Quipper Lecture Physical Science

The Formation of the Light Elements in the Big Bang Theory
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to give evidence for and explain the formation of the
light elements in the big bang theory.
What elements were produced during the big bang expansion?
Learn about it!

Big Bang Theory
The big bang theory is a cosmological model stating that the universe started its
expansion about 13.8 billion years ago. Pieces of evidence supporting this theory are
(1) occurrence of redshift, (2) background radiation, and (3) abundance of light
elements.
Redshift
In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz measured the wavelengths of light

from spiral nebulae, which are interstellar clouds of dust and ionized gases. They
discovered that the light from the nebulae increased in wavelength. They explained their
discovery as a Doppler shift. The Doppler shift or Doppler effect explains that when
an object gets closer to us, its light waves are compressed into shorter wavelengths
(blueshifted, because blue light has the shortest wavelength in the visible region). On
the other hand, when an object moves away from us, its light waves are stretched into
longer wavelengths (redshifted, because red light has the longest wavength in the
visible region).
Slipher and Wirtz then explained that the redshift or increase in wavelength was due to
the increase in the distance between the Earth and the nebulae. They concluded that
the redshift occurred due to the expansion of space.
In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light from galaxies to calculate the

velocities and distances of these galaxies from the Earth. He discovered that they were
moving away from the Earth and from each other. His calculations supported the theory
that the universe is expanding.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias discovered a low, steady “hum” from their

Holmdel Horn antenna (an antenna built to support NASA’s Project Echo). They
concluded that the noise is Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR), the
remains of energy created after the big bang expansion.
Abundance of Light Elements
The observed abundance of light elements supports the big bang theory. The theory
predicts that the universe is composed of 73% hydrogen and 25% helium by mass.
The prediction correlated to the measured abundances of primordial material in
unprocessed gas in some parts of the universe with no stars.
Learn about it!

Formation of Light Elements
Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing the light elements during the
big bang expansion. In the beginning, the universe was very hot that matter was fully
ionized and dissociated. Few seconds after the start of the big bang, the universe was
filled with protons, neutrons, electrons, neutrinos, and positrons. After the first three
minutes, the universe cooled down to a point where atomic nuclei can form. Protons
and neutrons combined to form atomic nuclei such as deuterium.
However, the temperature of the universe was still much greater than the binding
energy of deuterium. Binding energy is the energy required to break down a nucleus
into its components. Therefore, deuterium easily decayed upon formation.
Learn about it!

When the temperature cooled down below 10 K, deuterium nuclei combined with other
10
nuclei to form heavier ones.

Helium-3 was formed from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a release of a
neutron.
Tritium or hydrogen-3 was produced from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a

release of a proton.
Helium-4 was also synthesized from deuterium and helium-3.

Helium-4 was produced from the fusion of deuterium and tritium.
Learn about it!

For the first three minutes, a substantial amount of neutrons was converted into helium-
4 nuclei, before their decay. Helium then combined to other nuclei to form heavier ones
such as lithium-7 and beryllium-7.
Lithium-7 was synthesized from helium-4 and tritium.

Beryllium-7 was produced from helium-3 and helium-4.
Among the light elements formed, deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were
stable. Beryllium-7 was unstable and decayed spontaneously to lithium-7.
What do you think?

How are elements heavier than beryllium formed?
Key Points
 Pieces of evidence that support the big bang theory are redshift, cosmic
microwave background radiation, and abundance of light elements.
 Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of light element formation.
 The light elements that formed after the big bang were helium, deuterium, and
trace amounts of lithium and beryllium.
 Deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable. On the other hand,
beryllium-7 was unstable and decayed spontaneously to lithium-7.
The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation and Evolution

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give evidence for and describe the
formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution.
In the previous lesson, you have learned how the light elements – hydrogen, helium,
lithium, and beryllium, were formed during the big bang nucleosynthesis.
How were elements heavier than beryllium formed?
Learn about it!

Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar
nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars. The
abundances of these elements change as the stars evolve.
Evolution of Stars
The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense
regions of a molecular cloud. As the cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a
stellar core called protostar. Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts
and its temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K,
nuclear reactions begin. The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase
pressure and stop the contraction. When the contraction stops, the gravitational
equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become a main sequence star.
In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-proton
chain. When most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and the
pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and
hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while hydrogen is
converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.
Learn about it!

When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon, then the rate
of fusion decreases. Gravity again squeezes the star. In a low-mass star (with mass
less than twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur.
The star’s fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown off into
space. The only thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The star becomes
awhite dwarf.
However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough mass such
that temperature and pressure increase to a point where carbon fusion can occur. The
star goes through a series of stages where heavier elements are fused in the core and
in the shells around the core. The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion; neon
from oxygen fusion; magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and
iron from silicon fusion. The star becomes a multiple-shell red giant.
Learn about it!

The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion. Elements lighter
than iron can be fused because when two of these elements combine, they produce a
nucleus with a mass lower than the sum of their masses. The missing mass is released
as energy. Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases energy. However,
this does not happen to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the fusion of two iron
nuclei requires an input of energy. Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron
can be produced in a massive star, but no elements heavier than iron are produced.
When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the star is doomed.
Gravity squeezes the core until the star explodes and releases a large amount of
energy. The star explosion is called a supernova.
Pieces of Evidence
The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the early part of the
20th century provided a crucial piece of evidence to support the star formation theory.
Other pieces of evidence come from the study of different stages of formation
happening in different areas in space and piecing them together to form a clearer
picture.
Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different stages of star
formation. For instance, astronomers measure the IR released by a protostar and
compare it to the IR from a nearby area with zero extinction. Extinction in astronomy
means the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by gases and dust
particles between an emitting astronomical object and an observer. The IR
measurements are then used to approximate the energy, temperature, and pressure in
the protostar.
Try it!
Research about the nuclear binding energy. Then explain why the nuclear fusion
reactions in massive stars stop in iron through the concept of binding energy.
What do you think?

How are elements heavier than iron formed?
Key Points
 Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within
stars.
 The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the
dense regions of a molecular cloud.
 A protostar is a stellar core formed when the fragments of a collapsed molecular
cloud contract.
 A main sequence star is formed when gravitational equilibrium is reached
during the hydrogen fusion in a protostar.
 A red giant is a star that has used up its hydrogen supply in the core and
switched into the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in the shell surrounding the
core.
 A massive star becomes a multiple-shell red giant when the elements oxygen,
neon, magnesium, silicon, and iron are formed in its core together with carbon,
helium, and hydrogen.
 A supernova is a star that blows apart and releases a large amount of energy.
 Evidence of star formation comes from studying IR emissions from the different
stages of star evolution.
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how elements are formed in
stars through nuclear fusion.
What are the nuclear fusion reactions that happen in the stellar cores?
Learn about it!

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed in the cores and
shells of the stars through nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction
that fuses lighter elements to form heavier ones. It requires very high temperatures and
pressures. It is the reaction that fuels the stars since stars have very high temperatures
and pressures in their cores.
Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most abundant in space. Thus, the formation
of heavier elements starts with hydrogen. Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that
produces energy in the stars. There are two dominant hydrogen burning processes, the
proton-proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.
Learn about it!

Proton-Proton Chain
The proton-proton chain is a series of thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is the
main source of energy radiated by the sun and other stars. It happens due to the large
kinetic energies of the protons. If the kinetic energies of the protons are high enough to
overcome their electrostatic repulsion, then proton-proton chain proceeds.
The sequence proceeds as follows:
1. The chain starts when two protons fuse. When the fused proton breaks, one proton is
transmuted into a neutron.
2. The proton and neutron then pairs, forming an isotope of hydrogen calleddeuterium.
3. Another proton collides with a deuterium forming a helium-3 nucleus and a gamma ray.
4. Finally, two helium-3 nuclei collide, and a helium-4 is created with the release of two
protons.
Learn about it!
Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle
For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is the more
favorable route in converting hydrogen to helium.
The cycle proceeds as follows:
1. Carbon-12 captures a proton and gives off a gamma ray, producing an unstable
nitrogen-13.
2. Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form carbon-13.
3. Carbon-13 captures a proton and releases a gamma ray to become nitrogen-14.
4. Nitrogen-14 then captures another proton and releases a gamma ray to produce
oxygen-15.
5. Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay and becomes nitrogen-15.
6. Finally, nitrogen-15 captures a proton and gives off helium (alpha particle) ending the
cycle and returning to carbon-12.
Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle is a catalytic process. Carbon-12 acts a
catalyst for the cycle. It is used in the initial reaction and is regenerated in the final one.
Try it!
Look at the periodic table of elements. Which elements are formed during the big bang
nucleosynthesis? Which elements are formed during stellar nucleosynthesis?
What do you think?

Are there elements found in the outer space that are not present in the earth?
Key Points
 Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter elements to form heavier
ones.
 Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that produces energy in the stars.
There are two dominant hydrogen burning processes, the proton-proton chain
and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.
 Proton-proton chain is a sequence of thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is
the main source of energy radiated by the sun and other stars.
 Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is a catalytic cycle of gamma emission and beta
decay that converts hydrogen into helium.
How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how elements heavier than iron
is formed.
Nucleosynthesis is the process by which new nuclei are formed from pre-existing or
seed nuclei. In the previous lessons, you have learned about the types of
nucleosynthesis. The big bang nucleosynthesis produced hydrogen and helium,
whereas the stellar nucleosynthesis produced elements up to iron in the core of the
stars.
If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up to iron, then what type
of nucleosynthesis produced the elements heavier than iron?
Learn about it!

The stellar nucleosynthesis produced nuclei that are heavier than helium-4 by nuclear
fusion. It started by fusing two helium-4 nuclei to form beryllium-8 accompanied by a
release of energy in the form of gamma radiation ( γγ). This process continues until
nickel-56. However, nickel-56 is unstable and undergoes positron ( 0+1β+10β) emission.
Recall that positron emission results in a nucleus with lower atomic number.
AZx→AZ−1y+0+1βZAx→Z−1Ay++10β
A is mass number, Z is atomic number, x is the seed nucleus, and y is the new nucleus
formed.
Nickel-58 radioactively decomposes to a more stable iron-56 through subsequent

emission of two positrons.
5628Ni→5627Co+0+1β→5626Fe+0+1β2856Ni→2756Co++10β→2656Fe++10β
Learn about it!

The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56 because fusion reaction
becomes unfavorable. This is because the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the
energy that holds the nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different
pathways are needed for the synthesis of heavier nuclei.
Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes.
Neutron Capture
In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. The addition of neutron
produces a heavier isotope of the element.
AZx+10n→A+1ZyZAx+01n→ZA+1y
For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.
5626Fe+310n→5926Fe2656Fe+301n→2659Fe
The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes beta ( 0−1β−10β) decay. This decay
results in an increase in the number of protons of the nucleus by 1. Hence, a heavier
nucleus is formed.
AZx→AZ+1y+0−1βZAx→Z+1Ay+−10β
Beta decay results in the formation of a new element. For example, the unstable iron-59
undergoes beta decay to produce cobalt-59.
5926Fe→5927Co+0−1β
Learn about it!

Neutron capture can either be slow or rapid.
Slow neutron capture or s-process happens when there is a small number of

neutrons. It is termed slow because the rate of neutron capture is slow compared to the
rate of 0−1β−10β decay. Therefore, if a 0−1β−10β decay occurs, it almost always
occurs before another neutron can be captured.
Rapid neutron capture or r-process, on the other hand, happens when there is a
large number of neutrons. It is termed rapid because the rate of neutron capture is fast
that an unstable nucleus may still be combined with another neutron just before it
undergoes 0−1β−10β decay. The r-process is associated with a supernova. The
temperature after a supernova is tremendously high that the neutrons are moving very
fast. Because of their speed, they can immediately combine with the already heavy
isotopes. This kind of nucleosynthesis is also called supernova nucleosynthesis.
Learn about it!

