on an object. Acceleration is the amount of change in speed and/or
direction of movement an object.

Let’s look at the first part of the law of acceleration:

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force
applied on an object.

For instance, the first crate is pushed to the right by a single man
which causes it to accelerate. What will happen if two persons will
push the same crate?

Increasing the amount of force applied on an object also increases the

acceleration of the object. When a quantity is in direct proportion to
another quantity, there is an increase in the first quantity. In this case,
the force applied will result in the increase of the other quantity, the
acceleration of the object.

Now let’s look at the second part of the law of acceleration:

The acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

For instance, when the man pushes the crate to the right, it
accelerates to the right. What do you think will happen if the mass of
the crate is doubled?
In this case, increasing the mass of the object makes it harder to
accelerate. This is in agreement with the first law of motion.
Therefore, in order to accelerate a heavy object, one must apply a
great amount of force. Simply put, the acceleration of the object will
depend on two things: the mass of an object and the force applied on
it.

Learn about it!

3rd Law: The Law of Action and Reaction

When an object exerts a force on another object, the second object

exerts an equal and opposite force to the first object.

Have you ever wondered why you don’t fall when you lean on a post?
When you lean on a post you are exerting force on the post and in
return the post exerts force on you, preventing you from falling. The
amount of force that the post exerts on you is the same as the amount
of force that you exert on it.

In the interaction of objects, force always comes in pairs. Consider

your movement when you are walking. Your feet is pushing the ground
downward, we can label this as the action force. On the other hand,
the reaction is provided by the second object on which the feet is in
contact with, and it is equal and opposite to the direction of the
reaction force. Thus, the reaction force is the ground that pushes your
feet up, which actually enables you to walk.
Action and reaction do not cancel each other out. Unlike in the first
law of motion where the forces act on an object, these forces are
acted on different objects such as the action force acted by your feet
to the ground, and the reaction force acted by the ground to your feet.

Explore!
In the game of bowling, a heavy ball is rolled down an alley to hit the
duckpins. When the bowling ball and the duckpins interact, can you
identify the action and reaction forces here? What are the effects of
the action and reaction forces on the bowling ball and the duckpins?

What do you think?

What is the difference between Newton's first law of motion with
Galileo's concept of inertia?

Key Points
 Sir Isaac Newton in 1687 published his book
entitled Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica which
contains his treatise on motion and the three laws of motion.
 The first law of motion states that an object at rest or in motion
will stay at rest or in motion with constant velocity unless acted
upon by a net external force.

 The second law of motion states that the acceleration of an

object is directly proportional to the force exerted on the object
and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
  The third law of motion states that when an object exerts a force
on another object, the second object exerts an equal and
opposite force to the first object.

Newton’s Law of Inertia vs. Galileo’s Assertion on Horizontal Motion

UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain the subtle
distinction between Newton’s 1st law of motion (or Law of Inertia) and
Galileo’s assertion that force is not necessary to sustain horizontal
motion.

In the previous lesson, you have learned Newton’s laws of motion

which provided the framework for the understanding of how forces and
motion are related.

Before Isaac Newton came up with his laws of motion, a lot of

scientists have laid the foundation for the study of force and motion.
One of these scientists was Galileo Galilei.

Who was Galileo Galilei? What were his contributions to the concept of
inertia?

Learn about it!

Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist who first explained the concept
of inertia. He observed that when a ball rolls down an inclined plane,
its speed increases; and when it rolls upwards, its speed decreases.
This change in speed was due to gravity.

When the ball rolled down the inclined plane, it was pulled by gravity,
so its speed increased. The opposite happened when the ball rolled up
the inclined plane. He then asked himself what would happen to the
ball if it was rolling on a horizontal plane such as the floor.
A ball rolling on the floor is not moving with or against gravity, so what
would happen to its speed?

Galileo thought that the ball rolling on a floor would remain moving
with constant velocity if the friction between the floor and ball would
be removed.

Learn about it!

Galileo tested his theory in an experiment using two inclined planes.

When the ball was rolled from one inclined plane to the next, it almost
reached the height from which it was released as shown in Figure A. If
the steepness of the second inclined plane is decreased, the ball
would still reach the same height from the point it was released as
shown in Figure B. Finally, he then removed the second inclined plane
and watched the ball as shown in Figure C. He observed the ball and
made his conclusion: the ball would continue to move in a straight line
with constant speed.

Galileo asserted that if friction was absent, the ball would continue to
move with constant velocity. It would continue its state of motion
unless a push or a pull compels it to change that state. Galileo called
this tendency of materials to resist change in their state of motion
as inertia.
His assertion was the inspiration for Newton’s 1st law of motion. They
both implied that no force is needed to keep the motion of an object
and the object’s inertia would keep it from changing its state of
motion.

Learn about it!

Is there a difference between Galileo’s assertion and Newton’s first
law of motion?

There is a subtle difference. The difference lies in the concept of force.

Galileo knew about friction but did not know about the concept of
force. He used the term 'push and pull' to signify forces. It was Sir
Isaac Newton who defined the concept of force and its relation to
motion.

What do you think?

Since there is no gravity in space, will it be easier to lift a sack of rice
in space compared here on earth? What does the law of inertia and
Galileo’s assertion tell us about this?

Key Points
 The concept of inertia was a result of Galileo’s studies of motion.
 Inertia refers to the tendency of any material to change its state
of motion.

 Galileo asserted that if a rolling ball was ‘left alone’ it will

continue to move with constant velocity.

 The only difference between Galileo’s assertion and Newton’s

first law of motion is the concept of force.

 Galileo did not know yet the concept of force, and it was Newton
who finally explains the nature of forces.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion and Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation: Identical Acceleration
UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to use algebra, Newton’s
2nd Law of Motion, and Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation to show
that, in the absence of air resistance, objects close to the surface of
the Earth fall with identical accelerations independent of their mass.

Galileo Galilei described free falling bodies or bodies that fall under
the sole influence of gravity with an acceleration of
approximately 9.8m/s2 regardless of the bodies’ masses.
How was the acceleration due to gravity g=9.8m/s2 obtained? How do
Newton's second law of motion and law of universal gravitation apply
in this case?

Learn about it!

Newton's Second law of Motion

In the previous lessons, we have learned that the law of

acceleration states that the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the force exerted on the object and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.

This is known as Newton’s second law of motion where a net force

acting on a body (F), with constant mass (m), causes an acceleration
(a) in the direction of the force and can be expressed as a
mathematical equation:

F⇀=ma⇀Equation1F⇀=ma⇀Equation1
This law of motion has been successful in predicting the acceleration
of constant-mass systems. It can also be extended to objects
described by Galileo as free falling bodies.

Learn about it!

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

In classical physics, gravity is an attractive force exerted by any

object that has mass. It is the force that keeps us close to the Earth’s
surface, and the Earth around the Sun. It also acts to attract anyone
and anything to each other since matter as we know has mass.

In the Book III of Principia Mathematica, Sir Isaac Newton described

the behavior of gravity and formulated the law of universal
gravitation which states that the attractive gravitational force (F)
between bodies with masses (m1m1 and m2m2) is directly proportional
to the product of their masses but inversely proportional to the square
of the distance of the centers of their mass distributions (r). Below
shows a simple diagram of the relationships.

The relationship of the gravitational force between two objects can

also be expressed as:

F=Gm1m2r2Equation2F=Gm1m2r2Equation2
where:

F is in newtons, N

m1m1 and m2m2 are in kilograms, kg

r is in meters, m

G=6.67×10−11Nm2kg2G=6.67×10−11Nm2kg2.
G is the universal gravitation constant that is a proportionality
constant used in describing the gravitational force between two
objects.
Learn about it!
Acceleration of Free Falling Bodies

Newton's second law of motion and law of universal gravitation can be

used to solve for the acceleration of free falling bodies near the
Earth’s surface (a).

Let us assume that a free falling body with a mass mFFBmFFB falls
freely close to the Earth’s surface. Let us also say that the Earth is a
sphere with a radius rE=6.371×106mrE=6.371×106mand a
mass mE=5.9723×1024kgmE=5.9723×1024kg.
Equation 1 can be written as:

F=mFFBaF=mFFBa
where:

mFFBmFFB is the mass of a freely falling body

Equation 2 can be written as:

F=GmEmFFB(rE+rFFB)2F=GmEmFFB(rE+rFFB)2
where:

mEmE is the mass of the Earth

mFFBmFFB is the mass of a freely falling body
rErE is the radius of the Earth
rFFBrFFB is the radius of a freely falling body
Combining the two equations we get,

mFFBa=GmEmFFB(rE+rFFB)2Equation3mFFBa=GmEmFFB(rE+rFFB)2Equatio
n3
Algebraically, mFFBmFFB can be cancelled, resulting to,

a=GmE(rE+rFFB)2Equation4a=GmE(rE+rFFB)2Equation4
Since the radius of the Earth, rErE is significantly larger than the
radius of a freely falling body, then rFFBrFFB can be cancelled out in
the total rr. Thus,
a=GmEr2EEquation5a=GmErE2Equation5
Equation 5 shows that acceleration only depends on the Earth’s mass
and radius, not on the mass of the free falling body. To get the
acceleration of free falling bodies, we substitute the radius and the
mass of the Earth and the gravitational constant in this equation. Thus,

a=[6.67x10−11Nm2kg2][5.9723x1024kg6.371x106m]a=[6.67x10−11Nm2kg2]
[5.9723x1024kg6.371x106m]
a=g≈9.8m/s2a=g≈9.8m/s2
The value of the derived a appears frequently in many computations in
classical mechanics; thus, it is assigned to be g, or the acceleration
due to gravity.

What do you think?

Would the value of g increase, decrease, or remain constant if the free
falling body is far from the Earth’s surface?

Key Points
 Newton’s second law of motion is expressed
as F⇀=ma⇀F⇀=ma⇀

 Newton’s law of universal gravitation can be expressed as

F=Gm1m2r2F=Gm1m2r2
 In the absence of air resistance, objects close to the surface of
the Earth fall at the same rate
of g=9.8m/s2g=9.8m/s2 independent of their mass.

Newton’s Law and Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
  describe laws, axiom, and empirical laws; and
 explain why Newton’s laws motion are considered axioms while
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are empirical laws.

Think about chess and checkers. If you are familiar with these two
games, then you certainly know the rules of these games.

Now think about this:

Do the set of rules of chess applicable to checkers and vice-versa?

If you have answered no, then you are correct. The rules of these
games are unique from one another, the same way Newton’s laws and
Kepler’s Laws are unique. So how are they related?

Learn about it!

There are many scientific laws that describe movements of objects.
Newton’s laws of motion generally describe the motion of bodies
ranging from tiny objects, such as a speck of dust, to very large
objects, such as stars. On the other hand, Kepler’s laws of planetary
motion specifically describe the motion of orbiting planets. Both of
these laws describe the motion of objects, but how are they related?

Laws, Axioms, and Empirical Laws

Scientific laws, like Newton’s laws and Kepler’s laws, are descriptions
of an observed occurrence. Unlike theories, laws do not explain the
cause of the observed phenomenon or why it happens. In science, we
can say that laws are the ‘rules of the game’ followed by all things in
our world.

Laws can be considered as axioms or empirical laws. An axiom, in

Mathematics, is a well-established statement. Just like in the game of
chess and checkers, the set of rules are already established and we
just accept it to be true or the proper way of playing this game even
without proving that they are the ‘proper way’ to play the game. An
axiom, although accepted and taken to be true, remains unprovable.
Empirical laws, on the other hand, are descriptions supported by
factual observations and are not derived from existing laws.

Learn about it!

Newton’s Laws of Motion and Kepler’s Planetary Motion

Newton’s laws of motion are considered to be axioms. The three laws

of motion are actually unproven and unprovable but we accept them to
be true. They provide useful ways of thinking for us to understand the
motion of the objects around us.

Let us consider the first law of motion:

An object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in

motion remains in motion in with constant velocity unless acted upon
by an external, unbalanced force.