Proton Capture
Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a proton in the nucleus. It happens after
a supernova, when there is a tremendous amount of energy available. It is because the
addition of a proton to the nucleus is not favorable because of Coulombic repulsion,
which is the repulsive force between particles with the same charge.
Proton capture produces a heavier nucleus that is different from the seed nucleus.
AZx+11p→A+1Z+1y+γZAx+11p→Z+1A+1y+γ
For example, molybdenum-94 undergoes proton capture to produce technetium-95.
9442Mo+11p→9543Tc+γ4294Mo+11p→4395Tc+γ
Try it!
Nuclei, stable or radioactive, may be a product of s-, r-, or p-process. The nuclei
produced by the s-process are called s-nuclei, whereas those from r- and p-processes
are called r- and p-nuclei, respectively. Go over the web and look for the following nuclei
and classify them as s-, r-, or p-nucleus.
1. xenon-136
2. tellurium-122
3. barium-132
4. antimony-121
5. cesium-133
Tips
Big bang, stellar, and supernova nucleosynthesis are natural nuclear transformation
processes. These nuclear reactions are natural, that is, they happen in nature. These
processes produced the elements we have in the periodic table. However, note that not
all of the elements are naturally occurring. Some of them are artificially made such as
Flerovium (Fl) and Livermorium (Lv).
What do you think?

What process is used for the production of the synthetic elements?
Key Points
 Fusion reactions cannot account for the synthesis of nuclei heavier
than 5626Fe2656Fe.
 Neutron and proton capture processes are responsible for the synthesis of
nuclei heavier than 5626Fe2656Fe.
 Seed nucleus is the starting material for the formation of heavier isotopes or
new nuclei.
 Neutron capture process can be either slow (s-process) or rapid (r-process).
 Neutron capture process is often accompanied by subsequent 0−1β−10β decay.
 The r-process and proton capture are processes that happen in a supernova
because a tremendous amount of energy is needed for them to occur.
The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks
on atoms.
Can matter be infinitely divided into smaller particles?
Learn about it!

The Indivisible Atom
Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher Leucippus of Miletus (c.500
B.C.) were Greek scholars who believed that matter could be divided into tiny particles
until such point where it can no longer be divided anymore. They became the first
proponents of the atomic theory. Their early ideas on atoms are summarized below.
1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms, which come from
the Greek word atomos meaning uncuttable. The atoms are indestructible,
impenetrable, and unchangeable.
2. The atoms make up the universe as they are continuously moving in a “void” that
surrounds them, repelling each other when they collide, or combining into
clusters.
3. Atoms are completely solid which means that there is no void or empty space
inside that will make them prone to disintegration or destruction.
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature. They have no internal structures.
5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes.
These proposed ideas about atoms were supported by some Greek philosophers but
were strongly opposed by others especially Aristotle.
Learn about it!

Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, had a different view on atoms. He disregarded the
existence of atoms proposed by Leucippus and Democritus. He did not believe that
matter is a collection of atoms. Instead, he believed that everything in the universe is
made up of the four elements, air, fire, water, and earth. He stated that believing in
atoms would mean putting restriction on the gods, who have the power to divide
elements smaller than the atom.
Aristotle's beliefs greatly flourished especially in the Middle Ages in Europe, where
Roman Catholics were strongly influenced by his ideas. They believed that ideas about
the atoms equated to Godlessness. Thus, the whole concept of the atom was dismissed
for centuries. However, the Greeks' concept of atoms and even Aristotle's arguments
were rediscovered in France at the start of the Renaissance period. The theory of
Aristotle was proven incorrect, and Democritus' and Leucippus' theory on the existence
of atoms was proven right.
Explore!
Choose one digital photo and zoom in. Can you see a group of tiny squares? They are
called pixels. How can you relate them to atoms?
Try it!
Get a piece of paper. Divide it into half as many times as you can. What do you notice?
How would you relate this activity to the concept of the atoms?
What do you think?

Is the early idea of the existence of the atom true?
Key Points
 Democritus and Leucippus, ancient Greek philosophers, first proposed the idea
of the atom.
 Their theory states that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles
calledatoms.
 They believed that the atoms are very small, have different shapes and sizes, are
continuously moving, and can combine with other atoms.
 Aristotle did not believe that matter is strictly a collection of atoms, and that
matter can be made of air, fire, water, or earth.
 Democritus’ idea on the existence of atoms was accepted, and Aristotle’s
argument was proven incorrect.
The Discovery of the Structure of the Atom and its Subatomic Particles
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the main ideas in the discovery
of the structure of the atom and its subatomic particles.
In the previous lessons, you have learned that matter is composed of atoms.
What is the structure of the atom?
Learn about it!

Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus developed the idea that all matter is
composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. However, their atomic theory was
based only on assumptions. It was not until the early 1800s that experiments were
performed to develop models for the structure of the atom.
In 1803, John Dalton, a British scientist, did experiments on mixtures of gases. He

studied how the properties of individual gases affect the properties of the mixtures of
these gases. He developed the hypothesis that the sizes of the particles making up
different gases must be different. After several experiments, he concluded that all
matter is composed of spherical atoms, which cannot be broken down into smaller
pieces. He added that all atoms of one element are identical to each other but different
from the atoms of another element.
Learn about it!

Discovery of the Subatomic Particles
The Electrons in the Plum Pudding Model
In 1897, Joseph John Thomson, a British physicist, proposed an atomic model known

as the plum pudding model. His model consisted of negatively charged particles (plum)
spread evenly throughout the positively charged material (pudding). The small,
negatively charged particles are called electrons.
The Protons in the Planetary Model
In the early 1900s, Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born physicist, established the

planetary model which described the atom as small, dense, and has a positively
charged core called the nucleus. Inside the nucleus are positively charged particles
called the protons. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles or
electrons. The electrostatic attraction between electrons and nucleus mimics the
gravitational force of attraction between planets and the sun.
The Neutrons
In 1923, James Chadwick proved the existence of the neutron, which is also situated

in the nucleus together with the proton. It has the same mass as the proton but unlike
the latter, it has no electric charge.
Learn about it!

Recent Atomic Models
Bohr’s Atomic Model
Rutherford’s model showed that the electrons and nucleus have opposite charges which
according to the laws of physics, will attract each other. Thus, Rutherford's model would
have electrons collapsing into the nucleus, making the atom unstable. Niels
Bohr solved this problem by proposing that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set
energy levels. An electron absorbs energy if it moves from lower to higher energy level,
and it emits energy if it returns to the lower energy level.
Quantum Mechanical Model

The quantum mechanical model of the atom states that a nucleus is surrounded by a
cloud of electrons called orbitals. It explains that it is impossible to determine the exact
location of the electron at a given time, but one can find its probable location. It
incorporates the concept of Bohr’s model where the electrons move in one orbital to
another by absorbing or emitting energy.
Explore!
Look around your house. Try to think of Bohr’s discovery of energy levels. What things
can you find in your house that use the same concept proposed by Bohr?
Try it!
Create a timeline on the discovery of subatomic particles and development of the
atomic theory. Who are the scientists who had important contributions in atomic theory?
What do you think?

Based on Bohr's atomic model, what causes an electron to move from one orbital to
another?
Key Points
 John Dalton described the atom as spherical.
 Joseph John Thomson discovered the electron.
 Ernest Rutherford proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus. He,
together with his students, discovered the proton.
 Niels Bohr proposed that electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels.
 James Chadwick discovered the neutron.
 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy
levels.
 In the quantum mechanical model, the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of
electrons called orbitals.
Understanding the Structure of Atom:The Contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest
Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr
Objective
In this lesson, you will be able to cite the contributions of Joseph John Thomson, Ernest
Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the structure of the
atom.
What are the contributions of Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson, Ernest Rutherford,
Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the structure of the atom?
Learn about it!

J.J. Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron
In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electrons by conducting a series of experiments

using a high-vacuum cathode-ray tube that was composed of negatively charged
particles 1000 times lighter than the hydrogen atom. He also proposed a sea of positive
charge for the overall neutrality of the atom. He then proposed an atomic model known
as the plum pudding model depicting a sphere of positive charge (pudding) with
negatively charged particles (plums) embedded all throughout.
Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus
In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus containing positively charged
particles called protons. He advised his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, to
bombard a thin sheet of gold foil with alpha particles. He assumed that the alpha
particles would just pass straight through the foil, meaning an atom has a void space.
However, after the experiment, some particles passed right through it, and some were
deflected. He arrived at these two conclusions: (1) The atom contained an empty space,
as some particles went through the foil; and (2) The atom had a very dense center of
positive charge. From these, Rutherford proposed the planetary model. He believed that
the electrons moved around a nucleus, which contained the protons.
Learn about it!

Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number
In 1913, Henry Moseley, a British chemist, developed the use of X-ray in studying the
structure of the atom. During this time, a coherent structure of the atom was being
developed, starting from J.J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron to Rutherford’s
publication of his planetary model. He published results of his measurements of
wavelengths of the X-ray emissions of some elements that coincided with the order of
their atomic numbers. Moseley’s experimental data backed up Rutherford’s structure of
the atom with a very dense center of positive charge. The data also justified that the
atomic number of an element is the number of positive charges in its nucleus.
Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model
If you would recall in magnetism, unlike charges attract. In Rutherford’s model, since the
electron and the nucleus have opposite charges, the electrons would collapse into the
nucleus, making the atom unstable. Niels Bohr modified this model by proposing that
the electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits by absorbing or emitting energy.
Try it!
Look at the periodic table. List down three elements with the lowest atomic number and
three with the highest atomic number. What does the low and high atomic numbers
signify?
What do you think?

What is the importance of knowing the atomic number of elements?
Key Points
 J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed the plum pudding model.
 Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed the planetary model.
 Henry Moseley used the X-rays in studying the structure of the atom. The
results of his experiments supported Rutherford's model.
 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits.
The Nuclear Model of the Atom

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to describe the nuclear model of the atom and the
location of its major components (protons, neutrons, and electrons).
If you have lived during the time when the atom was discovered, how would you
describe its structure?
Learn about it!

As subatomic particles were discovered, models for their arrangement in the atom were
developed. There was J. J. Thomson’s plum-pudding model, which he proposed after
his discovery of the electrons. Then there was Ernest Rutherford’s planetary model,
proposed after the discovery of the protons in the nucleus.
The Nuclear Model

The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located at the center of
the atom. It contains protons and neutrons. Overall, it is positively charged. It contains
nearly all the mass of the atom. The electrons orbit around it.
The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by Rutherford.
Learn about it!

Geiger-Marsden Experiment
Under Rutherford's supervision, Hans Geiger, his assistant, and Ernest Marsden, an
undergraduate student, shot a narrow beam of alpha particles at a very thin sheet of
gold foil and measured the scattering pattern on a fluorescent screen. It was observed
that some particles deflected, and others penetrated through the sheet of gold foil.
There was a force behind the deflections – the repulsion of the positively charged alpha
particles by a positively charged material. If this charge existed in a sphere with the
same size of the atom, the force should have been weak. This led to the assumption
that the charge was concentrated in a small space or sphere.
Rutherford proposed that the positive charge, and the mass of the atom were
concentrated in a small part of the total volume of the atom called the nucleus.
Learn about it!