Can you identify any situation in which this ‘law’ holds true?

If you have made assumptions first before giving an example, then that
is the first sign that this is an axiom. An axiom holds true only within
the context that they are applied. Therefore, we can say that the
Newton’s laws of motion are axioms because they hold true only when
assumptions are established.

On the other hand, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are empirical

laws because they are based on his observation and computation of
planetary movements; it is not derived from any existing law and is
evidence-based descriptions.

Let us look at the first law of planetary motion by Johannes Kepler:

Each planet moves on an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.

Do you think you have to make assumptions about this ‘law’ to be true?

If you have answered no, then you are correct. As an empirical law, we
can directly observe and gather physical evidence that this law is true.
Tips
To differentiate between axioms and empirical laws, you need to
remember that axioms are accepted truths but they are unproven and
unprovable while empirical laws are based on factual observation and
evidence.

Try it!
Read and analyze the statements below.

1. The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force

applied and inversely proportional to its mass.
2. The imaginary line connecting a planet and the Sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal times.

Which statement do you think is an axiom? Which is an empirical law?

Justify your answers.

What do you think?

Galileo's law of simple pendulum is considered as an empirical law.
This law, however, fails to match the movement of the pendulum
exactly because of certain impediments such as friction around a
pivot-point. Why is this law still considered an empirical law?

Key Points
 Scientific laws describe a certain phenomenon without
explaining why they occur or what causes their occurrence.
 An axiom is a statement that is accepted to be true but remains
unproven or unprovable.

 Axioms hold true only when assumptions are made.

 An empirical law is based on factual observations and evidence.

  Newton’s laws of motion and Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
are both scientific laws that describe motion.

 Newton’s laws are axiom because they are unproven and

unprovable and holds true only when assumptions are made.

 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are empirical laws because

they are based on observation and evidence.

The Law of Conservation of Momentum

UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to use the law of
conservation of momentum to solve a one-dimensional collision
problem.

Mass is the measure of inertia of an object which is at rest. That is, the
greater the mass of the object, the greater is its tendency to stay at
rest (or it is harder to get it moving). Whereas, momentum is the
measure of inertia of moving objects. That is, the greater the
momentum (or the faster the object moves) the greater is its tendency
to stay moving (or it is harder to stop).

Learn about it!

Let us say that the cue ball (m = 0.17 kg), with a velocity of 3 m/s, and
the eight ball (m = 0.16 kg) with a velocity of 2 m/s, are moving toward
each other. After the collision, the cue ball stops and the eight ball
moves in the opposite direction. What is the velocity of the eight ball
after the collision?

The momentum of an object is equal to the product of the mass and

velocity of a moving object.

We can represent momentum as:

p=mvp=mv
where pp is the momentum (kgm/skgm/s), mm is the mass (kgkg)
and vv is the velocity of the object (m/sm/s).
Look at the situation below. Two objects are moving toward each other
with different velocities. What will happen to these balls when they
come in contact? What will happen to their individual momentum?

When the billiard balls collide, their individual momentum changes,

which accounts for the changes in motion of the two objects. However,
their total momentum before the collision remains the same after the
collision. This is the consequence of the law of conservation of
momentum which states that the total momentum of a system does
not change if there are no external forces acting on it.

Mathematically, we can represent this law as:

pbeforecollision=paftercollisionpbeforecollision=paftercollision

How can the formula be used?

Step 1: Identify the given quantities.

For simplicity, we will use the following symbol for each quantity:

m1=massofcueball=0.17kgm1=massofcueball=0.17kg
m2=massof8thball=0.16kgm2=massof8thball=0.16kg
v1=velocityofcueballbeforecollision=3m/sv1=velocityofcueballbeforeco
llision=3m/s
v2=velocityof8thballbeforecollision=2m/sv2=velocityof8thballbeforecoll
ision=2m/s
v
′1=velocityofcueballaftercollision=0m/sv1′=velocityofcueballaftercollisi
on=0m/s

Step 2: Identify what is asked.

the velocity of the 8th8th ball after collision

Step 3: Solve for v′2v2′ using the law of conservation of momentum.

To get the total momentum, we should add the individual momentum
before and after the collision.

pbeforecollision=paftercollisionpbeforecollision=paftercollision
pcueball+p8thball=pcueball+p8thballpcueball+p8thball=pcueball+p8thball
m1v1+m2v2=m1v′1+m2v′2m1v1+m2v2=m1v1′+m2v2′
Since we have an expression of equality, we can transpose m1v
′1m1v1′ on the left side, changing its sign from positive to negative.
Now that leaves m2v′2m2v2′ on the right side. To isolate v′2v2′, we will
divide both sides of the equation with m2m2.
m1v1+m2v2−m1v′1=m2v′2m1v1+m2v2−m1v1′=m2v2′
m1v1+m2v2−m1v′1m2=v′2m1v1+m2v2−m1v1′m2=v2′
We now have a working equation for v′2v2′. Substituting the values of
the given, the velocity of the eight ball after collision will be:
v′2=m1v1+m2v2−m1v′1m2v2′=m1v1+m2v2−m1v1′m2
v′2=(0.17kgx3ms)+(0.16kgx2ms)−(0.17kgx0)2msv2′=(0.17kgx3ms)+(0.16kgx2ms)
−(0.17kgx0)2ms
v′2=0.42m/sv2′=0.42m/s
Therefore, the velocity of the 8th8th ball after the collision is 0.42 m/s.

Try it!
A 0.63-kg basketball, with a velocity of 10 m/s, and a 0.27-kg ball of
clay, with a velocity of 2.5 m/s, are moving toward each other. After the
collision, the two objects stuck together and moved as one object.
What will be the velocity of the ball-clay system after the collision?

Try it! Solution

Step 1: Identify the given quantities.

m1=0.63kgm1=0.63kg

m2=0.27kgm2=0.27kg

v1=10m/sv1=10m/s

v2=2.5m/sv2=2.5m/s

Step 2: Identify what is asked.

velocity of basketball and clay after collision

Step 3: Solve for v′v′.

Since the velocity of the basketball and the ball of clay are the same,
the momentum of the ball-clay system will be equal to the sum of their
masses multiplied by their velocity after collision.

pbeforecollision=paftercollisionpbeforecollision=paftercollision

pbaketball+pclay=pbasketball−claysystempbaketball+pclay=pbasketball−claysys
tem

m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)=(m1+m2)v′(m1+m2)m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)=(m1+m2)v′(m1+m2)

m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)=v′m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)=v′

Now substituting the values, the velocity of the ball-clay system after
collision is:

v′=m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)v′=m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)

v′=(0.63kgx10ms)+(0.27kgx10ms)(0.63kg+0.27kg)v′=(0.63kgx10ms)+(0.27kgx10ms)
(0.63kg+0.27kg)

v′=7.75m/sv′=7.75m/s
Therefore, the velocity of the basketball and clay after collision is 7.75
m/s.

Tips
 If the object is at rest, its momentum is zero.
 To check your answer, add the momentum after and before
collision. If they are equal you are most likely correct, if not go
back and check your solution.

Try it!
Apply the law of conservation of momentum in solving the following
problems.

1. In an unfortunate accident, a 1500-kg car moving at 15 m/s

collided with parked 500-kg motorcycle. If the motorcycle moved
5 m/s to the right after collision, what is the velocity of the car
after collision?
2. A 60-kg skater slides across the skating rink at a rate of 6 m/s.
He picks up his 40-kg son who is standing at the center of the
rink. What will be the velocity of skater and his son?

What do you think?

The total momentum of a system does not change if there are no
external forces acting on it.

Are there any exceptions to this law?

Key Points
 Momentum is equal to the product of mass and velocity of an
object which is mathematically represented as p=mvp=mv.
 The law of conservation of momentum states that the total
momentum of a system does not change if there are no external
 forces acting on it. It is represented
as pbeforecollision=paftercollisionpbeforecollision=paftercollision.

 The greater the momentum of a moving object, the harder it is to

stop its motion.

 When objects collide, their individual momentum changes after

collision which accounts for the changes in motion of the
objects.

 The total momentum of the objects before the collision is equal

to the total momentum after collision.

Mass, Momentum, and Energy Conservation

UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain the
contributions of scientists to our understanding of mass, momentum,
and energy conservation.

Mass, momentum, and energy are three quantities that can be

conserved. In Physics, when we say a quantity is conserved, it means
that after an interaction or a reaction, no part of that quantity is lost.

In this lesson, you will identify the contributions of different scientists

that lead to the understanding of these quantities and their
conservation.

Learn about it!

Law of Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an enclosed

system is neither created nor destroyed by a chemical reaction. Thus,
in a chemical reaction, the mass of the reactants must be equal to the
mass of the products.
Below are the people who had contributed to the understanding of
mass and its conservation.

 Ancient Greek philosophers believed that 'nothing comes from

nothing' which implied that everything in the present had come
from an origin.
 Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was a Persian polymath who wrote that a
body of matter could not disappear completely. It could only
change its form, condition, and other properties. These changes
could turn it into a different form of matter.

 Mikhail Lomonosov was a Russian writer and polymath who

disproved the phlogiston theory, which assumed that matter
contained phlogiston— a fire-like substance that existed in
combustible materials. He showed in an experiment of burning
metals that the mass of metals remained the same after burning.

 Antoine Lavoisier proposed the law of conservation of mass. This

law states that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of the
products is always equal to the total mass of the reactants; and
atoms are neither created nor destroyed, but rearranged to form
new substances.

Learn about it!

Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be

created or destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to
another. Hence, the total energy of an isolated system never change.

Below are some of the scientists who had contributed to the

development of the law of conservation of energy.

 Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer and physicist who

studied an 'interrupted pendulum. His experiment showed that
the energy was conserved in the pendulum causing it to swing to
the same height as it was released. If energy was not conserved,
it would have stopped and have not completed its swing. In a
modern sense, he demonstrated that kinetic energy can be
converted to potential energy and vice versa.
  Christian Huygens was a Dutch mathematician who published his
laws of collisions. He noted that the kinetic energies of colliding
objects were the same before and after the collision.
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German polymath and
philosopher who used Huygen's work on collision to derive a
mathematical formulation for energy that is related to motion
(kinetic energy). It is called vis viva which is the Latin word for
'living force' and represented as mv2mv2.
 Émilie du Châtelet performed experiments where she dropped a
ball into soft clay at different heights. She learned that the ball's
kinetic energy was proportional to the square of its velocity, and
the deformation on the clay was proportional to its initial
potential energy. She then proposed that energy is different from
momentum.
 Albert Einstein developed a theory that united the concepts of
mass and energy. Einstein’s energy-mass equivalence implies
that neither mass nor energy are separately conserved, but they
could be interchanged. The total ‘mass-energy’ of the universe is
conserved.

Learn about it!

Law of Conservation of Momentum

Just as mass and energy are conserved, momentum is also conserved.

The law of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum
of an object does not change (i.e it remains at rest or in motion with
constant velocity) if there are no external forces acting on it.

Below is a list of scientists who have contributed to the development

of the law of conservation of momentum.

 Jean Buridan was a teacher and philosopher who first used the
term ‘impetus’ to signify the notion of momentum. According to
his theory, an impetus set an object in motion, and it increases
as the object's speed also increases.
 Rene Descartes was a French philosopher and mathematician
who proposed that the total 'quantity of motion' of the universe is
conserved and it is equal to the product of the object's size and
speed. This is almost the same as the modern concept of
 conservation of momentum, however, Descartes had no concept
of mass that was different from weight and size of the object.
 John Wallis was an English mathematician who suggested the
law of conservation of momentum. This law states that a body
will remain at rest or in motion, unless an external force applied
to it is greater than its resistance. This statement is similar with
the first law of motion of Sir Isaac Newton.
 Isaac Newton was an English physicist and mathematician who
defined the 'quantity of motion' as a product of velocity and mass
and later identified it as momentum. He implied that when no
force acts on the object, the quantity of motion is conserved.