Issues Involved in the Nuclear Model
The main problem in Rutherford's model was how the electrons remained in their orbit
without falling into the nucleus. Another problem is the electron's continuous centripetal
acceleration and the energy lost through electromagnetic radiation. This energy would
make it approach the nucleus while increasing the electrostatic force. The increase in
force would increase the acceleration and the emission of energy. Thus, the nucleus
and the electrons would collide with each other. This means that the atom would be
unstable.
Explore!
Imagine you're holding two magnets with the same magnetic poles (north to north poles
or south to south poles). When you try to put the magnets together, there is a force
acting upon them which makes it difficult to do so. The repulsion between the magnets
represents the forces between the alpha particles and the positively charged material in
the atom of the gold foil as presented in the Geiger-Marsden experiment of Rutherford
and his colleagues. What is the importance of this scenario in studying the structure of
the atom?
Try it!
Research on the succeeding studies about the nucleus and its characteristics.
What do you think?

Rutherford postulated a neutral particle inside the nucleus. How did he come into this
conclusion?
Key Points
 The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located at the
center of the atom. It contains protons and neutrons.
 The nucleus is positively charged. It contains nearly all the mass of the atom.
The electrons orbit around it.
 The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by Rutherford.
The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Elements

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks
on the elements.
What were the early ideas of the Greeks on the elements?
Learn about it!

Many Greek philosophers tried to answer the question "What are the primordial
substances from which everything is made up of?" Some of them believed that there
was only one element that made up all materials. Anaximenes thought that it was
air;Heraclitus supposed it was fire; Thales believed that it was water;
and Xenophanusassumed it was earth.
Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, are the primordial
substances. He called them roots.
Plato, the founder of the Academy in Athens (the first institution of higher learning in
the Western world), first used the term element. The word element came from the
Greek word “στοιχεῖον” (stoicheion) which means smallest division.
Plato treated the four elements geometrically and named them Platonic solids. Air was
an octahedron; fire was a tetrahedron; water was an icosahedron; and earth was a
cube. He also added a fifth one, a dodecahedron, which was the shape of the Universe.
Learn about it!

Aristotle, a student of Plato, described each element with two qualities. He stated that
air was wet and hot; fire was hot and dry; water was wet and cold; and earth was dry
and cold. He then added a fifth element, aether. He thought aether was the finest of all
substances, the “quintessence,” associated with the heavenly realm. It was neither hot
nor cold and was neither wet nor dry.
What do you think?
What do you think were the bases of the Greek philosophers’ notions of elements?
Key Points
 Some Greek philosophers believed that there was only one element that made
up all materials. Anaximenes thought that it was air; Heraclitus supposed it was
fire; Thales believed that it was water; and Xenophanus assumed it was earth.
 Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, were the
primordial substances.
 Plato first used the term element. He treated the four elements geometrically and
named them Platonic solids.
 Aristotle described each element using the qualities hot, cold, wet, or dry. He
also added a fifth element, aether.
The Contributions of the Alchemists to the Science of Chemistry

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to describe the contributions of the alchemists to the
science of chemistry.
Long before the fundamentals of chemistry were established, there was

alchemy.Alchemy was a speculative science with goals of finding the elixir of life and
the philosopher’s stone, which could transform base metals into gold.
How did alchemy evolve into the science of chemistry?
Learn about it!

Alchemy was a protoscientific tradition practiced in Asia, Egypt, and Europe.
Asian Alchemy
Alchemy developed independently in India. Major accomplishments of Indian alchemists
included isolation of metallic zinc, the invention of steel, and use of flame to identify
metals.
In China, alchemy was started by monks. The creation of gold was an aim, but the
ultimate goal was prolonging life. While trying to find the elixir of life, the Chinese were
able to invent gunpowder. Also, through their experiments with sulfur, mercury, and
arsenic, they were able to create poisons such as mercuric sulfide.
In Baghdad, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, a famous Islamic alchemist, used controlled

experiments in his investigations. He was diligent in writing his activities and
observations. His works were the first to mention silver nitrate and red oxide of mercury
(mercuric oxide). His writings also described a handful of laboratory techniques —
distillation, crystallization, reduction, calcination, dissolution, and sublimation.
Learn about it!

Egyptian Alchemy
Alchemy probably evolved from the Egyptian metallurgy, extending back to 3500 B.C.
Some of the Egyptian documents on alchemy contained manufacturing of imitation gold
and silver. They also contained recipes for dyes and procedures for making artificial
gemstones and fabricating pearls. The recipes and procedures were combined with the
knowledge of the classical elements, air, fire, water, and earth.
European Alchemy
Alchemy also thrived in Europe. One of the foremost alchemists was Paracelsus, who
believed that the organs of the body worked alchemically. He proposed that the three
essentials or tria prima, salt, mercury, and sulfur, should be balanced to maintain
health. He also treated diseases with alchemical approach. He used inorganic salts,
minerals, and metals to treat illnesses. He also created laudanum, an opium tincture
used as a painkiller.
Learn about it!

The Death of Alchemy and the Beginning of Chemistry
As time passed by, the writings of alchemists became more and more cryptic. They
used unintelligible names for substances. They borrowed symbols and words from
myths. Even the simplest formula read like a magic spell. Even though they used
common techniques, alchemists had no standardized scientific practice.
By the 17th century, alchemy began to decline, as the scientific method was being
established. Although alchemists failed in their lofty goals, they left behind a rich
knowledge of chemical information. They contributed to the vast uses of chemicals such
as inks, paints, and cosmetics. They were able to create procedures to prepare liquors.
They developed porcelain material that became China’s most valuable commodity.
Their contributions had been valuable to advancing civilization.
Nonetheless, alchemy had been crucial in the development of the field of Chemistry.
Explore!
Imagine being an alchemist in the Ancient times. What would be your probable
contributions to alchemy?
What do you think?

One of the goals of alchemy was to transform a base metal (such as nickel or copper)
into gold. Why is it difficult with today’s technology?
Key Points
 Alchemy was a speculative science with goals of finding the elixir of life and
transforming base metals into gold.
 Alchemy was a protoscientific tradition practiced in Egypt, Asia, and Europe.
 Although alchemists failed in their lofty goals, they left behind a rich knowledge of
chemical information.
 Alchemy had been crucial in the development of the field of Chemistry.
The Atomic Number and the Synthesis of New Elements
Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to explain how the concept of atomic number led to
the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory.
How does the concept of the atomic number lead to the synthesis of elements?
Learn about it!

Moseley’s X-ray Spectroscopy
Henry Gwyn-Jefferys Moseley was an English physicist who demonstrated that
theatomic number, the number of protons in an atom, determines most of the
properties of an element. He began his study of radioactivity in Ernest Rutherford’s
laboratory but later decided to explore more on X-rays.
In 1913, Moseley published a paper on the arrangement of the elements in the Periodic
table based on their atomic numbers. He used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the
atomic number of an element. He bombarded a beam of electrons to different elements
and measured their X-ray spectral lines. His results clearly showed that frequency of the
X-rays given off by an element was mathematically related to the position of that
element in the Periodic table. The frequency is proportional to the charge of the
nucleus, or the atomic number.
When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers, there were four
gaps in the table. These gaps corresponded to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87.
These elements were later synthesized in the laboratory through nuclear
transmutations.
Learn about it!

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction —
a reaction involving the transformation of one element or isotope into another element.
He bombarded alpha particles from radium directed to the nitrogen nuclei. He showed
that the nitrogen nuclei reacted to the alpha particles to form an oxygen nuclei. The
reaction is written as
147N+42He→178O+11H714N+24He→817O+11H
However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they tend to
repel each other. Therefore, instead of using fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing
new elements, atomic nuclei are often bombarded with neutrons (neutral particles) in
particle accelerators.
Learn about it!

The Discovery of the Missing Elements
Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the
atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Two of these elements were synthesized in the
laboratory using particle accelerators.
A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the
repulsion between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and
electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new elements.
In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized element with atomic number

43 using a linear particle accelerator. He bombarded molybdenum (Z=42) with fast-
moving neutrons. The newly synthesized element was named Technetium (Tc) after the
Greek word "technêtos" meaning “artificial.” Tc was the first man-made element.
In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered element with

atomic number 85. They bombarded atoms of bismuth (Z=83) with fast-moving alpha
particles in a cyclotron. A cyclotron is a particle accelerator that uses alternating
electric field to accelerate particles that move in a spiral path in the presence of a
magnetic field. Element-85 was named astatine from the Greek word “astatos” meaning
unstable.
The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were discovered through
studies in radioactivity. Element-61 (Promethium) was discovered as a decay product of
the fission of uranium while element-87 (Francium) was discovered as a breakdown
product of uranium.
Learn about it!

Synthesis of New Elements
In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic number 92.
Early in 1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an element having an atomic number 93
could be created. He used a particle accelerator to bombard uranium with neutrons and
created an element with an atomic number 93 which he named neptunium.
At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy,
andWahl. They bombarded uranium with deuterons (particles composed of a proton
and a neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-94 was named plutonium.
Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are
calledtransuranium elements. Hence, neptunium and plutonium are both transuranium
elements. They are unstable and decay radioactively into other elements. All of these
elements were discovered in the laboratory as artificially generated synthetic elements.
They are prepared using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators. In the next lesson,
you will learn the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of these transuranium
elements.
Try it!
Research on the latest instruments used in preparing new elements in the laboratory.
What were the instruments used in preparing the newest four elements, nihonium,
moscovium, tennessine, and oganesson?
What do you think?

Why do scientists study and synthesize new transuranium elements in the laboratory?
What are the uses of these elements?
Key Points
 The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged particles) in an
atom.
 Henry Gwyn-Jefferys Moseley was an English physicist who demonstrated that
the atomic number, the number of protons in an atom, determines most of the
properties of an element.
 In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation
reaction — a process of transforming one element or isotope into another
element.
 In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the
atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Elements with atomic numbers 43 and 85
were synthesized using particle accelerators.
 A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to
overcome the repulsion between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by
using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new elements.
 Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are
called transuranium elements. They were discovered in the laboratory using
nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.
The Nuclear Reactions Involved in the Synthesis of New Elements

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to write the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis
of new elements.
Nuclear reaction is the process where two nuclei collide to produce new nuclei. There
are two types of nuclear reaction: nuclear transmutation and nuclear decay reaction.
What happens during nuclear transmutation?
Learn about it!

Nuclear Transmutation
A nuclear transmutation is a reaction involving the transformation of one element into
another element. It happens when a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle to produce
a more massive nucleus. It occurs only on special conditions such as the collision of the
target nuclei with a beam of particles with high energies.
In 1919, the first successful transmutation was done by Rutherford. He bombarded

nitrogen nuclei with alpha particles to form oxygen nuclei. In the next decades, other
nuclear reactions were discovered by bombarding other elements with alpha particles.
However, since these particles have a strong repulsive force with the target nuclei (both
are positively charged), the progress in discovering elements was slow. Scientists then
tried other particles with higher energies. In 1932, major advancements in nuclear
reactions took place. Particle accelerators, which use a projectile of high-energy
particles, were invented.
Transuranium Elements
Transuranium elements are elements whose atomic numbers are greater than 92.
They are all unstable and undergo radioactive decay. Many of the transuranium
elements were prepared using particle accelerators, and much of this work was
facilitated by a group of scientists led by the American chemist, Glenn Theodore
Seaborg, and later, nuclear scientist Albert Ghiorso in the University of California.
The most effective way of preparing transuranium elements specifically in the lower
members of the series (elements 93 to 95), was through nitrogen bombardment. As for
the heavier transuranium elements (96 to 101), they were generally prepared with high-
energy positive ions which include the use of deuterons, carbon nuclei, and ions.
Examples
Neptunium (Z = 93)
The first transuranium element was identified by Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson in
1940. It was named neptunium, bearing an atomic number of 93. They acquired the
radioactive isotope of neptunium through the bombardment of uranium oxide with slow
neutrons. This reaction can be represented as
[%\;{}_{92}^{238}\mathrm U\;+\;{}_0^1\mathrm n\;\rightarrow{}_{93}^{239}\mathrm{Np}\;

+\;{}_{-1}^0\mathrm\beta%]
Plutonium (Z = 94)
After the discovery of Np, the decay of this element led to the discovery of another
239
element, bearing an atomic number of 94. Seaborg, together with McMillan, Wahl, and
Kennedy bombarded uranium with deuterons to form Np, with a half-life of two days,
238
which then decayed into Pu, with a half life of 92 days. The reactions can be
238
represented as
[%\;{}_{92}^{238}\mathrm U\;+\;{}_1^2\mathrm D\;\;\rightarrow\;

{}_{93}^{238}\mathrm{Np}\;\;+\;2\;{}_1^0\mathrm n\;%]
[%{}_{93}^{238}\mathrm{Np}\;\rightarrow\;{}_{94}^{238}\mathrm{Pu}\;+{}_{-
1}^0\mathrm\beta%]
Learn about it!