What do you think?

In terms of Einstein’s mass and energy equivalence, can you think of a
process in which energy is converted to mass?

Key Points
 Mass, momentum, and energy are quantities that can be
conserved in a physical interaction.
 The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an enclosed
system is neither created nor destroyed by a chemical reaction.

 People who had contributed to the understanding of mass and its

conservation include some of the ancient Greek philosophers,
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Antoine Lavoisier.

 The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be

created or destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to
another. Hence, the total energy of an isolated system never
change.

 Some of the scientists who had contributed to the development

of the law of conservation of energy include Galileo Galilei,
Christian Huygens, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Émilie du Châtelet,
and Albert Einstein.
  The law of conservation of momentum states that the total
momentum of a system does not change as if there are no
external forces acting on it.

 Some of the scientists who had contributed to the development

of the law of conservation of momentum include Jean Buridan,
Rene Descartes, John Wallis, and Isaac Newton.

Reflection, Refraction, Transmission, and Absorption of Light

LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe what happens
when light is reflected, refracted, transmitted, and absorbed.

What happens to light when it interacts with matter?

Learn about it!

When light interacts with matter, it can be reflected, refracted,
transmitted, or absorbed.

Reflection
Reflection occurs when light bounces back as it hits a reflecting
surface, such as a mirror. This phenomenon can be described using
light rays.

The ray of light that hits the reflecting surface is called an incident
ray. After hitting the surface, it bounces off as a reflected ray. The
incident ray and the reflected ray form angles with the normal line,
which is a line perpendicular to the reflecting surface. These angles
are called angle of incidence and angle of reflection, respectively.

The relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of

reflection is illustrated in the law of reflection. This law states that the
angle of incidence, the angle of reflection, and the normal line are
found on the same plane; and the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection.

Types of Reflection

There are two types of reflection: regular reflection and irregular

reflection.

 Regular reflection, also known as specular reflection occurs when light

strikes a smooth surface like a mirror, and light rays are reflected in
one direction.
 Irregular reflection or diffuse reflection occurs when light strikes a
rough surface, and light rays are reflected in random directions.

Learn about it!

Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light due to the change in its speed when
it obliquely passes two different media. When light travels from a
medium with a low refractive index to a medium with a higher
refractive index, it slows down and refracts closer to the normal line.
On the other hand, when light travels from a medium with a high
refractive index to a medium with a lower refractive index, it speeds up
and refracts away from the normal line.

The light ray that is entering a different medium is called the incident
ray while the bent ray is called the refracted ray.

Refractive index describes how light propagates through a medium. A

higher refractive index means the light propagates slower, and its
direction changes more upon entering a medium. A lower refractive
index means the light travels faster, and its direction changes less
upon entering a medium.

Learn about it!

Transmission
Transmission is the passing of light through a material without being
absorbed. For instance, an incoming light will just pass through a glass
window as transmitted light.
The extent of the transmission of light depends on the type of the
material the light strikes. Transparent and translucent materials
transmit light, but opaque materials do not. If light is not transmitted,
it may have been reflected or absorbed.

Learn about it!

Absorption
Absorption of light occurs when light strikes a material, and the
energy that it carries is absorbed by the atoms of the material and is
converted into thermal energy.

White light is composed of different components of a spectrum: red,

orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet (ROYGBIV). When an
object reflects all the components of light, it appears white. However,
when an object absorbs all the components of light, it appears black.

Selective absorption describes the tendency of an object to absorb

specific frequencies of light. An object that appears with a particular
color means that the object absorbs most of the frequencies and
reflects only the color of the object. For instance, the leaf absorbs all
the frequencies of light except for green. The green color is reflected
and perceived by the observer’s eye.
Explore!
Imagine a marching band that marches in a straight line from a solid
ground into a muddy land.

What do you think will happen to the speed of the marching band as it
moves from the solid ground to the muddy land? How can you relate
this with the refraction of light?

Try it!
Get a number of colored pieces of cellophane and a flashlight. Then
ask somebody to shine the flashlight on the cellophane.

Answer the following questions:

1. What can you say about the color that passes through the
cellophane and the color of the cellophane used?
2. What happened to the rest of the spectrum colors that you did
not see?

What do you think?

Can light be reflected and refracted at the same time?
Key Points
 Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it strikes a surface.
 Refraction is the bending of light due to the change in its speed
when passing two different media.

 Transmission is the passing of light through a material without

being absorbed.

 Absorption of light occurs when light strikes a material, and the

energy that it carries is absorbed by the atoms of the material
and is converted into thermal energy.

The Emergence of Light: Newton and Descartes

LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how Newton and
Descartes described the emergence of light in various colors through
prisms.

Descartes viewed light as waves while Newton believed that light was
composed of tiny particles called corpuscles. Both of them knew that
when light passed through a prism, different colors were produced.

How did the two scientists explain the separation of light into different
colors when it passed through a prism?

Learn about it!

Two of the many scientists who studied the behavior of light were
Rene Descartes and Sir Isaac Newton. Separately, they conducted
experiments using a prism to explain the emergence of the colors of
light upon passing it.
Rene Descartes's View on the Emergence of Colors of Light
Rene Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician, and
scientist who first studied and explained the concept of refraction. In
one of his experiments, he produced a rainbow by using a water-filled
glass sphere and sunlight. He explained that refraction of light caused
the formation of rainbows. He then studied the refraction and
emergence of colors of light in a prism. He observed that the different
colors of light refracted at varying degrees. He noted that the red light
refracted more than the blue light.

Descartes explained the emergence of the colors of light using the

concept of the plenum, the invisible substance that permeated the
universe. He thought that light was a disturbance that traveled through
the plenum. He pictured the particles of plenum as tiny balls which
were in contact, and rotating with the same speed. He explained that
when these particles passed through the prism and encountered a slit
on the edge, their rotational speed would change. This change resulted
in the emergence of a color. Other parts of the slit produced other
colors of light.

Learn about it!

Sir Isaac Newton's View on the Emergence of Colors of Light
Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist and mathematician who
was famous because of his contributions in describing motion and the
nature of light. His studies included the emergence of colors as light
passed through a prism. In his experiment, he saw that the red light
refracted the least while the violet light refracted the most. According
to Newton, this difference in refraction occurred due to the differences
in the mass of the colors of light.

Newton believed that particles of matter exert equal force to the

particles of light regardless of its color. He then explained that when
light particles passed through an interface of matter, the colors of light
which have different mass and inertia will be deflected at varying
degrees. He noted that particles with greater mass and inertia are
deflected less when acted upon by the same force. For instance,
particles of red light has more mass than those of violet light.
Therefore, red light was deflected less than the violet light.
Try it!
Create a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences of
Newton and Descartes’ view on the emergence of light in various
colors through prisms.

What do you think?

The ideas of Descartes and Newton are not the same. Can you cite
instances where their ideas are parallel?

Key Points
 Rene Descartes believed that colors emerge from light when the
rolling balls that make up a substance change speed when light
passes through it. When the balls encounter a slit on the edge of
a prism, the ball next to the slit starts to rotate which causes the
change in the speed of the rotation of the balls and this change
produced a color.
 Sir Isaac Newton believed that light colors emerge upon passing
a prism due to the difference in the mass and inertia of the colors
that caused the difference of deflection of each.

Waves
LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to cite examples of waves
(e.g., water, stadium, sound, string, and light waves).

Waves are disturbances produced by vibrating particles of matter. They

transfer energy as they propagate through a medium or space.

Learn about it!

Waves can be classified in two ways. They can be classified based on
(1) how they propagate; and (2) the orientation of the wave propagation
relative to the direction of energy transfer.

Mechanical and Electromagnetic Waves

Waves can be classified based on how they propagate or their ability to

transmit energy through a vacuum. They can be
either mechanical or electromagnetic waves.

There are waves that can only propagate when a medium is available;
they are called mechanical waves. Some examples of these waves are:

 Sound waves, which can travel fastest on solids.

 Water waves, which need water to propagate.

 Seismic waves, which can travel through and on the surface of

Earth.

 Stadium waves, which can propagate through the movement of

the people in a stadium.

 Slinky, string, and jump rope waves, which can propagate when
used.

There are waves that can still travel even without a medium.These
type of waves are called electromagnetic (EM) waves. They are
produced by the vibration of charged particles. There are seven EM
waves arranged either from increasing frequency or decreasing
wavelength. They are the following:

 Radio waves, which are used to transmit radio and TV signals.

 Microwaves, which are used in microwave ovens and in sending
messages through cellular phones.

 Infrared, which has a medical application in detecting heat leaks.

 Visible light, which is the only EM wave that can be seen by the
naked eye.

 Ultraviolet, which is blocked by the ozone layer because too

much of this can cause skin cancer.
  X-rays, which can penetrate through most of the things and also
used for medical purposes.

 Gamma rays, which are more penetrating than X-rays and also
used for medical purposes.

Learn about it!

Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

Waves carry energy, and the direction of the energy transfer relative to
the direction of the wave is the other way of classifying waves. Waves
can either be longitudinal or transverse.

Longitudinal waves propagate parallel to the direction of the energy

transfer. The movement of these waves is back and forth, and they
carry the energy in that direction as well. Longitudinal waves are
composed of regions of compressions and rarefactions.

Compressions are regions where the particles are closest to each

other. Rarefactionsare regions where the particles are furthest from
each other. Examples of these waves are the sound
waves and earthquake waves.
Transverse waves propagate perpendicular to the direction of the
energy transfer. They move in up and down manner and they carry the
energy back and forth. These waves are composed of various parts
such as crests, troughs, amplitudes, and wavelengths.

The crest is the top of the wave while the trough is the bottom of the
wave. The amplitude is the maximum displacement of the wave from
the horizontal axis or its origin. The wavelength refers to distance
between a crest and a crest or a trough and a trough. Examples of
these waves are the EM waves and waves on a string.

Explore!
Surface waves are the combination of transverse and longitudinal
waves. How will you describe the movement of a surface wave?

Try it!
Get a slinky and make the transverse and longitudinal waves. Did you
observe the same pattern as stated in the discussion?

What do you think?

During the old times, when there were no phones yet, people tend to
place their ear on the ground to know if there are people or animals
heading to their place. What do you think are the reasons behind this
scenario?

Key Points
 Waves can be classified in two ways. They can be classified
based on (1) how they propagate; and (2) the direction of wave
propagation relative to the direction of energy transfer.
 Mechanical waves need a medium to propagate. Examples of
mechanical waves are water waves and sound waves.

 Electromagnetic waves do not need any medium to propagate.

Examples of these waves include microwaves and X-rays.

 Transverse waves travel perpendicularly relative to the direction

of energy transfer.

 Longitudinal waves travel in a parallel direction relative to the

direction of energy transfer.

Dual Nature of Light

LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 describe how the propagation of light, reflection, and refraction

are explained by the wave model and the particle model of light;
and
 describe how Galileo and Roemer contributed to the eventual
acceptance of the view that the speed of light is finite.

What happens to light when it hits a surface?

Learn about it!
Propagation of Light, Reflection, and Refraction

There were two prominent theories about the nature of light back in
the seventeenth century. These are the wave theory and the particle
theory.

The Wave Theory of Light

In 1690, Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch astronomer and physicist,

proposed the wave theory of light. This theory states that light is
a longitudinal wave transmitted through an aether ‒ a mystical
substance that exists and fills all the spaces in the universe. He
believed that the aether moved in the same direction as light, and
formed a wave which carried the light waves.

The Corpuscular Theory of Light

In 1675, Isaac Newton proposed the corpuscular theory, also known as

the particle theory of light. This theory states that light was composed
of tiny particles called corpuscles. According to Newton, light traveled
through a vacuum in a straight line, and cannot be considered as a
wave.

Learn about it!

Refraction

According to the wave theory, when a beam of light travels into two
different refractive indices, the beam undergoes refraction by
changing its direction as it passes from the first medium into the next
medium. Some of the light waves would pass through, while the rest of
the waves travel at a slower rate in the first medium due to the high
refractive index of the second medium. Since the wavefront is
traveling at two different speeds, it will bend in the second medium
thus, changing the angle of propagation. Just like how the sound
waves and water waves refract, light follows the same way.
On the other hand, the particle theory of light suggested that when the
light particles pass through a medium like water, they experience an
attractive force towards the water. When light passes from air (less
dense medium) to water (denser medium), it slows down and bends
towards the normal which means away from the surface.

Learn about it!

Reflection

According to the wave theory, when light waves struck a mirror, they
are reflected according to their angles, but the wave turned back to
front and produced a reversed image. The shape of the waves depends
on the distance of light from the mirror. Just like sound waves, which
echoes upon striking a surface, light waves behaves the same way.

In the particle theory, an emitted light, whether near or far, is reflected

as it arrives at the mirror surface. A huge number of particles travel
side by side with each other and they bounce at different directions
upon reaching the interphase, producing a reversed image as depicted
in the figure above. Light reflects the same way as a ball hits a
surface.

Learn about it!

The Speed of Light

In 1638, Galileo Galilei conducted an experiment to measure the speed

of light by positioning two observers, each with lanterns equipped with
shutters.

The time between the openings of the shutters of the two observers
indicated the time for the light to travel back and forth between lamps.
Light traveled so fast that made it impossible to measure the time
interval with just using the shutters.

This led to his basic principle or relativity, which states that the same
laws of motion are applied to any system that is moving at a constant
speed, regardless of their specific speed and direction.

Ole Roemer in 1678 was the first person to measure the speed of light.
He was observing the orbit of Io, the closest of the four large moons of
Jupiter. His goal was to get an accurate value for the moon’s orbital
period by the eclipses of Io by Jupiter.

The orbital value of Io is 1.769 Earth days. The moon is eclipsed by

Jupiter once every orbit. As the years past, Roemer noticed that the
time interval between eclipses became shorter as Earth moved toward
Jupiter and longer when it moved away from it.

He concluded based on the collected data that the time difference was
due to the finite speed of light. The light coming from Jupiter had to
travel farther to reach Earth when they are on the opposite sides of the
sun than when they are close to each other. He estimated that the time
required for light to travel across Earth’s diameter is twenty minutes.
Thus, the speed of light can be computed by dividing the diameter of
Earth’s orbit by the time difference.
Explore!
Have two identical flashlights and turn them on in such a way that
light from the flashlight will cross each other. What do you see on the
point of intersection of the two lights?

Try it!
Try to observe the smoke that comes from a barbeque stand or from a
grill. Looking from afar, does the smoke appears like a wave? Try to
move closer to the smoke and observe it. What do you see?

What do you think?

Will it be possible to see the dual nature of light at the same time?

Key Points
 In 1690, Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch astronomer and physicist,
proposed the wave theory, which states that light was a
longitudinal wave transmitted through an aether.
 In 1960, Isaac Newton proposed the corpuscular theory also
known as the particle theory, which states that light was
composed of tiny particles called corpuscles.

 Galileo Galilei tried to measure the speed of light, but needed

much longer distance to have a significant measurement.

 Ole Roemer was able to measure the speed of light by studying

the changes in the time of orbit of Io, a moon of Jupiter.

The Photon Theory

LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain how the photon theory of light accounts for atomic

spectra;
 discuss why red light is used in photographic dark rooms;

 determine why you easily get sunburned in ultraviolet light but

not in visible light; and

 explain how you see colors.

Have you ever wondered how we see colors?

Learn about it!

The Photon Theory of Light

Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Inside an

atom, electrons are located at specific energy levels, and they can
move to higher energy level when given a certain amount of energy, for
example through collisions with light.

Light is composed of photons. Based on the photon theory of light,

a photon is a discrete bundle of electromagnetic energy moving at the
speed of light, has no rest mass but has momentum, and carries
energy. This energy is given to an electron upon their collision, which
causes it to move up to the next energy level. After about 10−810-8 s, it
will go back to its original level and emit light in the form of photons.
The emitted light has a certain wavelength that corresponds to
different colors. It can be observed as a series of colored lines with
black spaces in between. This is called atomic spectra. Each element
has its unique set of spectral lines.

Learn about it!

The Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect refers to the ejection of electrons from a

surface of a metal in response to light directed to the metal.

Albert Einstein proposed that light consisted of individual photons,

which interacted with the electrons in the surface of the metal. For
each frequency or color of the incident light, each photon carried
energy.

Increasing intensity of light corresponded to increasing incident of

photons while the energy of the photons remained the same. More
electrons are ejected upon the increase in incident light. Increasing
the frequency of light would increase the energy of the ejected
electrons.

The energy carried by a photon is directly proportional to its

frequency. The arrangement of the visible spectrum of light shows
that red color has the least frequency, which means it also has the
least energy.

Since photographers use light-sensitive photographic papers, red light

would not overexpose and ruin the pictures during the developing
process.

Learn about it!

Color Spectra

Colors are not innate to objects. They give off light that appears as
colors. Colors only exist in the human visual system and is determined
by frequencies. When light reaches the eye, it falls into a receptor cell
at the back of the eye or retina and gives signals to the brain, which
interprets the image with colors.

Colors are based on frequencies. Given an ample bright light at around

400 THz, a person would be able to perceive a dull red. As the
frequency increases, the color gradually changes from red to violet.
Ultraviolet Radiation

Different colors of light have photons of different energies. Based on

the frequency and wavelength in a visible light, red has low frequency
and long wavelength, which means that it contains less energy. Blue,
on the other hand, has high frequency and short wavelength, which
means it contains more energy. Beyond the visible light, the ultraviolet
light has greater frequency and shorter wavelength, which means it
carries greater energy than the visible light. This explains why we
easily get sunburned under the ultraviolet rays of light than under the
visible light.

Explore!
Imagine you are looking at a rainbow. You can see the ROYGBIV colors
namely red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. They are
seen under a visible light. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation comes right after
violet. How come UV is invisible to us?

Try it!
Get three (3) different colored pieces of cellophanes (red, blue, and
green), one red apple, one green leaf, and a cotton ball. Place each
object behind each cellophane one at a time.

What do you think happens to the color of the object when it passes
through colored screens like cellophane?
What do you think?
Infrared and ultraviolet fall outside the visible light. Under certain
conditions, can infrared be seen with the naked eye?

Key Points
 The photon theory of light states that a photon is a discrete
bundle of electromagnetic energy moving at the speed of light; it
has no rest mass but has a momentum and carries energy.
 Atomic spectra is the unique set of frequencies emitted by an
atom whenever its electron undergoes excitation and returns to
its original energy level.

 The frequency of a photon is directly proportional to the energy it

carries. The higher the frequency of the photon, the greater is its
energy.

 Since red light has the least frequency in the color spectrum of
light, it also has the least amount of energy and can therefore be
used in photographic dark rooms because it would have the least
effect on a very sensitive paper film.

 Given that ultraviolet has a higher frequency than the visible

light, it follows that it would also have greater energy, which
causes us to get easily sunburned under the UV light compared
to visible light.

 The colors we see depends on the frequency of light that the

object absorbs and reflects.

The Relationship Between the Speed of Light, Wavelength, and

Frequency
LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to apply the wavelength-
speed-frequency relation.

All forms of electromagnetic radiation, including the visible light which

is perceived with our eyes, travel at a constant speed in vacuum.

What is the relationship between the wavelength and frequency of

light?

Learn about it!

What is the frequency of light with a wavelength of 628 nm?

Light, like other forms of electromagnetic radiation, is characterized

by its wavelength, frequency, and speed.

Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive troughs or peaks

in a wave. It is described by a unit of distance or in
meters. Frequency is the number of wave cycles or oscillations that
passes a specific point in a given period of time. Finally, the speed of
light has a constant value of approximately 300 000 000 m/s
or 3.00x108m/s3.00x108m/s.
The relationship between speed, wavelength, and the frequency of a
specific color of light is described by the equation

c=λfc=λf
where cc is the speed of light (3.00x108m/s3.00x108m/s), λλ is the
wavelength of light (in meters), and ff is the frequency of light
(in s−1s−1 or Hz)
Based on the formula, the speed of light is directly related to both the
light wave frequency and its wavelength, but is not affected by these
two. The wavelength and frequency are inversely related to each other;
an increase in frequency will cause a decrease in wavelength and vice
versa while keeping the speed constant.

How can the formula be used?

Step 1: Identify the given quantities.
λ=628nmλ=628nm
c=3.00x108m/sc=3.00x108m/s
Step 2: Identify what is asked.

the frequency of light

Step 3: Solve for ff using the equation that describes the relationship
between speed, wavelength, and the frequency of light.
c=λfc=λf
f=cλf=cλ
Convert first 628 nm to meters. Thus,

628nmx1m1x109nm=6.28x10−7m628nmx1m1x109nm=6.28x10−7m

f=3.00x108m/s6.28x10−7mf=3.00x108m/s6.28x10−7m
f=4.80x1014Hzf=4.80x1014Hz
Therefore, the frequency of light is 4.80x1014Hz4.80x1014Hz.

Try it!
The frequency of blue light as it scatters in the sky
is 7.5x1014Hz7.5x1014Hz. What is the wavelength of this blue light in
nanometers?

Try it! Solution

Step 1: Identify the given quantities.

f=7.5x1014Hzf=7.5x1014Hz
c=3.00x108m/sc=3.00x108m/s
Step 2: Identify what is asked.

the wavelength of blue light

Step 3: Solve for λλ using the equation that describes the relationship
between speed, wavelength, and the frequency of light.
c=λfc=λf
λ=cfλ=cf
λ=3.00x108m/s7.5x1014Hzλ=3.00x108m/s7.5x1014Hz
λ=4.0x10−7mλ=4.0x10−7m
Then, convert 4.0x10−7m4.0x10−7m to nanometers. Thus,
4.0x10−7mx1x109nm1m=400nm4.0x10−7mx1x109nm1m=400nm
Therefore, the wavelength of blue light is 400 nm.

Try it!
Apply the relationship of the speed of light, its wavelength, and its
frequency in solving the following problems.

1. A specific light wave has a wavelength of 675 nm. What is the

frequency of the wave?
2. The red light has a wavelength of 690 nm. What is the frequency
of the red light?

What do you think?

If a light wave moving at a constant speed reduces its frequency to
one-half, what do you think will happen to its wavelength?

Key Points
 Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive troughs or
peaks.
 Frequency is the number of wave cycles or oscillations that pass
a specific point in a given period of time.

 The speed of light has a constant value of

approximately 3.00x108m/s3.00x108m/s in vacuum.

 Wavelength and frequency are inversely related to each other; an

increase in frequency will cause a decrease in wavelength and
vice versa while keeping the speed of light constant.
Electrons Can Behave Like Waves
LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to cite experimental
evidence which shows that electrons can behave like waves.

Light has a dual nature––a wave and a particle.

Can a particle also behave like a wave?

Learn about it!

de Broglie Wavelength

In 1924, French physicist Louis de Broglie postulated in his PhD

dissertation that if light with a wave phenomenon acts like a particle,
then a particle may also have a wavelike behavior. He further theorized
that the wavelength of a particle is related to Planck’s constant and
inversely proportional to its momentum. This relationship is
represented by the equation known as the de Broglie wavelength:

λ=hpλ=hp
where λλ is the de Broglie wavelength of a particle, hh is Planck's
constant equal to 6.63×10−34J⋅s6.63×10−34J⋅s, and pp is the
momentum of the particle.
The Planck’s constant relates the amount of energy that a photon
carries to the frequency of its electromagnetic wave.

The λλ or wavelength shows the wave nature of the electron,

while pp or the momentum shows its particle nature.

Learn about it!