Nuclear Decay Reaction
Nuclear decay reaction, also known as radioactive decay, is a reaction in which the
nucleus emits radiation and transforms into a new nucleus. The parent nuclei are
unstable, and the resulting daughter nuclei are more stable, having lower mass and
energy. Transuranium elements are unstable that they undergo radioactive decay
resulting in more stable elements.
The nuclear decay reactions involved in the synthesis of transuranium elements are
alpha decay, beta decay, and spontaneous fission.
Alpha Decay
The alpha decay is a reaction that emits helium-4 nucleus or alpha particle, [%

{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha%]. This decay produces a daughter nucleus with an atomic
number reduced by two, and a mass number reduced by four compared with the parent
nucleus. Most nuclei with mass numbers greater than 200 undergo this type of decay.
The general reaction can be represented as
[%\;{}_\mathrm Z^\mathrm A\mathrm X\;\rightarrow\;{}_{\mathrm Z-2}^{\mathrm A-

4}\mathrm Y\;+\;{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha\;%]
where A is the mass number, Z is the atomic number, X represents the parent nucleus,
and Y represents the daughter nucleus.
For example, neptunium-237, the most abundant isotope of neptunium, undergoes

alpha decay to form protactinium-233. The nuclear reaction is represented as
[%\begin{array}{l}{}_{93}^{237}\mathrm{Ne}\rightarrow{}_{91}^{233}\mathrm{Pa}+
{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha\\\end{array}%]
Beta Decay
In beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton and emits an electron in the form of
a beta particle. The atomic number goes up by one while its mass number remains the
same. The general reaction can be represented as
[%\;{}_\mathrm Z^\mathrm A\mathrm X\;\rightarrow\;{}_{\mathrm Z+1}^\mathrm

A\mathrm Y\;+\;{}_{-1}^0\mathrm\beta%]
For example, curium-249 undergoes decay by beta particle emission to form berkelium-
249. The balanced equation for this reaction is represented as
[%\begin{array}{l}{}_{96}^{249}\mathrm{Cm}\rightarrow\end{array}
{}_{97}^{249}\mathrm{Bk}+{}_{-1}^0\mathrm\beta%]
Spontaneous Fission
In spontaneous fission, the nucleus breaks into pieces into different atomic numbers
and mass numbers. This occurs in very massive nuclei. For instance, californium-254
undergoes spontaneous fission, making various sets of fission products. One possible
set can be represented as
[%{}_{98}^{254}\mathrm{Cf}\rightarrow{}_{46}^{118}\mathrm{Pd}\;+
{}_{52}^{132}\mathrm{Te}\;+\;{}_0^4\mathrm n%]
Tip
In nuclear reactions, the parent nucleus is on the left side of the equation. The daughter
nucleus and the emitted particle are on the right side. The number of nuclei is always
conserved.
Try it!
Problem 1: Plutonium-242 undergoes alpha decay. The reaction is represented as
[%{}_a^{242}\mathrm{Pu}\rightarrow{}_{92}^\mathrm b\mathrm U+{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha%]
What are the values of a and b in the balanced equation?
Problem 2: Fermium-256 undergoes [%\underline{\hspace{3cm}} %]. The reaction is

represented as
[%{}_{100}^{256}\mathrm{Fm}\rightarrow{}_{54}^{140}\mathrm{Xe}+
{}_{46}^{112}\mathrm{Pd}+4{}_0^1\mathrm n%]
Try it! Solution

Solution to Problem 1: When plutonium-242 undergoes alpha decay, the reaction produces a
daughter nucleus with an atomic number less than two and a mass number reduced by four
compared to the parent nucleus, [%{}_{94}^{234}\mathrm{Pu}%]. Hence, [%
{}_{94}^{234}\mathrm{Pu}%] decays to [%{}_{92}^{238}\mathrm U%]. The balanced
equation is represented as
[%{}_{92}^{242}\mathrm{Pu}\rightarrow{}_{91}^{238}\mathrm U+{}_2^4\mathrm\alpha%]
The value of a is 92 while the value of b is 238.
Solution to Problem 2: Fermium-256 has a massive nuclei. Nuclei with mass number greater
than 200 tend to undergo alpha emission, but even heavier nuclei undergoes spontaneous fission.
[%{}_{100}^{256}\mathrm{Fm}%] can undergo both of these reactions. Based on the given
equation, [%{}_{100}^{256}\mathrm{Fm}%] had fission products, xenon, palladium, and
neutrons. Therefore, [%{}_{100}^{256}\mathrm{Fm}%] had undergone spontaneous fission.
Try it!
Write the balanced equation that describe the given reactions.
1. the alpha decay of [%{}_{98}^{252}\mathrm{Cf}%]
2. the spontaneous fission of [%{}_{95}^{243}\mathrm{Am}%]
What do you think?

Can less massive elements, such as lead, be transformed into gold through particle
accelerators?
Try it!
Write the balanced equation that describe the given reactions.
1. the alpha decay of [%{}_{98}^{252}\mathrm{Cf}%]

2. the spontaneous fission of [%{}_{95}^{243}\mathrm{Am}%]
What do you think?

Can less massive elements, such as lead, be transformed into gold through particle
accelerators?
Key Points
 Nuclear reaction is the process where two nuclei collide to produce new ones.
 There are two types of nuclear reaction: nuclear transmutation and nuclear decay
reaction.
 Nuclear transmutation is a reaction involving the transformation of one element
or isotope into another element. This process occurs only in special conditions
such as the collision of target nuclei with a beam of particles with high energies.
 Transuranium elements are elements whose atomic numbers are greater than
92. They are all unstable and undergo radioactive decay.
 High-energy positive ions which include the use of deuterons, carbon nuclei, and
ions are used for synthesizing massive nuclei.
 Nuclear decay reaction is a reaction in which the nucleus of an element emits
radiation and transforms into another nucleus.
 The nuclear decay reactions involved in the synthesis of transuranium elements
are alpha decay, beta decay, and spontaneous fission.
 Alpha decay produces daughter nucleus with an atomic number reduced by two
and a mass number reduced by four compared with the parent nucleus.
 In beta decay, the atomic number of the nucleus increases by one while its mass
number remains the same.
 In spontaneous fission, several fission products are produced from the parent
nucleus. The sum of their mass numbers is equal to the mass number of the
parent nucleus. Similarly, the sum of their atomic numbers is equal to the atomic
number of the parent nucleus.
Understanding the Concept of the Chemical Elements: The Contributions of John

Dalton
Objectives
In this lesson, you will be able to cite the contributions of John Dalton toward the
understanding of the concept of the chemical elements and explain how Dalton’s theory
contributed to the discovery of other elements.
Who is John Dalton? What are his contributions to the concept of chemical
elements?
Learn about it!

Dalton’s Atomic Theory
John Dalton was an English chemist known for his pioneering work in the development
of the atomic theory. In his theory, he proposed that elements differ due to the mass of
their atoms.
The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are:
1. All matter is composed of very small, indivisible particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical in properties and masses but differ from
another element’s.
3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of the same or different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, whole
number ratios.
5. Atoms may combine, separate, or rearrange in chemical reactions.

The atomic theory had been revised over the years with the discovery of isotopes,
subatomic particles, and nuclear reactions. However, Dalton’s atomic theory has been
widely recognized because it became the foundation of the modern concept of the
atom.
Learn about it!

Dalton’s Atomic Theory
John Dalton was an English chemist known for his pioneering work in the development
of the atomic theory. In his theory, he proposed that elements differ due to the mass of
their atoms.
The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are:
1. All matter is composed of very small, indivisible particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical in properties and masses but differ from
another element’s.
3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of the same or different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, whole
number ratios.
5. Atoms may combine, separate, or rearrange in chemical reactions.
The atomic theory had been revised over the years with the discovery of isotopes,
subatomic particles, and nuclear reactions. However, Dalton’s atomic theory has been
widely recognized because it became the foundation of the modern concept of the
atom.
Learn about it!

Dalton's Table of Elements
Dalton published his atomic theory in New System of Chemical Philosophy. Back
then, he needed to propose a new set of standard symbols for chemical elements
because the Greeks' and alchemists' symbols for elements were not supported by his
theory. He first published his table of elements according to increasing relative atomic
weights. The elements were hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and
phosphorus. He assumed that the atomic weight of hydrogen was one, and calculated
the rest of the elements' atomic weights based on hydrogen. After more experiments, he
listed 20 elements with different symbols and atomic weights.
Learn about it!
Law of Multiple Proportions
In 1806, French chemist Joseph Proust published his law of definite proportions.
This law states that a chemical compound is formed by elements in fixed mass ratios.
For example, carbon monoxide ([%\mathrm{CO}%]) is comprised of one carbon and
one oxygen. By mass, carbon monoxide can be described by the fix ratio of 12:16
(mass of carbon:mass of oxygen), and simplified as 3:4.
Expanding on the work of Proust, Dalton developed the law of multiple proportions.

This law was based on Dalton's observations of the reactions of atmospheric gases. It
states that when two or more elements can form multiple combinations, the ratio of the
elements in those compounds can be expressed in small, whole numbers. For example,
carbon and oxygen can combine to form carbon monoxide ([%\mathrm{CO}%]) and
carbon dioxide ([%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]). In [%\mathrm{CO}%], the ratio of carbon to
oxygen is 1:1. It is a fixed ratio of whole numbers. In [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%], the fixed
ratio is 1:2.
Dalton used this law to explain possible combinations of atoms. He published

seventeen compounds in the New System of Chemical Philosophy. He listed the
compounds as binary, ternary, quaternary, quinquenary, sextenary, and septenary.
A binary compound is formed by two elements. For example, two atoms of azote

(nitrogen) may combine to form a binary compound.
A ternary compound is formed by three atoms. For example, when one atom of

nitrogen combines with two atoms of oxygen, then the resulting compound, nitrogen
dioxide, is ternary.
Similarly, quarternary compounds are made of four atoms; quinquenary are made of

five; sextenary are made of six; and septenary are made of seven.
Dalton’s system of naming elements and compounds were then replaced with the
chemical symbols and formulae by Jons Berzelius. Berzelius’ symbols are the ones we
use today.
Try it!
Using Dalton’s symbols of elements, draw the symbol for each compound.
1. Methane, [%{\mathrm{CH}}_4%]
2. Sulfur dioxide, [%{\mathrm{SO}}_2%]
3. Water, [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]
Which notation is easier to memorize, Dalton’s or Berzelius’?

What do you think?
Why are the chemical symbols and formulae we use today different with those proposed
by Dalton?
Key Points
 John Dalton developed the atomic theory, which has been widely recognized
because it became the foundation of the modern concept of the atom.
 Dalton published his atomic theory together with his symbols of chemical
elements in the New System of Chemical Philosophy.
 Dalton developed the law of multiple proportions, which states that atoms of
elements combine in small whole numbers, not in fraction numbers, to form a
number of possible compounds.
The Polarity of a Molecule Based on Its Structure

THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to determine if a molecule is polar or
nonpolar given its structure.
In your previous Chemistry lessons, you have learned that a molecule has a certain
shape or geometry.
Did you know that such molecule may exhibit polarity based on its 3-dimensional
shape?
Learn about it!