If you compute for the de Broglie wavelength of a 1200 kg vehicle that
moves at 10 m/s, you will get:
λ=5.53x10−38mλ=5.53x10−38m.
This wavelength is too small that it can no longer be observed, and
cannot be bent even when it encounters an opening. This is true with
other macroscopic objects. However, for microscopic particles like
electrons, their wavelengths are also very small but have the same
size as the inter-atomic spacing in crystal solids. This small inter-
atomic spacing can cause electrons, which have small wavelengths, to
be bent or diffracted, a phenomenon associated with waves that
encounter a barrier or small opening. This was proven experimentally
by Davisson and Germer.

Davisson and Germer Experiment

In 1927, American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer tried

to verify a prediction of classical physics that scattered electrons will
appear from all directions with little dependence on their intensity, on
scattering angle, and energy of the primary beam.

They expected that because of the small size of the electrons, they
would still be experiencing diffused reflection even if they hit a smooth
surface like that of a crystal.

The diagram below shows a picture of the instrument used in their

experiment.

To prevent other molecules from hitting the electrons, the setup is

placed in a vacuum chamber. They performed the experiment by
bombarding a beam of electrons coming from an electron gun, which is
positioned perpendicularly to a single crystal of nickel. They measured
the intensity of the scattered beam after hitting the nickel crystal
using a movable detector, where a galvanometer is attached.
A galvanometer is a device which detects and measures small electric
currents.

They found nothing significant in their experiment until their setup was
broken. When air accidentally entered the setup, the nickel was
oxidized. To decrease the oxide in the pure nickel, extreme heat was
applied to the nickel and was used again to continue the experiment.
After bombarding the recrystallized nickel with a beam of electrons,
they observed that the intensity of the scattered beam was at the
maximum at 50°. They noted that this peak in the intensity is
where constructive interference occurs. Constructive interference is a
process where two waves meet and add up.

Recrystallizing the nickel made small holes in the crystal which served
as a diffraction grating. A diffraction grating is an optical device made
of glass or metal with a band of equidistant, parallel lines. When a
wave encounters a diffraction grating, it bends or diffracts. In the
experiment of Davisson and Germer, the beam of electrons that passed
through several small holes was diffracted. This diffraction of
electrons shows one of the properties of a wave.

Waves that come from different openings or diffraction gratings, which

are the small holes in the recrystallized nickel, meet and form
interference patterns. Interference is a process where two waves
meet. Waves can add up or interfere constructively. They can also
interfere destructively when they cancel each other.

Learn about it!

If the electrons exhibit only the behavior a particle, they would
produce a pattern of two bands on a screen after passing through a
double-slit barrier as shown in the diagram below. However, electrons
also behave like waves and produce an interference pattern of bright
and dark fringes, as shown in the experiments by Davisson and Germer
and other succeeding experiments using modern setups.
The diagram below shows an electron diffraction tube, an instrument
used in modern setups of the experiments that show the wave nature
of electrons.

In this vacuum tube, a narrow beam of electrons is fired by an electron

gun. The electron beam passes through a carbon in the form of
graphite, which acts as the diffraction grating. When the electron
beam hits the phosphor screen, the screen glows. The interatomic
spacing in the carbon causes the electrons to diffract, producing ring
patterns in the screen.

Explore
It took scientists a long time to reconcile the dual nature of light,
which led to the idea of the duality of matter. To further see an
evidence of this concept, try to observe the smoke coming from a
barbecue grill. From a distance, you will see a wave flow of smoke
going up, but look closely into it, what do you see? Does your
observation tell something about the dual nature of matter?

What do you think?

Aside from diffraction, what are the other characteristics of a wave
that differentiates it from a particle?

Key Points
 In 1924, French physicist Louis de Broglie postulated that a
particle, like an electron, may also behave like a wave.
 The de Broglie wavelength shows that the wavelength of a
particle is related to Planck’s constant, and is inversely
proportional to its momentum.

 Electron is one of the subatomic particles in an atom that has a

wave-like behavior. The experiments done by Clinton
Davisson and Lester Germer in 1927 showed that it can be bent
or diffracted, a characteristic behavior of waves.

Dispersion, Scattering, Interference, and Diffraction of Light

LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to differentiate dispersion,
scattering, interference, and diffraction of light.

Light is a wave and a particle at the same time; as a wave, it can be

dispersed, scattered, interfered, and diffracted.

Learn about it!

Dispersion

Dispersion is the separation of white light into its seven color

components when there is a refraction or bending of light. White
light is composed of the different color spectrum: red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, and violet. Each color has its own wave frequency;
different light frequencies bend at different amounts when they pass
through a prism. When white light passes through a prism, it will
refract two times making the separation of the colors noticeable.

Light Scattering

Light scattering is the ability of particles to absorb light and scatter it

in all directions. Scattering of light components depends on the size of
the particles or scatterers; small particles scatter components of
short wavelengths (high frequency) while larger particles scatter
longer wavelengths (low frequency).

Our atmosphere is composed of tiny particles that scatter the color

components of white light. The atmosphere has an abundance in
nitrogen and oxygen particles, which can scatter higher frequency
components of white light. They scatter violet the most, followed by
blue, green, and so on. This selective scattering is called the Rayleigh
scattering. Our eyes are more sensitive to blue frequencies of light,
which is why we see the sky as blue.

Another example is the clouds. Clouds appear white because the water
droplets in the clouds are larger than the wavelength of light which
scatter all the colors of light equally. This type of scattering is known
as Mie scattering.

Learn about it!

Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of light when it encounters an obstacle or an
opening. A shadow is usually formed when light meets an obstacle.
The bending of light is not very much noticeable, but when you look
around the edges of a shadow, you will notice blurred areas or
diffraction fringes; these are the areas where diffraction of light
occurs.

The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of light and the

size of the obstacle. Also, the smaller the opening, the greater is the
diffraction of light as shown in diagrams A, B, and C below. The longer
the wavelength, the greater is the diffraction of light as shown in
diagrams D and E below.

Example
Diffraction effects are sometimes not helpful when viewing objects
under the microscope. When the wavelength of light has the same size
as the object, diffraction blurs the image. When the wavelength of light
is larger than the size of the object, there is no image seen.

Learn about it!

Interference
Interference is the result of the superposing of waves from different
sources. If you examine a shadow formed by the diffraction of light,
you will see fringes on the edge of the shadow. These fringes or the
interference of light waves are the result of the diffraction of light at
different sides of the objects or obstacle which causes the shadow to
be fuzzy. When this property was observed in the visible light, it was
considered as a clear proof of the wave nature of light.

Constructive and Destructive Interference

Constructive interference happens when two identical parts of two
waves meet such as a crest of one wave meets the crest of another
wave of the same wavelength; this would result in a new wave with the
same wavelength but twice the amplitude.

Destructive interference happens when two opposite parts of two

waves meet for example a crest of one wave meets the trough of
another wave which would result in the cancellation of the two waves.

The image below shows diffraction of light from two sources or

openings. As the waves from these two openings meet, they interfere
and produce interference patterns. The bright fringes are the areas
where the waves interfere constructively, while the dark fringes are
the areas where the waves interfere destructively.
Explore
A rainbow is a phenomenon that involves the dispersion of light which
results in a visible spectrum. It usually occurs after a rain shower
when there are huge amount of water droplets suspended in the
atmosphere. Is it possible to see two rainbows at the same time?

Try it!
Try to see diffraction and interference by holding two pencil leads side
by side then shine a laser beam on the slits and project the image on a
wall. Describe what you see. Can you distinguish interference from
diffraction?

What do you think?

How do dispersion, scattering, interference, and diffraction of light
prove the wave nature of light?
Key Points
 Dispersion is the separation of white light into its seven color
components when there is a refraction or bending of light. When
white light passes through a prism, it will refract two times,
making the separation of the colors noticeable.
 Light scattering is the ability of particles to absorb light and
scatter it in all directions.

 Diffraction is the bending of light when it encounters an obstacle

or an opening.

 Interference is the result of the superposing of waves from

different sources.

 Constructive interference happens when two identical parts of

two waves meet, such as when a crest of one wave meets the
crest of another wave of the same wavelength.

 Destructive interference happens when two opposite parts of two

waves meet, for example a crest of one wave meets the trough of
another wave, resulting in the cancellation of the two waves.

Light Phenomena I
LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain various light
phenomena such as:

 reflection on the concave and convex sides of a spoon;

 mirages;

 light from a red laser passes more easily through red cellophane
than green cellophane;

 clothing of certain colors appear different in artificial light and in

sunlight;
  dark rainclouds; and

 red sunsets.

How do different light phenomena occur?

Learn about it!

Reflection on a Spoon

The two surfaces of a metal spoon are examples of a curved mirror.

The front of the spoon that curves inward represents a concave
mirror while the back part which bulges outward is the convex mirror.
When you try to look into the front part of the spoon, you will see a
smaller and inverted version of yourself. On the other hand, if you look
at the back part of the spoon, you will see a smaller but upright image
of yourself. Why is this so?

Your image appears differently on both parts of the spoon because

light reflects differently upon hitting the concave and convex mirrors.
When light rays hit the surface of a concave mirror, the rays tend to
meet or converge at the focal point of the mirror creating a real and
inverted image. When light rays strike a convex mirror, the rays tend to
scatter or diverge from the focal point. This means the real rays will
not meet and create the image but the imaginary ones will converge
and create the virtual and upright image.

Mirage

Have you ever experienced seeing a puddle of water where the sky is
reflected on an asphalt road a few meters in front of you while walking
on a hot sunny day? And then when you pass over that part where the
water is supposed to be, there was none? This is referred to as heat
haze or a highway mirage.

A mirage is an optical phenomenon which creates a displaced image

of an object due to refraction of light. This happens because the air
just above the asphalt road has a higher temperature than the layer of
air above it. The differences in temperature cause differences in
optical densities or refractive indices of the different layers of air
which bends or refracts light.
The image below is another example of a mirage. The sunlight that hits
the tree is reflected towards the observer's eyes. Some reflected light
rays that do not pass through layers of air with differences in
temperature reach the observer's eyes without bending (represented
by the straight arrow coming from the tree to the observer).

On the other hand, other reflected light rays will have to travel through
the layers of air with different temperatures. The differences in the
temperature of the layers of air bends or refracts the reflected light
rays (represented by the curved broken line coming from the tree to
the observer). The refracted light rays produce a displaced image of
the tree or a mirage (represented by the broken straight line coming
from the observer's eyes to the ground).

Learn about it!

Filter

A filter can either be a colored glass or cellophane that absorbs

certain frequencies of visible light and transmits a particular color
frequency that matches the filter's natural frequency. Light
transmission occurs when a transparent object allows light to pass
through it.
When white light hits a blue glass, the glass will absorb all the color
frequencies except for blue. When a red laser hits a red cellophane, the
cellophane will transmit red because their frequencies match. On the
other hand, when a red laser hits a green cellophane, the cellophane
will absorb the red light instead of transmitting it because their
frequencies do not match.

Objects Under Sunlight and Artificial Light

The color of an object that we see depends on the reflected color

frequency of visible light that reaches our eyes. Different objects
absorb and reflect different color frequencies. For example, the petals
of a yellow bell appears yellow because the petals absorb all the color
frequencies of white light except for yellow which is reflected. The
reflected yellow light reaches our eyes that makes us see the color of
the petals.

Objects reflect certain color frequencies based on the source that

illuminates them. Incandescent light bulbs emit lower frequency colors
such as red, orange, and yellow. Thus, the objects with these colors
are enhanced under the incandescent light. On the other hand, higher
frequency colors, such as blue, are emitted by fluorescent light bubs.
This means that a red shirt will appear more red under an
incandescent light than in a fluorescent light. In the same way, a blue
shirt will appear more blue under a fluorescent light. We see the
objects' "true" colors when they are illuminated by sunlight or daylight.

Learn about it!

Dark Rain Clouds

From the previous lesson, you have learned that clouds appear white
because the water droplets in the clouds scatter all the color
frequencies of white light equally. On the other hand, rain clouds
appear dark because they are too thick that sunlight needs to pass
through a lot of water droplets and be absorbed before it can reach the
observer’s eye.

Reddish Sunsets
Recall that the atmospheric particles scatter higher frequency light
which makes the sky appear blue. In a similar way, sunsets appear red
because sunlight travels a greater distance as it reaches the horizon
and encounters more atmospheric particles, scattering higher
frequencies of light until only the red light is left.

What do you think?

How do other light phenomena such as haloes, sundogs, primary
rainbows, secondary rainbows, and supernumerary bows occur?

Key Points
 The front of the spoon that curves inward represents a concave
mirror while the back part which bulges outward is the convex
mirror.
 A mirage is an optical phenomenon which creates a displaced
image of an object due to refraction of light.

 A filter can either be a colored glass or cellophane that absorbs

certain frequencies of visible light and transmits a particular
color frequency that matches the filter's natural frequency.

 Light transmission occurs when a transparent object allows light

to pass through it.

 Different objects absorb and reflect different color frequencies.

  Objects reflect certain color frequencies based on the source
that illuminates them.

 Incandescent light bulbs emit lower frequency colors such as

red, orange, and yellow.

 Fluorescent light bulbs emit higher frequency colors like blue.

 Rain clouds appear dark because they are too thick that sunlight
needs to pass through a lot of water droplets and be absorbed
before it can reach the observer’s eye.

 Sunsets appear red because sunlight travels a greater distance

as it reaches the horizon and encounters more atmospheric
particles, scattering higher frequencies of light until only the red
light is left.

Light Phenomena II
LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain various light
phenomena such as: haloes, sundogs, primary rainbows, secondary
rainbows, and supernumerary rainbows.

How do haloes, sundogs, primary rainbows, secondary rainbows, and

supernumerary bows occur?

Learn about it!

Haloes

Solar halo, which is also called gloriole, icebow or nimbus, is a light

phenomenon that happens when light shines through clouds that are
composed of ice crystals. Light refracts upon passing through the ice
crystals and also reflects upon hitting the crystal’s faces; these events
cause the formation of the bright ring around the Sun or Moon. Halo is
usually bright white ring but may also have colors due to the
dispersion of light upon striking the ice crystals. Below is a picture of
a halo produced around the Sun.

Sundogs

Sundogs, or parhelion (with the sun), happen due to the refraction of

light upon hitting the small crystals that make up cirrus or cirrostratus
clouds. These crystals are hexagonal in shape and with faces almost
horizontal upon drifting; these cause the formation of spots of light
(sundog) on either side of the Sun, or the Moon, when light strikes
them at a minimum angle of 22 degrees as shown in the image below.
Since red light is the least refracted compared to blue this makes the
inner edge of a sundog to be red hued.
The image below shows an actual sundog which has a red-hued inner
edge.

Learn about it!

Rainbows

A rainbow is a light phenomenon formed from the combination of

several light properties like refraction, reflection, and dispersion.
Rainbows are usually seen after rainfall because they are formed when
light strikes the scattered raindrops in the atmosphere.

As shown in the image below, light is refracted upon hitting a raindrop

that serves as the prism. Due to the differences in the frequency of the
colors of visible light, they are refracted at different amounts and are
dispersed. The dispersed colors reflect upon hitting the other side of
the raindrop and then refracted again as they go out. The colors go out
dispersed and reach the observer’s eyes.

What do you think?

Have you seen colors formed when gasoline spills on the ground? Can
this be considered as rainbow formation? Why or why not?

Key Points
 Haloes are light phenomena which are formed when light passes
through clouds and strikes the ice crystals in them.
 Haloes are bright ring which can be colored or just plain white
light formed around the sun or moon.Sundogs are spots of light
formed on either side of the sun or moon which is formed when
light strikes the hexagonal ice crystals whose faces are aligned
horizontally.

 Due to the dispersion of light upon passing through the ice

crystal, sundogs can be seen with red colored inner edge since
red is the least refracted color.

 Rainbow is usually after a rain shower and with sun shining.

 Primary rainbow is formed when light hits a raindrop, refracted

and single reflection happens inside the raindrop.

 Secondary rainbows are formed when two inner reflections are

done instead of one; this causes the reversal of colors in a
secondary rainbow in comparison to a primary rainbow.

 Supernumerary rainbows are formed when light strikes small

raindrops with almost the same size. These are bands of green,
pink and purple colors found inside the primary rainbow.

Electricity and Magnetism: Franklin, Coulomb, Oersted, Ampere, Biot-

Savart, Faraday, and Maxwell
LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain the
contributions of Franklin, Coulomb, Oesrted, Ampere, Biot-Savart,
Faraday, and Maxwell to our understanding of electricity and
magnetism.

Before, electricity and magnetism were thought to be two unrelated

concepts. It was until the discovery of several scientists who showed
that electricity and magnetism are inseparable ideas that greatly
affect each other.

Who are these scientists and what were their ideas about electricity
and magnetism?

Learn about it!

Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin was the first American who contributed in the field
of electricity. Some of his findings have essentially influenced our idea
of electricity now. According to Franklin, electricity is a fluid that
passes from point A to B. When the fluid moves from A to B, there
would be less fluid in A than in B; he used the word negative, meaning
less fluid and positive, meaning more fluid. Today, we know the moving
fluid as the electrons. Franklin was also the first to state the concept
of conservation of electric charge which states that the fluid cannot
be created or destroyed; it can only be collected.

Franklin conducted an experiment to prove that lighting was an

electrical phenomena. He used a kite with a key attached to it, to
attract lightning and indeed it did. This lead him to the idea and
invention of what is known as lightning rod. A pointed metal placed on
top of a building whose end is connected to the ground. The lightning
rod serves as a pathway for the lightning to the ground instead of
damaging a house or building.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb was a French physicist known in

formulating an equation about the force between two electric charges.
According to his law known as Coulomb’s law, the force between
electric charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Aside from his law, Coulomb has invented several machines like the
Torsion balance which was used to measure the density of earth but
was most effectively used to measure weak forces.

Learn about it!

Han Christian Oersted

Han Christian Oersted was a Physics teacher who accidentally

discovered the connection between electricity and magnetism. When
he was lecturing about electric circuit to his class, a compass was
present on his table and he noticed the deflection of the compass
needle when he turned the switch of the circuit on and off. He knew
that the compass needle is affected by the presence of a magnetic
field provided by a magnet, but there was no magnet around. This was
the beginning of electromagnetism. Oersted did further investigation
and found out that a current-carrying wire produces a circular
magnetic field surrounding the wire and us the electric field ceases,
the magnetic field ceases as well.

Andre-Marie Ampere

Andre-Marie Ampere was a French physicist inspired by the discovery

of Oersted. After knowing that electricity and magnetism are related,
Ampere wanted to investigate the exact relationship of the two. He
performed several experiments that showed two current-carrying
wires that are parallel to each other and whose current are in the
same direction attract one another and the two repel whenever the
direction of the current in each is opposite. These results lead him to
formulate a law that mathematically describes the magnetic force
between two current-carrying wires known as Ampere’s law.
Ampere did several inventions that helped improve the field of
electromagnetism. One example would be the first type of what we
now called galvanometer that detects the presence of an electric
current. The unit for electric current was given the name ampere in
honor of him.

Learn about it!

Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart

Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart were French scientists who
formulated an equation named after them which tells about
fundamental quantitative relationship that exists between electric
current and magnetic field. It was proven that a current-carrying wire
produces its own magnetic field. Biot-Savart law tells about the value
of the magnetic field produce by a certain source, that this value is
affected by amount of current in a wire and the length of the wire. The
amount of magnetic field produced is also affected by the orientation
of the magnetic field and electric field, if the two are 90 degrees with
respect to each other, magnetic field produced will be of highest value
and decreases as the angle between the two decreases as well and
yields zero when the two lies parallel to one another.

Michael Faraday

Michael Faraday was most famous for his discovery of electromagnetic

induction which is the production of electricity from changing
magnetic field. Studying the works of Oersted and Ampere, Faraday
was able to show that a changing magnetic field produces electric
field. His discoveries lead to many inventions that greatly changed the
way of life of people. He was able to invent the first of all the
wonderful machines used to generate electricity like electric motor,
electric transformer, electric generator and dynamo. He also has a law
known as Faraday’s law of induction which states that the amount of
electricity produced is equal to the rate of change in the magnetic flux
moving in the surface of a wire loop.

James Clerk Maxwell

James Maxwell was a Scottish physicist best known for his four
equations that tells about how electric and magnetic interacts,
propagates and are affected by other materials. He used Faraday’s and
Ampere’s findings and combined them to create four equations that
mathematically describe the behaviour of electricity and magnetism
being considered as inseparable.

The four equations include Gauss’ law, Gauss’ Magnetism Law,

Faraday’s Law, and Ampere’s Law.

 Gauss’ law tells how electric fields acts around electric charges.
 Gauss’ magnetism law states that the divergence of the
magnetic flux density is equal to zero.

 Faraday’s law states that a changing magnetic field produces an

electric field

 Ampere’s law states that a changing electric field produces

magnetic field and a changing magnetic field yields an electric
field.

The four laws of Maxwell have revolutionized the world of Physics after
Newton.

Explore!
Make a time line that will show the progress of the discoveries of the
given physicists in electricity and magnetism. Try to determine
overlaps on dates and see the importance of searching and using
proven facts to pursue new discoveries.

What do you think?

If all these discoveries and findings were not found and discovered
what do you think will our current life be?

Key Points
  Benjamin Franklin discovered that lightning was electrical in
nature and that electricity involves a movement of what he
called fluid in which presence of greater fluid.
 Charles-Augustin de Coulomb was a French physicist known in
formulating an equation about the force between two electric
charges.

 Han Christian Oersted was a Physics teacher who accidentally

discovered the connection between electricity and magnetism.

 Andre-Marie Ampere was a French physicist who investigated the

relationship of electricity and magnetism.

 Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart were French scientists who
formulated an equation named after them which tells about
fundamental quantitative relationship that exists between
electric current and magnetic field.

 Michael Faraday was most famous for his discovery of

electromagnetic induction which is the production of electricity
from changing magnetic field.

 James Maxwell was a Scottish physicist known for his four

equations about how electric and magnetic interacts,
propagates, and are affected by other materials.

How Hertz Produced Radio Pulses

LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how Hertz
produced radio pulses.

Recall that visible light is only one of the seven electromagnetic (EM)
waves. Another type of EM wave is the radio wave which is widely used
for communication and transmission of information regardless the
distance of the sender and receiver. Radio waves are naturally created
by astronomical bodies or lightning but can also be created artificially
to serve its purpose.
When and how was the first man-made radio wave created and who
first generated it?

Learn about it!

In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell published his theory about EM waves.
According to Maxwell’s theory, EM waves move at the speed of
light, c=3x108m/sc=3x108m/s, and is created by oscillating electric
and magnetic fields moving perpendicular to each other, in which a
changing electric field yields changing magnetic field and vice versa.
The first person to succeed was Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. In 1886, Hertz
was able to create the first man-made radio wave by using induction
coil, Leyden jar as a condenser and a spark gap.

Learn about it!

Hertz' First Transmission of Radio Waves

The poles of the spark gap are made up of two 2-cm radius spheres.
The picture below depicts the image of Hertz’ set-up.
Inducing high voltage to the induction coil caused a spark
discharge between the spark gaps. Relating this to Maxwell’s theory,
where changing electric fields or magnetic fields will produce EM
waves, Hertz thought that whenever a spark is produced, EM waves
will be transmitted. To check if this was true, he created a receiver
made of looped copper wire whose ends were made of small knobs
with small gaps in between. He ran the experiment again and saw that
a spark was produced at the receiver loop, which means that EM
waves were transmitted. His experiment was the first transmission
and reception of radio waves.

Learn about it!