There are millions of different molecules, and there are many ways to sort them. One
way to classify them is based on polarity. Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and
a negative end. Based on polarity, molecules can be polar or nonpolar.
Polar molecules have dipoles. Their dipole moments do not add up to zero (or do not
cancel out). Water and carbon monoxide are examples of polar molecules.
Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their dipole moments add
up to zero (they cancel out). Carbon tetrachloride and methane are examples of
nonpolar molecules.
Generally, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on:
 its structure or shape

 the polarity of the individual bonds present in the molecule
Learn about it!

Steps in Determining the Polarity of a Molecule
1. Draw the correct Lewis structure and molecular geometry of the molecule.
2. Identify the polarity of each bond present in the molecule. A bond is polar when
the atoms in the bond have different electronegativities. Recall
thatelectronegativity is the measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a
bonding pair of electrons. (You may use the periodic table to determine the
electronegativity values of the atoms.)
3. Draw the dipole moment vectors for polar bonds. The dipole moment vector
points to the more electronegative atom.
4. Determine the sum of the dipole moment vectors. If the dipole moments cancel
out each other, the molecule is nonpolar; otherwise, it is polar.
Examples
Example 1
Carbon dioxide ([%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]) is the gas that you exhale.

1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:
2. Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. Therefore, the C—O bonds are
polar.
3. Since [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] has a linear symmetrical structure, the dipole
moments of the C—O bonds cancel out.
[%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] is a nonpolar molecule.
Example 2
Sulfur dioxide ([%{\mathrm{SO}}_2%]) is a colorless toxic gas formed by burning sulfur

in air.
1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:
2. Oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur. Therefore, the S—O bonds are
polar.
3. Since the molecule is bent-shaped, the dipole moments do not cancel out.
[%{\mathrm{SO}}_2%] is a polar molecule.

Tip
Note that the shape or structure does not directly determine whether the molecule is
polar or nonpolar. However, you need to know the shape of the molecule to know if the
dipole moments cancel out.
Explore!
Consider the examples below to help you understand the concept of polarity.
Below are the images of a magnet bar, a block of wood, and a battery.
Which of the three show(s) polarity?
Try it!
Ammonia ([%{\mathrm{NH}}_3%]) is a colorless gas. A solution of ammonia in water is
used as a cleaning agent. Determine if ammonia is polar or nonpolar.
What do you think?

Are all linear molecules polar? Why or why not?
Key Points
 Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and a negative end. Based on polarity,
molecules can be polar or nonpolar.
 Polar molecules have dipoles. Their dipole moments do not add up to zero (or
do not cancel out).
 Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their dipole
moments add up to zero (they cancel out).
 In general, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on the shape of
the molecule and the polarity of the individual bonds present in the molecule.
The Properties of a Molecule Based on Its Polarity

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the polarity of a molecule to its
properties.
Why is sucrose (table sugar) soluble in water? In the previous lesson, you have
learned that both sucrose and water are polar molecules.
In this lesson, you will continue to learn about polar and nonpolar molecules. But this
time, you will relate the polarity of the molecules to their observable properties.
Learn about it!

The properties of the molecules are related to their polarity. To understand the
relationship, you must be able to describe the force of attraction between the molecules.
Polar molecules have partially positive and negative ends. When two polar molecules
are near each other, the negative end of one molecule is attracted to the positive end of
the other. The separation of charges result in a strong force of attraction between the
molecules.
On the other hand, nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends.

Between two neighboring nonpolar molecules, the attraction is very minimal.
How do you relate the strength of attraction between the molecules to their
observable properties?
Solubility
Do you remember the rule of thumb “like dissolves like” in your previous Chemistry
lessons? This rule is applied on the concept of solubility of molecules. Polar solutes
dissolve in polar solvents. For example, sucrose is soluble in water because both of
them are polar molecules. On the other hand, nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar
solvents. For example, hexane ([%{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_{14}%]) and benzene ([%
{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_6%]) are nonpolar molecules because they only contain
nonpolar C-H bonds. The combination of these molecules form a solution.
Learn about it!

Melting point
Melting point is the temperature at which a solid turns into liquid. Heat is needed to
break the forces of attraction between the molecules. Because the polar molecules
have relatively stronger forces of attraction compared to nonpolar ones, greater amount
of heat must be applied to break these forces. Therefore, in general, polar molecules
have higher melting points than nonpolar molecules. For example, hydrogen
fluoride ([%\mathrm{HF}%]) is polar while fluorine ([%{\mathrm F}_2%]) is nonpolar.
[%\mathrm{HF}%] has higher melting point than [%{\mathrm F}_2%].
Boiling point
Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid turns into gas. Similar to melting
point, greater amount of heat is needed to break the forces of attraction of polar
molecules compared to nonpolar ones. Generally, polar molecules have higher
boiling points than nonpolar molecules. For example, methanol ([%
{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{OH}%]) is a polar molecule while methane ([%
{\mathrm{CH}}_4%]) is nonpolar. The boiling of [%{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{OH}%] is
higher than that of [%{\mathrm{CH}}_4%].
Example
Study the illustrations below to compare a polar and a nonpolar molecule.
Water molecules are polar. The partially negative end of one molecule is attracted to the
partially positive end of another molecule.
Carbon dioxide molecules are nonpolar. There is a minimal force of attraction between
the molecules.
Based on the interaction of molecules, water is expected to have higher melting and
boiling points than carbon dioxide.
Below are the actual melting and boiling points of the compounds.
Try it!
Predict which has higher boiling point, water or corn oil.
Place a cup of water in a beaker or a pan. Then heat it using a hot plate or stove. Place
a thermometer in the liquid and record the temperature at which it starts to boil. Repeat
the experiment, but this time, use corn oil instead of water.
Is your prediction correct? Explain the results of your experiment.
Tips
Molecular weight is also a factor in assessing the melting and boiling points of
molecules. For example, carbon monoxide ([%\mathrm{CO}%]) is a polar molecule.
However, it has a lower boiling point ([%-191.5\;^\circ\mathrm C%]) compared to
hexane ([%\mathrm{BP}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm
H}_{14}\;=\;68\;^\circ\mathrm C%]) because its molecular weight is much lower. You will
learn more about this in the next lessons.
What do you think?

Why is ethanol ([%{\mathrm C}_2{\mathrm H}_6\mathrm O%]) soluble in water? What
products in the market use the solution of ethanol and water?
Key Points
 Polar molecules have stronger attractive forces compared to nonpolar
molecules.
 In general, polar molecules have higher boiling and melting points compared
to nonpolar ones.
 “Like dissolves like.” Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents while nonpolar
solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the general types of
intermolecular forces of attraction.
What are the types of intermolecular forces that can be present between
molecules?
Learn about it!

Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces present between molecules. Generally,
they are called van der Waals forces, named after the Dutch scientist Johannes van der
Waals.
The different types of intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) are:
 London dispersion forces (LDF)

 Dipole-dipole forces
 Hydrogen bonding
Learn about it!

London dispersion forces
 present in all molecules

 caused by fluctuations in the electron distribution within atoms or molecules
 weak type of IMFA
Example
In a nonpolar molecule, such as [%{\mathrm O}_2%], there are no positive or negative
ends. However, the electrons of this molecule are constantly moving. There are times
when electrons move to one end, making such end partially negative while the other
end becomes partially positive. Hence, the molecule can have an instantaneous dipole.
The temporary dipole of a molecule induces instantaneous dipoles on neighboring

molecules.
Tip
In assessing the relative strengths of London dispersion forces between two different
substances, compare their molecular weight and size. Larger and more massive
molecules are more polarizable (i.e. they have a greater tendency to have distorted
electron clouds) and have stronger IMFA.
Learn about it!

Dipole-dipole forces
 attractive forces between polar molecules

 result of the electrical interactions among dipoles on neighboring molecules
 moderately strong type of IMFA
Example
HCl is a polar molecule. It has partially positive and partially negative ends.
The partially positive end of the molecule is attracted to the partially negative side of
another molecule.
Tip
In assessing the relative strengths of dipole-dipole forces between two different
substances, compare their polarities. A more polar substance will have stronger dipole–
dipole forces compared to a less polar one.
Learn about it!

Hydrogen bonding
 a special kind of dipole-dipole force

 an attractive force between a hydrogen atom of one molecule and a highly
electronegative atom (O, N, or F) of another molecule
 strongest type of IMFA
Example
Consider the water molecule, [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%].
The hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the oxygen atom of another molecule.
Try it!
Identify the types of intermolecular forces present between molecules of the following
substances:
1. [%{\mathrm{CCl}}_4%]
2. [%\mathrm{HF}%]
3. [%\mathrm{HI}%]
Tips
 The intermolecular forces discussed here are all attractive in nature. However,
keep in mind that repulsive forces also exist between molecules.
 A compound can have more than one type of IMFA.
What do you think?

During respiration, we inhale oxygen gas ([%{\mathrm O}_2%]) and exhale carbon
dioxide ([%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]). Why do you think these compounds exist as gases at
room temperature?
Key Points
 Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces between molecules.
 The three types of IMFA are London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces, and
hydrogen bonding.
The Properties of a Substance as Effect of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
Objective
Recall the different types of intermolecular forces of attraction:
 London dispersion forces (LDF) – present in all molecules

 Dipole – dipole forces – present in polar molecules
 Hydrogen bonding – present in molecules with a hydrogen bonded to an
electronegative atom (O, N, or F)
How are these intermolecular forces related to the observable properties of

different substances?
Learn about it!

The properties of molecules depend on the type and strength of their intermolecular
forces of attraction.
Properties Dependent on IMFA
Phase at room temperature
When molecules have strong intermolecular forces of attraction, they are packed close
together. They often exist as condensed phase (solid or liquid) at room temperature.
When molecules have weak intermolecular forces of attraction, they are far apart from
each other. They often exist as gas at room temperature.
Solubility
Solubility refers to the ability of a substance to dissolve in a given amount of solvent at

a specified temperature. Recall the rule “like dissolves like.” When the solute and the
solvent both exhibit the same intermolecular forces of attraction, they form a solution.
Learn about it!

Melting point
Melting point is the temperature at which the substance changes from solid to liquid.
Stronger intermolecular forces means greater amount of energy is needed to break the
attractive forces between molecules. Substances with stronger IMFA have higher
melting points compared to those with weaker IMFA.
Boiling point
Boiling point is the temperature at which the substance changes from liquid to gas.
Similar to melting point, stronger intermolecular forces means greater amount of energy
is needed to break the attractive forces between molecules. Substances with stronger
IMFA have higher boiling points compared to those with weaker IMFA.
Surface Tension
Surface Tension is the tendency of a fluid to acquire the least possible surface area.
Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces will exert greater cohesive forces and
acquire less surface area (higher surface tension) than those with weaker IMFA.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Molecules with stronger

intermolecular forces have greater resistance to flow, and thus, higher
viscositycompared to those with weaker IMFA.
Vapor Pressure
Vapor Pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid phase in
a closed system. Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces have less tendency
to escape as gas, and thus lower vapor pressure compared to those with weaker
IMFA.
Learn about it!