The Speed of Electromagnetic Waves
To calculate the speed of the EM waves, Hertz performed another
experiment that aimed the radiation into a wide metal sheet. A
standing wave was formed from which he was able to measure the
distance between nodes which served as the wavelength (λ)(λ) of the
EM wave while the **frequency** (f)(f) was calculated from the
frequency of the oscillator. From these two quantities, Hertz was able
to calculate the speed of the EM wave (v=λf)(v=λf).
The speed of the EM wave was equivalent to the speed of light which
served as a proof of Maxwell’s theory. The frequency of a wave, which
is the number of cycles created in a unit of time, was named hertz, in
honor of his name.

Try it!
Research about other experiments that tried to prove Maxwell's
theory.

What do you think?

What do you think would have happened to our communication system
if Hertz was not successful in his experiment?

Key Points
 Maxwell’s theory states that EM waves are produced by
oscillating electric and magnetic field and moves at the speed of
light.
 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was the first scientist to prove Maxwell’s
hypothesis by conducting an experiment showing the first
transmission and reception of radio waves.

 Hertz' experiment proved that EM waves travel at the speed of

light and is created by changing electric and magnetic fields.

Theory of Special Relativity

THE PHYSICS IN COSMOS
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how special
relativity resolved the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.

Newtonian mechanics also known as classical mechanics has

concepts that do not entirely agree with all known theories in Physics
like Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory but when Einstein presented his
theory of special relativity, the conflict between these two great ideas
was resolved.

How did theory of special relativity resolve this conflict?

Learn about it!

Newtonian or classical mechanics discusses the everyday motion of
the objects of normal size around us including the force that causes
these motions. The concepts under Newtonian mechanics are mainly
based on ideas of Newton about motion which correctly describes the
state of motion of an object whether at rest or moving in a straight
path and the forces that maintain and can cause changes in the body’s
states of motion.

Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory consists of four formulas gathered

from the different works of Faraday and other physicists that unites all
the concepts of electricity and magnetism and had the findings that
electric and magnetic fields spread as waves. In 1886, Hertz proved
that these waves really exist and the propagation speed of these
waves can be calculated using the formula:
c=1ε_0−μ_0√c=1ε_0−μ_0
where:
cc is the speed of light
ε_0ε_0 is the electric field constant
μ_0μ_0 is the magnetic field constant

Learn about it!

Maxwell observed that the value of the above expression is equivalent
to the speed of light c (3.0 x 108 m/s) which implies that speed of light
c must also be constant. This is where the conflict between Newtonian
mechanics and Maxwell’s theory starts.

If we consider a moving object of speed 100 m/s and placed a switched

on flashlight in it, according to Newtonian mechanics the speed of the
light coming from the flashlight in this scenario would be 100 m/s + c
and this contradicts what Maxwell’s theory tells that speed of light is a
constant value. Which is true between these two concepts?

The theory of special relativity proposed by Einstein in 1905 explains

the problems that involve motion of frames of reference at constant
linear velocity with respect to one another and is based on two
postulates: (1) the laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames
of reference moving with constant velocity relative to one another and
(2) the speed of light is the same in all inertial frames of reference.
The second postulate clearly tells that Maxwell’s idea is correct but
does mean Newtonian mechanics is wrong? Not totally, but the
postulates of Einstein tell us that Newtonian mechanics has
limitations in terms of its application. If we consider moving objects
with speed very small compared to the speed of light, Newtonian
mechanics applies like the speeds of a flying ball and running car but if
we consider speeds that is close to the speed of light a new concept
must be included in order to supply the limit of Newtonian mechanics
and that is the Lorentz transformation the counterpart of the Galilean
transformation of the Newtonian mechanics.

Key Points
 Newtonian or classical mechanics tells that the measures speed
of light should depend on the motion of the observer.
 Maxwell's electromagnetic theory tells that the value of the
speed of light is constant.

 Theory of special relativity tells that the speed of light is

constant in all frames of reference.
How the Speeds and Distances of Far-Off Objects are Estimated
THE PHYSICS IN COSMOS

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the speeds
and distances of far-off objects are estimated (e.g., cosmic distance
ladder and Doppler Effect).

The Earth is just a tiny dot in comparison to the vast universe where it
belongs. It is surrounded by billions of heavenly bodies whose light
needs to travel billions of light years to reach the Earth.

Recall that a light year is a unit used to express the length traveled by
light in a year and is approximately 9.5x1015m9.5x1015m. If the light
coming from heavenly bodies needs to travel billions of light years,
then that means these bodies are very far from the Earth.
How do astronomers measure the distance of heavenly bodies from the
Earth? Also, how are their speeds measured?

Learn about it!

Cosmic Distance Ladder

There are several ways to determine the distance of far-off objects.

The most common among them is the cosmic distance ladder. No
single method can be used to measure the distances of all heavenly
bodies than can be seen from earth. So the cosmic distance ladder is
composed of several methods that build on one another. The data
obtained in the first step of the ladder is used in the succeeding step
and so on.
The base of the ladder is a distance measurement done directly
without any assumptions about the stars’ characteristics. For example,
the measurement of one astronomical unit (AU), which is the measure
of the distance of Earth from the Sun, is considered the base. One AU
is approximately 1.50x1011m1.50x1011m. This value is used in
measuring the parallax of a star.
Parallax

Parallax is the apparent change in the position of an object due to

change in the way it is perceived. It is used in measuring distance of
stars that are approximately 300 light years away.

In measuring parallax, astronomers take a picture of a specific star,

wait for six months to pass so that the Earth has moved two AU, and
then take a photo of the same star to compare the change in its
position.
The diagram above shows how parallax can be calculated. In the initial
position of the Earth (a), a photo of the star (d) is taken. After six
months when the Earth has traveled approximately two AU (b), another
photo of the same star is taken.

The image of the star in the two photos will appear to shift slightly due
to the change in the position of how the star was seen. These shifts
serve as the angles of an isosceles triangle. The base of the triangle is
two AU, and the length of the sides is equal to the distance of the
Earth to the star.

The d is the distance of the star and is expressed in

parsec. Parsec (parallax second) is the distance of a star that has a
parallax of two arcsecond. Arcsecond is the 60th60th part of one
arcminute and one arcminute is the 60th60th part of one degree.
One parsec is approximately 3.26 light years
or 3.09x1013km3.09x1013km. αα and ββ are angles whose difference
divided by two will give the parallax angle of the star expressed in
arcsecond.
For example, the difference between αα and ββ is 0.6 arcsecond, the
parallax angle (P) can solve by dividing this value by two so P = 0.3
arcsecond.
If P = 1 arcsecond (1/3600 degree), distance d can be calculated by the
formula :

d= r/(tan P ) = 150000000000/(tan 1 ") = 3 x 1013 m

This calculated d is equivalent to one parallax second (parsec) which
is the basic unit for measuring astronomical distances. The distances
in parsec can be calculated by the formula

d= 1/(P in arcsecond)

From our first problem, distance d will be:

d= 1/(0.3 arcsecond) = 3.3 parsec

Learn about it!

Spectroscopic Method

For stars whose parallax cannot be measured using the ladder, the
spectroscopic method is used. Spectroscopic method requires that the
star’s apparent brightness and spectrum be first observed.

Astronomers measure the brightness of the stars thru the process is

known as photometry. Based on Physics concepts, the brightness and
distance have an inverse-square relationship. Mathematically it can be
expressed as

brightness=1distance2brightness=1distance2
In the equation, brightness decreases proportionally to the square of
the distance or when distance is doubled, the brightness of the star
will be quartered of its original.

The standard measure of the brightness of a star in astronomy is the

brightness of a star that is 10 parsec away from earth. This brightness
is called absolute brightnesswhile the actual brightness of the star
that we see here on earth is known as its apparent brightness.

How do we measure the distance of the star from us using the

measurement of their brightness?
By looking at their spectral lines under the process known
as spectroscopy, astronomers analyze the spectra of nearby stars
whose parallax are known to those which are not. Astronomers are
able to determine the spectral type of a star’s spectrum by analysing
its spectral lines and plotting the observations in the Hertzsprung -
Russell diagram. Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) Diagram is a graph that
shows star’s luminosity versus its temperature. It is an important tool
in determining the distance of far-off objects because astronomers
believe that the stars near Earth are similar to the stars far from
earth.

If the star’s location can be plotted on HR Diagram, its absolute

brightness can be read off. Knowing the absolute brightness of a
cluster of stars and comparing this to the absolute brightness of the
stars with known distance enables astronomers to roughly estimate
the distance of the cluster form Earth. The observed cluster is shifted
vertically in the HR diagram until it overlaps with the model stars
(stars with known distance). The difference in the magnitude that was
used to join the two groups is called distance modulus which is the
difference between apparent and absolute magnitude (m – M) and is
the direct measure of the distance in the formula:

m−M=5logd−5m−M=5logd−5
where:

m is the apparent magnitude

M is the absolute magnitude

d is the distance to the object in parsec.

Manipulating this will give the formula for distance:

d=10(m−M+5)/5d=10(m−M+5)/5

Example
A star in a certain constellation was found to have an apparent
magnitude of 3.5 with a spectral class of G8. According to HR Diagram,
the star shows an absolute magnitude of 5.7.

Substituting this in the formula

d=10(m−M+5)/5d=10(m−M+5)/5
d=10(3.5−5.7+5)/5d=10(3.5−5.7+5)/5
d=3.63parsecsd=3.63parsecs

Learn about it!

Doppler Effect

Doppler Effect is used by astronomers to estimate the speeds of far-off

objects. It is the shift in the wavelength of the emitted light of an
object which is proportional to the speed with which the object moves.
Doppler Effect occurs when the star emitting light is moving with
respect to an observer. The Doppler formula used for speeds relatively
smaller than the speed of light is:

λ−λoλo=vcλ−λoλo=vc
where:

λλ is the measured wavelength

λoλo is the original or rest wavelength
vv is the speed of the object
cc is the speed of light

Example
A certain absorption line found in the lab have a rest wavelength
of 5x1010km5x1010km and is found to have a measured wavelength
of 5.05x1010km5.05x1010km in analysing a galaxy. What is the velocity
of the galaxy?
Since speed (v)is being asked, the formula will be:

v=c(λ−λoλo)v=c(λ−λoλo)
Substituting the givens will give us

v=c(5.05x1010km−5x1010km5x1010km)v=c(5.05x1010km−5x1010km5x1010km)
v=c(0.01)v=c(0.01)
The speed of the galaxy is .01 times of the speed of light
or 3x106m/s3x106m/s.

Try it!
Try to see parallax on your own.

Place your index just in front of you and try to look at it with you right
eye open and your left eye close then look at it with your left eye open
and right eye close this time. What have you noticed? What difference
did you see upon changing the open and close eye? Can you now
imagine how parallax is used in determining the distance of a distant
star?
What do you think?
What method can be used to determine the distance of Mars from
Earth?

Key Points
 Cosmic distance ladder is a succession of methods used by
astronomers to estimate the distance of far-off objects. The
ladder evolved from the fact that there is no single method that
can measure all the distance of star or galaxy that can be seen
from earth.
 The measure of the distance from Earth to Sun is
called astronomical unit (AU) and is approximately 1.50 x 1011m.
This value is used in measuring the parallax of a star that is at
least 300 lightyears away

 Parallax is the apparent change in the position of an object due

to change in the way it is perceived. It is used to measure
distance of stars that are approximately 300 lightyears away.

 Standard candles are those objects with known luminosity.

 Luminosity of a star is the measure of the total energy it emits

per unit of time. It depends on both radius and temperature of the
star and is also the measure of the star’s absolute brightness.
Doppler Effect is the shift in the wavelength of the light emitted
by a star and is used to measure the star’s speed.

An Expanding Universe
THE PHYSICS IN COSMOS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how we live in
an expanding universe that used to be hot and is approximately 14
billion years old.
Looking at a clear sky at night enables us to have a little glimpse of
what is beyond our atmosphere. The universe where the Earth belongs
has been a study of scientists for so long, and is still being studied to
answer the question that involves the end of it. Though no concrete
answer is yet found about how the universe will end, let us try to
understand first how it began and what is currently happening with it
right now.