Strengths of Intermolecular Forces
When comparing the strengths of intermolecular forces, check the difference in

molecular weight. If the difference is too large (>1000), then generally, the molecule with
greater molecular weight has stronger intermolecular forces. Otherwise, you may use
the following strategy:
1. Check which molecule exhibits hydrogen bonding. This molecule will have
stronger intermolecular forces.
2. Check which molecule is polar. Polar molecules have stronger intermolecular
forces.
3. Compare London dispersion forces. More massive molecules have stronger
intermolecular forces.
Examples
Example 1
Which has higher boiling point, [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O\;%]or [%{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm S%]?
Answer:
[%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O\;%]exhibits hydrogen bonding. It has stronger

intermolecular forces. Therefore, it has higher boiling point than [%{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm S%].
Example 2
Which is most likely solid, [%{\mathrm F}_2%] or [%{\mathrm I}_2%]?
Answer:
Both fluorine and iodine are nonpolar molecules. They exhibit London dispersion forces
only. Because iodine has higher molecular mass, it has stronger London dispersion
forces. It is most likely to be solid. (Indeed, [%{\mathrm I}_2%] is solid while [%{\mathrm
F}_2%] is gas at room temperature.
Try it!
Compare the intramolecular forces of attraction present in the following compounds and
answer the questions.
1. Which has higher melting point, [%\mathrm{HBr}%] or [%\mathrm{HF}%]?
2. Which is most likely gas at room temperature, [%{\mathrm{CH}}_4%] or [%
{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{Cl}%]?
What do you think?

What do you think are the intermolecular forces of attraction present in sucrose (table
sugar)?
Why is this compound soluble in water?
Key Points
 The properties of molecules depend on the type and strength of their
intermolecular forces of attraction.
 “Like dissolves like.” When the solute and the solvent both exhibit same
intermolecular forces of attraction, they form a solution.
 When comparing properties, stronger intermolecular forces result in higher
boiling and melting points, higher viscosity, higher surface tension, and lower
vapor pressure.
 Increasing strengths of IMFA: London dispersion forces, Dipole-dipole forces, H-
bonding
The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and Structures: Medical
Implants
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the properties and structures of
medical implants to their function.
Atoms and molecules combine to form hundreds of thousands of different materials

people use every day. The properties of these materials are influenced by their
chemical structures. In turn, their properties determine their uses.
In this lesson, you will focus on the materials used for medical implants. How are the
basic structures of implants related to their properties and uses?
Learn about it!

A medical implant is a chemical substance or a device used to replace, support, or
improve a part of the human body. It should be stable, inert, heat-resistant,
biocompatible, and long-lasting.
Materials Used for Medical Implants
In general, the materials used for implants can be categorized into three,
namely,metals, ceramics, and polymers.
Metals
Metals have particles that are held together by strong metallic bonds. They are strong
and durable. They are also good conductors of electricity because of the free flowing
electrons.
Alloys are combinations of one or more metals held together by metallic bonds. They
contain atoms that have different sizes, which distort the regular arrangement of atoms.
This distortion makes it more difficult for the layers of atoms to slide over each other, so
alloys are harder and stronger than most pure metals.
Examples
Alloys are often used for load-bearing implants because of their high strength, durability,
and inertness. For example, stainless steel is one of the most common alloys used
in orthopaedic implants, which are medical devices that can replace a missing joint or
support a damaged bone.
Pure metals can also be used as implants. Pure titanium is best used as a pacemaker
case. A pacemaker is a device which uses electrical impulses to regulate heart beats.
Titanium is used because of its high resistance to corrosion and superior
biocompatibility.
Learn about it!
Ceramics
Ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic solids with ionic or covalent bonds. They are
commonly used in dental implants, such as crowns, cement, and dentures. They are
hard, inert, and durable materials.
Example
Zirconia ceramic ([%{\mathrm{ZrO}}_2%]) is a crystalline solid held together by covalent
bonds. The strong bonds and the regularity of the crystalline structure give rise to the
high strength and toughness of the material.
Zirconia is often used in restorative crowns because of its biocompatibility and smooth
surface finish.
Learn about it!

Polymers
Polymers are molecules with a large number of repeating units of covalently bonded

chain of atoms. They are versatile biomaterials with applications on facial, orthopaedic,
and dental prosthesis.
Example
A common polymer used in implants is silicone. Silicone is polymerized siloxanes. It
contains silicone-oxygen backbone chain with organic side groups bonded to the silicon
atoms.
Silicone has a long polymer chain. The intermolecular forces of attraction between the
chains are very strong. Therefore, silicone has high strength and durability. Also, its
long chains can uncoil and slide past each other, making the material flexible.
Because of its strength and flexibility, silicone is often used to replace original joint
surfaces.
Try it!
Interview a person that works in the medical field (e.g. nurse, doctor, dentist) or
someone who has experience with medical implants. Try to find out the pros and cons
of having medical implants and the proper ways of taking care of them.
What do you think?
What are the properties of materials used for bone replacements?
Key Points
 Medical implants are substances or devices used to replace, support or
enhance a biological part of the human body.
 Materials used for medical implants can be categorized into three types: metals,
ceramics, and polymers.
 Metals for implants can be pure or alloys (combinations of one or more metals).
They are held together by metallic bonds.
 Ceramics are made up of inorganic and nonmetallic atoms held together by ionic
or covalent bonds.
 Polymers are molecules with a large number of repeating units of covalently
bonded chain of atoms.
The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and Structures: Sports
Equipments
Objective
sports equipment to their function.
In this lesson, you will learn about the different materials used in making sports
equipment. How are the basic structures of sports equipment related to their
properties and uses?
Learn about it!

Sports equipment is any necessary item that is used to play sports, can be a game
equipment (ball, racket, net) or a player's equipment (shoes, pads, clothes).
Materials Used for Sports Equipment

In the field of sports, material selection is very important for the success and
performance of any athlete. The characteristics of the materials should include strength
and durability for each sports equipment to perform its purpose well.
In general, the materials used in making sports equipment are also the same with the
materials in making medical implants. It can also be categorized into three
types:metals, ceramics, and polymers. However, some of the materials also are made
of natural materials like wood.
Metals
Metals are composed of particles held together by strong metallic bonds, making them
strong and durable.
Examples
Alloys are usually used in sports equipment that requires strength or stiffness in weight
performance. They are made of two or more metals and other substances which
improve the strength, hardness, durability, formability, and tensile strength of the metal.
For example, aluminum alloy is one of the most common alloys used in the frameset of
a bicycle. This material does not only support the weight of the person but also provide
a lightweight feel without sacrificing its durability.
Stainless steel is commonly used in making golf clubs. Titanium alloys are used in

making baseball bats over wood because some players tend to break the bats after
hitting the baseball.
Learn about it!

Ceramics
Ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic solids with ionic or covalent bonds. They are
commonly used in sports equipment parts that receive impact. They are lightweight,
durable, and has wear resistance than many plastic materials.
Example
Ceramic fibers are not traditionally used in sports equipment. However, with the
advancement and innovation of manufacturers, they have developed sports equipment
and parts which contain ceramics. For example, carbon-ceramic rotors are used in race
car brakes. The ceramics used together with carbon makes the car breaks lightweight
as well as durable.
Ceramic fibers are also used in several head tennis racquets which add power
whenever hitting the ball.
Learn about it!

Polymers
Polymers have molecules with a large number of repeating units of covalently bonded

chain of atoms. They are used to make protective sports equipment. They are known for
durability and flexibility.
Example
Polycarbonate is a strong, shatter-free polymer that is usually found in protective
sports equipment such as in biking and equestrian competitions. They can be also seen
in protective visors and sunglasses as well as swimming goggles.
Polyurethane is commonly used in soccer balls. It is a synthetic material that coats the
leather material in the ball and protects it from damages like tears, scuffs, and
scratches.
Try it!
Research about other sports equipment. Find out what are the innovations and
advancements made the materials used in making these equipment.
What do you think?

What are the different properties of the materials used in making a baseball bat?
Key Points
 Sports equipment is any necessary item that is used to play sports, can be a
game equipment (ball, racket, net) or a player's equipment (shoes, pads,
clothes).
 In general, the materials used in making sports equipment are also the same with
the materials in making medical implants. It can also be categorized into three
types: metals, ceramics, and polymers.
 Metals are composed of particles held together by strong metallic bonds, making
them strong and durable.
 Ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic solids held together by ionic or covalent
bonds which make them lightweight, durable, and has wear resistance than
many plastic materials.
 Polymers are molecules with a large number of repeating units of covalently
bonded chain of atoms which are usually used in making protective sports
equipment .
The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and Structures: Electronic
Devices
Objective
electronic devices to their uses.
In the age of technology, almost everyone owns a device that has electronic devices,
such as capacitors, inductors, and resistors.
Have you ever wondered what materials make up the electronic devices?
Learn about it!

Electronic devices are components for controlling the flow of electrons or electricity.
Common examples include capacitors, inductors, and resistors. They are often small
and combined into packages called integrated circuits.
Capacitors
A capacitor stores electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. It has two electrical

plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric is an insulator that stores energy when
polarized.
The electrical plates are made of conductive materials, such as metals and

electrolytes. On the other hand, the nonconducting dielectrics are often made of
ceramic, plastic film, and glass.
Example
Film capacitors are the most common type of capacitors. Their dielectrics are made of
plastic films, such as polystyrene. Polystyrene, a synthetic polymer made from the
monomer styrene, has no free flowing electrons, so it has superior insulating
properties.
On the other hand, metals like aluminum are used as electrical plates in film

capacitors. Metals have free flowing electrons, so they are good conductors of
electricity. Long thin strips of the metal foil with the dielectric material are sandwiched
together and then wound into a tight roll.
Learn about it!
Inductors
An inductor resists changes in electric current passing through it. It is often comprised

of conductors wound into a magnetic core. When an electric current passes through its
coil, it produces a magnetic field, which in turn produces electric current. In other words,
an inductor stores energy on the basis of reactive magnetic flux.
Example
A typical inductor has copper wires, which are good electrical conductors, wound
around a magnetic iron or ferrite core. Ferrites are ceramic materials comprised of iron
oxides combined with nickel, zinc, or manganese compounds. They have high magnetic
permeability and high electrical resistivity.
Learn about it!
Resistors
A resistor reduces the amount of current and lowers the voltage levels within circuits.
The reduction in current or voltage results in the transformation of electrical energy into
heat. A resistor is necessary in devices that need circuit adjustments, such as those that
need control of volume or dimming of light.
Example
The most common type of resistor is the carbon resistors, which are cheap general
purpose resistors. They are mainly composed of a mixture of conducting graphite or
carbon powder and a nonconducting ceramic powder.
The resistive value of the resistor depends on the ratio of graphite to ceramic (conductor
to insulator). If the amount of carbon is higher, then the overall resistance is lower. The
mixture is then placed in an insulating material with metal wires connected to each end.
What do you think?

Why do scientists and engineers need to study the properties of different materials used
in electronic devices?
Key Points
 Electronic devices are components for controlling the flow of electrons or
electricity.
 A capacitor stores electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. It has two
electrical plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric is an insulator that stores
energy when polarized.
 An inductor resists changes in electric current passing through it. It is often
comprised of conductors wound into a magnetic core.
 A resistor reduces the amount of current and lowers the voltage levels within
circuits. It is often comprised of a mixture of conductors and insulators.
The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and Structures:

Construction Supplies
Objective
construction materials to their uses.
In the previous lessons, you have learned about the uses of metals, ceramics, and
polymers in medical implants, sports equipment, and electronic devices. In this lesson,
you will learn about the uses of these materials in construction supplies.
What are the properties of materials considered in designing and building homes,
schools, and other infrastructures?
Learn about it!

Materials Used for Construction Supplies
In general, the materials used for construction supplies can be categorized into three,
namely, metals, ceramics, and polymers.
Metals
Metals are strong and durable construction materials because of the strong metallic
bonding between metal atoms. They have a wide range of applications in construction,
including roofing, drainage components, and handrails.
As the structural framework of buildings, metals should be durable and corrosion

resistant. Corrosion, the process by which something deteriorates because of
oxidation, is a major factor in assessing the longevity of the metallic material.
Example
Steel is one of the oldest known construction material. It is an alloy composed primarily
of iron and carbon. It is widely used in construction because of its high tensile strength
and low cost.
When chromium is added to steel, the alloy is referred to as stainless steel. The
addition of about 10.5 to 30% chromium gives rise to superior corrosion- and stain-
resistant properties.
Steel forms iron oxide (rust) in the presence of oxygen. In comparison, stainless steel
does not form rust. Instead, it spontaneously forms a chromium oxide layer on its
surface on contact with oxygen. This passive layer is impermeable and has the ability to
repair itself.
Learn about it!

Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic, nonmetallic materials comprised of metal, nonmetal, or

semimetal atoms held together by ionic or covalent bonds. These materials are often
used in the construction industry. They are used as abrasive, flooring, roofing and wall
tiles, and countertops.
Example
Silicon carbide (SC) is a compound of silicon and carbon. It is a nonmetallic ceramic
material that behaves almost like a diamond. It is the lightest and the hardest ceramic
material. It has high tear resistance. It is also highly resistant to strong acids and bases.
SC is a construction supply and is often used as an abrasive because of its high tear
resistance and durability. An abrasive is a material that finishes a workpiece through
rubbing. For instance, SC is used in stripping and finishing flooring materials, such as
wood.
Learn about it!
Polymers
Polymers are large molecules with repeating units called monomers. They have a

wide range of applications in construction including flooring, windows pipes, insulation,
and signage. For instance, plastics, which are synthetic polymers that can be molded or
extruded into different shapes, are used as the replacement for glass and metal pipes.
Example
Polymethylmethacrylate or acrylic is a synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate.
Acrylic has high molecular weight and strong London dispersion forces. It is a
shatterproof and transparent plastic. Hence, it is used as a replacement for glass.
Like glass, acrylic can be molded into different shapes. Granules of acrylic are poured
into a machine that heats them up. As the temperature of the polymer is increased,
intermolecular forces are disrupted turning the polymer into a viscous liquid. At high
temperatures, it can be placed in molds and upon cooling, it solidifies having the shape
of its container.
Try it!
Take a look around your school. Observe your classroom, canteen, library, and the rest
of the school buildings. Do you recognize any construction materials made of metals?
How about those made of polymers and ceramics?
What do you think?

What are the properties of materials used for walls and flooring?
Key Points
 Metals, which are materials held together by strong metallic bonds, are used as
roofing, drainage components, and handrails.
 Ceramics, which are inorganic, nonmetallic materials held together by ionic or
covalent bonds, are often used in the construction industry as abrasive, flooring,
roofing and wall tiles, and countertops.
 Polymers, which are large molecules with repeating units, have a wide range of
applications in construction including flooring, windows pipes, insulation, and
signage.
The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and Structures:

Household Gadgets
Objective
household gadgets to their uses.
Household appliances or gadgets are electrical and/or mechanical machines which

can (1) accomplish some household functions such as cooking; (2) make the living
space more comfortable by cooling the surroundings; or (3) provide entertainment.
What are the materials used in making household appliances? How are the
properties of these materials determine their uses?
Learn about it!

Cooking Appliances
Cooking appliances are used to heat food ingredients during the cooking process.
Examples include toaster, oven, boiler, coffee maker, hot plate, and rice cooker. Most of
the cooking appliances are powered by electricity. Hence, they are mostly made of
electrical conductors such as steel, aluminum, and copper. To protect the users from
electric shock, their handles are often made of polymers for electrical insulation.
Example
An oven toaster is an appliance that uses electricity to heat and toast bread. An
important part of the toaster is the heating element.
The heating element is often made of nichrome wire, which is an alloy of nickel and
chromium. It converts electricity into heat through a process called resistive heating.
Electric current passes through the element and encounters resistance. Because of the
resistance, the electrical energy is converted into heat. Nichrome is an ideal material for
heating element because of its high resistance. It also forms a thin layer of chromium
oxide when it is heated for the first time. This layer protects the nichrome from breaking
or burning out.
Learn about it!

Cooling Appliances
Cooling appliances are used to lower the temperature and circulate the air in a room.
They are often used during hot weather to make the living space more comfortable.
Electric fans and air conditioners are examples of cooling appliances. They are powered
by electricity so many of their components are made of metals. Their covers are often
made of polymers or plastics.
Example
An electric fan is an appliance that uses rotating blades (or paddles) to circulate air.
Unlike an air conditioner, a fan does not cool air. However, it produces a cooling effect
by moving the air around the room. The moving air or breeze allows your skin to
evaporate sweat faster, cooling your skin.
An important part of an electric fan is the motor, which converts electric energy into
mechanical energy, often through an interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying
conductors. Copper is a metal commonly used in coil windings, bearings, and
connectors of motors because of its high electrical conductivity (due to its free flowing
electrons), high electrical efficiency, and low cost.
The motor is then attached to the fan blades through a shaft. The blades are often
made of wood, iron, aluminum, or plastic. It is important for the blades to be light,
durable, tough, and easily molded or cut into shapes.
Learn about it!

Home Electronics
Consumer electronics or home electronics are equipment intended for everyday use.

They are often used for entertainment. They include television, DVD players, video
recorders, and video game consoles. They have software embedded within the
hardware of electronic components.
Example
Most home electronics have electronic panel displays. A typical example of material
used in display is the liquid-crystal display (LCD). LCD is made up of liquid crystal, a
state of matter between solid and liquid. A liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its
molecules are oriented in a crystal-like manner.
If you look closely on an LCD TV screen, you will notice that the images are made of
millions of tiny blocks called pixels (picture elements). Each pixel can be switched on or
off very rapidly to make the images move. These pixels are controlled electronically
using liquid crystals.
Try it!
Select one household appliance that you often use at home or in school. Research how
it was invented and how it works. Also, find out what materials are used to build it. Then
design a future version of that appliance.
What do you think?

Why is it necessary to continue the research on materials that can be used for the
manufacturing of household devices?
Key Points
 Household appliances or gadgets are electrical and/or mechanical machines
which can (1) accomplish some household functions such as cooking; (2) make
the living space more comfortable by cooling the surroundings; and/or (3) provide
entertainment.
 Many appliances are powered by electricity so they are mostly made of electrical
conductors such as metals and alloys. Polymers are used in covers and handles
as electrical insulation.
 Most home electronics have electronic panel displays made up of liquid crystals,
a state of matter between solid and liquid.
The Structures, Properties, and Functions of Biomolecules

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the structures of biological
macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids determine
their properties and functions.
Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s processes, such
as respiration and metabolism. There are numerous biomolecules with different
structures and functions. They are generally classified into four major groups – proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
In this lesson, you will look into the general structure, properties, and functions of each
of these groups of biomolecules.
Learn about it!

Proteins
Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. Amino acids are organic

molecules that have a central carbon atom bonded to four different groups — an amino
group ([%-{\mathrm{NH}}_2%]), an acidic carboxyl group ([%-\mathrm{COOH}%]), a
hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain, R. The side chain can range from a single
hydrogen atom to complex ring structures.
In a protein, the amino acids are linked via a peptide bond. This peptide bond is
formed between an amino group of one amino acid and an acid carboxyl group of
another amino acid. A chain of two or more amino acids linked together by peptide
bonds is called a peptide.
The smallest protein has about 50 amino acids. However, large proteins can have as
many as 1000 amino acids, arranged in any possible sequence. It is estimated that
human cells can create between 80 000 to 100 000 different proteins.
The shape of a protein is important so that it can carry out its function. Long chains of
amino acids fold into a unique three-dimensional shape. Some areas of the protein may
twirl into helices, like the coils of a telephone cord. Other areas may be repeatedly bent
into a pleated sheet, like the folds of an accordion. An important intermolecular force of
attraction that dictate and maintain the shape of a protein is the hydrogen bonding.
Properties
Proteins can participate in neutral, acidic, or basic reactions because their amino acids
have an acidic carboxyl end and a basic amino end. The amino acids
are amphotericwhich means they can function either as an acid or a base. Also,
proteins have high molecular weights because they are comprised of many amino
acids.
Functions
The sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s shape and function. Proteins
play many important roles in living cells. They can hasten chemical reactions, transport
substances, and provide structural support.
Many proteins function as enzymes, which are molecules that catalyze or speed up
chemical reactions in the body. The reactant molecules bind to the active site of the
enzymes, where they react to form products. Enzymes have shapes that are highly
specific for their functions. A slight change to their structures will inhibit them to do their
function.
Transport proteins carry small particles throughout the body. For example, the protein
haemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood from the lungs to the rest of the body. An
important part of hemoglobin is its iron group (called heme), the part to which oxygen
binds.
Structural proteins are fibrous proteins which have long, thin structures. A typical
example of a structural protein is keratin, which is a component of the protective
covering of most animals – hair, nails, skin or feathers.
Learn about it!

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

They have a general formula of [%{\mathrm C}_\mathrm n{\mathrm H}_{2\mathrm n}
{\mathrm O}_\mathrm n%]. They can be grouped depending on the number of their
monomer units called saccharides.
Carbohydrates can be divided into three major groups: monosaccharides,

disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They contain either five or

six carbon atoms. They have open-chain and cyclic forms. A typical example of
monosaccharide is glucose, [%{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_{12}{\mathrm O}_6%], one of
the products of photosynthesis in plants.
Disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded to each other. The monosaccharides
are linked through an ether ([%\mathrm C-\mathrm O-\mathrm C%]) group. A common
example of a disaccharide is the sweetener sucrose, or table sugar. Sucrose is formed
by glucose and fructose.
Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units. They are also

calledcomplex carbohydrates. Similar to disaccharides, the monosaccharides in a
polysaccharide are linked through an ether bond. An example of a polysaccharide is
starch, which is used to store energy in plants. It is comprised solely of glucose
subunits.
Properties
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are small molecules with multiple polar groups

so they are water soluble. Because they exhibit hydrogen bonding in their structures,
they have high melting points.
In comparison, polysaccharides are less soluble due to their large sizes and complex

shapes. For example, starch and glycogen are both insoluble in water. On the other
hand, cellulose, also water-insoluble, cannot be digested by humans because the
appropriate enzyme to breakdown cellulose into simpler monosaccharides is lacking.
Hence, nutritionists call cellulose as dietary fiber because it just passes through the
digestive system unchanged.
Functions
The main function of carbohydrates is to store and provide energy. They are broken
down into smaller glucose units that can be easily absorbed by the cells. When glucose
is further broken down, the energy released by breaking its chemical bonds are used or
stored by the body in the form of glycogen.
Some carbohydrates also serve as the framework of cellular structures. For example,

cellulose makes up the cell wall of plant cells. Chitin, another carbohydrate, forms the
exoskeleton of arthropods and the cell wall of fungal cells.
Learn about it!