Learn about it!

The Universe as Perceived by Early Scientists

Early scientists believed that the life of the universe is infinite.

Physicists today believe otherwise and say that the Sun that will burn
out in 4.5 billion years as it expands into a supernova, which will
destroy everything on its path including the Earth. Before this present
conclusion came about, different scientists have argued and laid down
different theories, concepts, and observations that would disprove the
belief that the universe is infinite.

Some scientist laid different concepts and theories of why the

universe is infinite. These scientists include Heinrich Olbers, Sir Isaac
Newton, and Albert Einstein.

 Heinrich Olbers, a German physician and astronomer, argued that

if universe is infinite, we should be seeing a night full of stars
having no part of darkness. But that is not what is observed
which presumed that the universe is finite.
 Sir Isaac Newton, an English physicist and mathematician,
introduced the concept of gravity—a force of attraction, and
argued that if the universe is finite, it should be collapsing on
itself due to the attractive force between objects within the
universe.This did not happen as well.
 Albert Einstein, a German-born physicist, developed his theory of
gravity in the theory of general relativity. His equations
contained a cosmological constant that cancelled the
gravitational force of bodies and resulted to a static universe.

Learn about it!

All of the previous ideas about the universe as infinite have been
disregarded when Edwin Hubble, an American Astronomer, studied the
Doppler shift measurements of the velocities and the distance moved
by galaxies. From these, he found out that the universe is expanding.

The Hubble's Law

Hubble was able to figure this out by studying further the work
of Vesto Slipher where Slipher found out that the light emitted by
bodies in the universe were shifted to the red spectrum of light and
this means that these bodies were moving away from Earth. Hubble
discovered the direct relationship between the distance of distant
galaxies from earth and how fast they are moving away from earth.
This was known as the Hubble’s Law and is shown by the equation:

v=Horv=Hor
where:

vv is the recessional velocity

HoHo is the Hubble's constant equal
to 70km/sMpc=20km/sMly70km/sMpc=20km/sMly (Mpc for mega parses and
Mly for mega light years); HoHo is also the value of the rate of
expansion of the universe
rr is the distance of the distant galaxy from Earth
This equation shows how fast bodies are moving away from earth.
Hubble plotted his findings on a graph and found a linear relationship
between v and r and shows that the further the galaxies are, the faster
they are moving away from Earth. This led him to the idea that the
universe is expanding just like what happens to raisin bread when it
expands as shown below. The raisins tend to move away from each
other and the further the raisin the greater the distance it moved.
Learn about it!
The Expanding Universe

After the discovery of the expanding universe, which is still happening

up to now, scientists thought that in its beginning it was smaller and
could have started as a single point and this point at some time
exploded in what is known as the big bang which was the beginning of
the expanding universe and is approximately 14 billion years ago.

If all the galaxies surrounding us move away from our galaxy does it
mean we are the center of the universe? The answer is no. The truth is,
we are also moving away from them. All objects in the universe are
moving away from each other at the rate shown by Hubble’s equation.
This means that the universe has no center and is expanding in all
directions.

To how long will the universe expands, depends on the measurement of

the average density (w) of matter in the universe and (Ho) the rate at
which the universe is expanding.

Scientists have formulated three possibilities of how universe would

eventually end.

1. The open universe that tends to expand without end.

2. The flat universe which also tends to expand, will eventually slow
down its expansion to zero.
 3. The close universe's expansion is limited and is bound to
collapse on itself.

One of these three possibilities depends on two quantities, w and Ho,

and these quantities are being measured as accurate as possible by
scientists at present.

Explore!
Have with you a deflated balloon. Place several dots on its surface
before inflating it. When you pump air inside the balloon, what happens
to the distance of the dots relative to each other? Can you point a dot
that can serve as the center of the balloon? How would you relate this
to how our universe expands?

Key Points
 The universe begun as a single dot and exploded 14 billion years
ago and has been expanding ever since.
 The expanding universe was discovered by Edwin Hubble by
studying the Doppler Effect on the light spectrum of distant
galaxies and found out that these lights were all shifted to the
red end of the spectrum.

 Hubble stated that there is a direct relationship between the

speed of distant galaxies and their distance from earth and this
is known as Hubble’s law.

 Based on the equations of the expanding universe, the universe

can possibly end as one of the following: open, flat or close
universe.

 If the universe is an open universe it would expand forever.

 If the universe is a flat universe it would expand but the

expansion will slow down to zero.

 If the universe is a close universe it would expand and collapse

into itself.
Pluto was Once Thought to Be a Planet
THE PHYSICS IN COSMOS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain why Pluto is no
longer considered as a planet.

When Pluto was discovered in 1930 until 2006, it was considered as

the ninth planet of our solar system.

What was the reason why Pluto was removed from the list?

Learn about it!

Scientists have long before predicted that the solar system has a ninth
planet and named it Planet X. Until 1930, when the American
astronomer, Clyde Tombaugh, observed in his photographic plates, an
object that seemed to have moved from one position to another. After
the staff in Lowell Observatory in Arizona studied and confirmed the
images, they finally named Planet X as Pluto, from the Roman god of
the underworld, as suggested by an 11-year old girl from England.

Pluto and Eris

The mass of Pluto was not yet determined until its largest moon,
Charon was discovered. Though Pluto is almost as heavy as the moon
of Earth and only 2400 km wide it stood as the ninth planet in the solar
system until another celestial body was discovered in 2005 and was
named Eris.

Eris was of the same structure but bigger and heavier than Pluto. With
this discovery many questioned the classification of Pluto as a planet
or will Eris and other celestial body with almost the same mass as
Pluto be considered planet as well. For the past years, there was no
exact definition of what a planet is, but the need for one was felt
during this time. This led the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to
find and provide criteria on how a celestial body can be considered a
planet. In 2006, IAU gave the three criteria which are:
  The celestial body must be spherical due to its own gravity that
pulls itself into a round shape.
 The celestial body must orbit around the Sun.

 The celestial body must be able to clear its path from other
celestial bodies.

Learn about it!

Pluto as a Dwarf Planet

Pluto passed the first two criteria but failed on the third. Due to Pluto’s
very small mass, the smallest planet in the solar system, it is not able
to dominate other celestial bodies on its path, which means that it is
not able to consume or remove other bodies along its orbit. For this
reason, Pluto has been removed from being a planet and was
considered as a drawf planet.

Dwarf planets are those celestial bodies that satisfy the first two
criteria given above but fail on the third just like Pluto and Eris. There
are other dwarf planets discovered like Makemake and Haumea which
like Pluto and Eris are found beyond the planet Neptune and another
one which is considered as the biggest asteroid – Ceres which is found
in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. All those icy-cold bodies
found within 50 astronomical unit (AU) from Neptune is part of a region
in space called Kuiper Belt.

Explore!
Look at the picture below. You will see the orbit taken by the eight
planets as well as Pluto around the Sun. Aside from the fact that Pluto
was not able to satisfy all three criteria to be a planet, it has other
several differences compared to the eight remaining planets. One can
be seen below. Can you describe the orbit taken by Pluto relative to
the orbits of the rest of the planets?
Key Points
 International Astronomical Union made criteria for a celestial
body to be considered a planet these are: the body must be
spherical, must orbit around the sun and must be able to
dominate other celestial bodies along its path.
 Pluto was removed from being a planet for it failed on the third
criterion; due to its small mass, it is not able to clear the smaller
bodies along its path.

 Celestial bodies that satisfy the first two criteria of being a

planet but fail on the third just like Pluto are called dwarf
planets.

 Eris, Makemake, Haumea and Ceres are just some of the dwarf
planets found in the solar system.

 Kuiper Belt is the region behind Neptune that extends up to 50

AU that contains icy-cold bodies like Pluto and its moons.

How Doppler Shifts and Transits Can Be Used to Detect Extrasolar

Planets
THE PHYSICS IN COSMOS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how Doppler
shifts and Transits can be used to detect extrasolar planets.

How can scientists identify these exoplanets knowing that planets do

not have their own light to emit?

Learn about it!

Astronomers before have wondered if the planets within the solar
system are not the only planets in the whole universe. Since 1995, they
have discovered so many extrasolar planets.

An extrasolar planet or an exoplanet is a planet that revolves around a

star other than the Sun. There are several ways that can be used to
find extrasolar planets like Doppler shifts and transit. These two
methods are both indirect way of detecting an extrasolar planets.
Direct methods like taking a picture of the planet itself is only possible
for near planets and is so hard to be done for those that are millions of
light years away.

Learn about it!

The Doppler Shifts

Doppler Effect is the change in wavelength of light emitted by an

object due to its motion. This method is used to detect the speed of
distant objects and can also be used to detect extrasolar planets. In
Physics, when sound source is moving towards an observer, the
wavelengths of the sound tends to move closer to each other creating
a sound with higher pitch since shorter wavelength corresponds to
sound with higher frequency and thus results to higher pitch and when
the sound source is moving away from an observer the wavelengths
tend to be further apart creating a sound with lower pitch until nothing
is heard by the observer. This happens to light as well. When a light
source moves closer to an observer, light waves are compressed
producing shorter wavelengths corresponding to blue light
(blueshifted). On the other hand, when a light source moves away from
an observer, light waves are stretched producing longer wavelengths
corresponding to red light (redshifted).
This information is used by astronomers to detect stars whose
spectral lines are moving back and forth because these stars may
have planets orbiting them. These spectral lines shows that a planet is
moving around it since a planet having its gravitational attraction to
the star affects the star’s line of orbit. Just like our Sun and the
planets orbiting around it, each of these bodies is exerting
gravitational force on one another and this attraction creates a
common center of mass for each pair of planet-sun in the solar system.
Since Sun is so massive compared to any of the planets in the solar
system, this common center of mass resides inside the sun and this
makes the Sun somehow wiggle on its movement causing a shift on its
spectral lines. This same thing happens to other stars with exoplanets
orbiting them. When a star has an exoplanet orbiting around it, as
observed by scientists Tthe star sometimes spins towards earth and
sometimes away from earth . When Doppler shifts are observed on a
star there is great possibility that there is an extrasolar planet orbiting
it since the shift in the spectral lines of the star is due to the
gravitational attraction between the star and an unseen planet.
Unfortunately this method can only detect planets that have
gravitational force significant enough to cause change in the spin of
its parent star which means this method can only detect planets with
huge masses. Extrasolar planets as heavy as earth are hard to be
detected using this method.

Learn about it!

Transit

Another way of detecting extrasolar planet when a planet crosses in

front of its parent star that causes a slight decrease in the star’s
brightness. This method is called transit. It allows scientists to
describe the extrasolar planet’s density and size relative to its parent
star.
Based on observations of scientists, when an extrasolar planet as
heavy as Jupiter passes across its parent star it causes a 1%
decrease in the brightness of the star. Just like the Doppler shift
method, this method can only detect extrasolar planets that are very
large and gaseous.

Most of the exoplanets found were similar to our planet Jupiter and
were named Hot Jupiters. A star called HD 209458 were found to have
these kind of exoplanet through the transit method since a decrease in
the star’s brightness was periodically found at the same time that the
exoplanet is expected to pass in front of it.

What do you think?

If our planet earth passes across the sun, how do you think would the
earth look like? Will it cause a significant decrease in the brightness of
the sun?

Key Points
 Doppler shift is used to detect extrasolar planets by detecting
stars whose spectral lines periodically shift to either red or blue,
this leads the scientists that an extrasolar planet might be
orbiting around it.
 A star and a planet orbiting around it creates a common center
mass where they tend to move around, but since stars are more
massive compared to a planet the common center of mass is
 usually found inside the star making the star wiggle in its motion
which causes the shift in its spectral lines as seen on earth.

 Transit is when a planet passes across its parent star that

causes a significant decrease in the star’s brightness.

 Both these methods can only detect extrasolar planets of big

masses since there must be a significant effect in either the
parent star’s orbit or brightness must be seen and this is only
possible with extrasolar planets of huge mass.