Lipids
Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules. They are mainly composed of carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen. Unlike proteins and carbohydrates, lipids are not polymers with
repeating monomer subunits. They have many kinds including triglycerides, waxes, and
steroids.
Triglycerides
Triglycerides are lipids composed of glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is a molecule
with three carbons, each containing a hydroxyl ([%-\mathrm{OH}%]) group while fatty
acid is a long chain of carboxylic acid.
When three fatty acids bond to glycerol, they form ester bonds.
Triglycerides can be solid or liquid at room temperature. If solid at room temperature,

they are called fats. Fats, such as lard and butter, are produced by animals. If liquid at
room temperature, they are called oils. Oils, such as coconut and olive oils, are
produced by plants.
Waxes
Waxes are lipids that are composed of a fatty acid with a long chain of alcohol. They
are produced by both plants and animals. Plants often produce wax that coats their
leaves which prevents them from drying out. Animals such as bees also produce wax.
Bees create their honeycomb structures from beeswax.
Steroids
Steroids are lipids without fatty acid chains. Instead, they have multiple rings in their
structures. They are built from the basic four-ring steroid structure.
An example of a steroid is dietary lipid cholesterol. Cholesterol is the precursor of

hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. Recall that hormones are molecules that
communicate between organs to regulate physiology and behavior.
Properties
Lipids such as triglycerides and waxes are mostly made of nonpolar hydrocarbon
chains, making them generally insoluble in water. The hydrocarbon chains are the
“hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails” of lipids. On the other hand, their hydroxyl, ester, and
ether groups can interact with water. These groups are called “hydrophilic (water-loving)
heads.” When lipids are mixed with water, they arrange themselves in a spherical form
called a micelle.
Functions
Lipids are the reserved sources of energy. The energy stored in their bonds is used
by the body for fuel. When the energy is abundant, cells store the excess energy in the
fatty acids of triglycerides.
Lipids like waxes are used as a protective coating of organisms. Because they are
hydrophobic, lipids protect plants and animals from drying out by controlling
evaporation.
Learn about it!

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids, discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869, are biomolecules that are
made up of repeating units of nucleotides. Nucleotides are monomers with three
components, a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The
nucleotides are linked through phosphodiester bonds.
If the sugar is ribose, then the nucleotides make up the ribonucleic acid (RNA). On the
other hand, if the sugar is deoxyribose, then the nucleotides make up
thedeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Both DNA and RNA have nitrogenous bases. The
five common nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T),
and uracil (U).
Properties
DNA and RNA are very stable molecules because of the stacking interaction between
their hydrophobic parts. Also, hydrogen bonding present between the polar parts of the
molecule plays a role in maintaining the structure of the nucleic acid.
Functions
DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of
organisms. This genetic information is converted by the RNA into amino acid sequences
of proteins. RNA has three types, messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA),
andtransfer RNA (tRNA). The mRNA carries the genetic sequence information
between the DNA and ribosomes. In ribosomes, proteins are synthesized. The rRNA
catalyzes the peptide bond formation while the tRNA serve as the carrier molecules of
the amino acids that make up the protein.
Try it!
A concept map is a graphic organizer that illustrates the connection between terms,
ideas, concepts, and processes. Make a concept map of the four types of biomolecules
and their properties and functions.
What do you think?

How are nucleic acids related to proteins? What will happen to the protein being
synthesized in the ribosomes if an error occurs in the genetic information passed from
the DNA to the RNA?
Key Points
 Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s
processes. They are generally classified into four major groups – proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
 Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. The sequence of
amino acids determines the protein’s shape and function. In the human body,
proteins hasten chemical reactions, transport substances, and provide structural
support.
 Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. They have a general formula of [%{\mathrm C}_\mathrm n{\mathrm
H}_{2\mathrm n}{\mathrm O}_\mathrm n%]. Their functions are to store energy
and serve as the framework of cellular structures.
 Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. They function as reserved sources of energy and protective coating
of organisms.
 Nucleic acids are biomolecules that are made up of repeating units of
nucleotides, which are made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base. They encode, transmit, and express genetic information.
The Collision Theory and Factors Affecting the Rate of a Chemical Reaction
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain the collision theory and describe
the factors affecting the rate of reaction such as concentration, temperature, and
particle size.
Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that studies reaction rates and factors
affecting rates.
Chemical reactions happen when the reactants collide. But will all collisions result in
a reaction or are there requirements for a reaction to occur after collision?
Learn about it!

According to the collision theory, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional
to the number of collisions between the reactants. However, only those which collide
effectively will result in a chemical reaction. For an effective collision to happen, the
following conditions should be met by the reactants:
1. They must be properly oriented when they collide.

2. They must be energetic enough to surpass the activation energy or the energy
barrier.
Proper Orientation
Consider the reaction [%2\mathrm{CO}\;+\;{\mathrm

O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] which has an activation energy of
[%277\;\frac{\mathrm{kJ}}{\mathrm{mol}}%].
Above are the structures of [%\mathrm{CO}%] and [%{\mathrm O}_2%] (grey = C, red =
O), and below are three possible ways the molecules can collide with one another:
Among the collisions (A, B, and C), only B is expected to proceed in a reaction because
it is the one which is properly oriented. This is based on the fact that this collision is
expected to form a bond between the C atom of [%\mathrm{CO}%] and O atom of [%
{\mathrm O}_2%] which is what is seen from the structure of [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]
(shown below).
Because the molecules are not properly oriented in Collisions A and C, they will not lead
to the formation of the product.
Learn about it!

Energy Higher than Activation Energy
The activation energy or the energy barrier is the energy needed to be surpassed by

the reactants for a reaction to occur. When the energy barrier is higher, the reaction is
slower.
It should be noted that not all properly oriented collisions have enough energy to result
in the transformation of the reactants. The kinetic energy of the reactants should be high
enough to exceed the activation energy. Therefore, for [%\mathrm{CO}%] to react with
[%{\mathrm O}_2%], the kinetic energy of the reactants should be greater than
[%277\;\frac{\mathrm{kJ}}{\mathrm{mol}}%].
Try it!
Consider the reaction [%{\mathrm N}_2\;+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;{\mathrm
N}_2{\mathrm O}_2%]. Refer to the structures of [%{\mathrm N}_2%], [%{\mathrm
O}_2%], and [%{\mathrm N}_2{\mathrm O}_2%] below (blue = N, red = O):
Make a diagram showing the correct orientation of collision between the reactants to
form the product.
Learn about it!

Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction
The three factors that can affect the rate of a chemical reaction are concentration of
reactants, temperature, and particle size.
Concentration
An increase in concentration increases the rate of reaction.
Reason: Concentration is the number of molecules present in a specified volume. When

the concentration is high, more particles are present; therefore, there is a higher
frequency of effective collisions.
Temperature
An increase in temperature increases the rate of reaction.
Reason: Energy is applied to increase the temperature. The added energy provides
additional kinetic energy to the reactant molecules. Higher kinetic energies means
greater frequency of effective collisions.
Particle size
The smaller the particle, the faster the rate of reaction.
Reason: Smaller particles have larger surface area. The greater the surface area, the
more sites of collision there will be.
Try it!
Determine which condition (A or B) will make the reaction go faster.
Try it! Solution

What do you think?
Another factor that increases reaction rate is the presence of a catalyst. A catalyst is a
chemical species that participates in the reaction but does not get used up. How does a
catalyst speed up the reaction?
Key Points
 According to the collision theory, the rate of reaction is directly proportional to
the number of collisions between the reactants.
 An effective collision is characterized by reactants colliding with proper
orientation and enough energy to surpass the activation energy.
 The activation energy or energy barrier is the energy needed to be surpassed
by the reactants so that they will be transformed into products.
 There are three factors that affect the rate of the reaction: 1) concentration,
2)temperature, and 3) particle size.
 Increasing the concentration or the temperature of the reaction leads to an
increase in reaction rate. On the other hand, decreasing the particle size
increases the reaction rate.
Catalysts: How Reaction Rate Is Affected

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to define catalyst and describe how it
affects the reaction rate.
Reaction rate is the change in the concentration of reactant or product per unit of time.
In the previous lesson, you have learned that the concentration of reactants,
temperature, and particle size are factors affecting the reaction rate. In this lesson, you
will learn about the catalyst, which is another factor affecting the rate of a chemical
reaction.
What is a catalyst? How does it affect reaction rates?
Learn about it!

A catalyst is a substance that increases the reaction rate without being consumed by
the reaction. It provides a new pathway for the reaction, one which has a lower
activation energy.
Consider the points A and B separated by a cliff.
The way to get from points A to B is to go around the cliff following the red path. It would
take a lot of time and energy to reach point B.
What happens when a bridge is built between points A and B?

The path from Point A to B is shorter so it would take less time to reach point B. In
addition, there is less energy required to reach point B.
Similarly, in chemical reactions, reactants (A) are combined to form products (B).
[%\mathrm A\rightarrow\mathrm B%]
For uncatalyzed reactions (red path), the time it takes for the reaction to be completed is
relatively longer. However, for catalyzed reactions, the catalysts (bridge) speed up the
reaction by providing an alternate path with less required energy for reactants to turn
into products.
Learn about it!

Mechanism of Catalysis
A catalyzed reaction often involves a series of steps.
1. Bonding – The catalyst forms a bond with the reacting molecules.

2. Reaction – The reacting molecules combine or rearrange to form the product.
3. Separation – The product separates from the catalyst.
After separation, the catalyst is free again to form a bond with other reacting molecules.
Energy Diagram of a Catalyzed Reaction
Below is the energy diagram for a chemical reaction. The red line represents the
uncatalyzed reaction while the blue one is the catalyzed reaction. Notice that the
energies of the reactants and the products are the same for both catalyzed and
uncatalyzed reactions. What is the difference between a catalyzed and an
uncatalyzed reaction? The catalyzed reaction has lower activation energy or energy
barrier. When there is less energy required for a reaction to proceed, then the reacting
molecules will form the products in less time.
Learn about it!
Types of Catalysts
A catalyst can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
A homogeneous catalyst exists in the same phase as the reaction it catalyzes. It is

often in gas or liquid phase. For example, the decomposition of ozone in the
atmosphere is catalyzed by chlorine atoms.
[%\mathrm{Cl}+{\mathrm O}_3\rightarrow{\mathrm{ClO}}_3%]
[%{\mathrm{ClO}}_3\rightarrow\mathrm{ClO}+{\mathrm O}_2%]
[%\mathrm{ClO}+\mathrm O\rightarrow\mathrm{Cl}+{\mathrm O}_2%]
Overall reaction: [%{\mathrm O}_3+\mathrm O\rightarrow{\mathrm O}_2%]
The chlorine atom is a catalyst that is regenerated at the end of the reaction.
A heterogeneous catalyst exists in a different phase as the reaction it catalyzes. It

often involves gaseous reactant molecules being adsorbed on a solid catalyst surface.
For example, gaseous ethylene is hydrogenated to form ethane in the presence of a
palladium catalyst.
Learn about it!
Enzymes
Enzymes are homogeneous, highly specific, and efficient biological catalysts. They

speed up biological reactions even at relatively low temperatures within the body. They
have a shape-specific active site that forms bonds with the reacting molecules
calledsubstrates. The substrates react and form the product, which then detaches from
the catalyst.
Example
An example of an enzyme is sucrase, which catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose to
glucose and fructose. The first step of the catalysis is the binding between the enzyme
sucrase and the substrate sucrose. In the second step, the presence of water
hydrolyzes or breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose. The third step involves the
release of the products. In the fourth step, the active site of the sucrase is available for
another molecule of sucrose.
Tips
How do you identify a catalyst in a chemical reaction? Recall that catalysts are
substances that are not consumed in the reaction, or they are regenerated at the end
of the reaction.
For example, the esterification reaction of acetic acid ([%

{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{COOH}%]) and methanol ([%{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{OH}
%]) is an acid-catalyzed reaction.
[%{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{COOH}+{\mathrm H}_3\mathrm O^++

{\mathrm{CH}}_3\mathrm{OH}\;\rightarrow{\mathrm{CH}}_3{\mathrm{COOCH}}_3+
{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O+{\mathrm H}_3\mathrm O^+%]
The hydronium ion, [%{\mathrm H}_3\mathrm O^+%], is present both in the reactant
and product sides of the reaction. It is part of the chemical reaction, but it is regenerated
after product formation.
What do you think?
Some reactions are reversible, meaning that a reactant A, can be converted into
product B. In the reverse reaction, B is the reactant that can be turned into a product A.
[%\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\m
athrm A\leftrightarrow\mathrm B%]
What will be the effect of adding a catalyst for this reaction? Will it increase the rate of
the forward reaction? How about for the reverse reaction?
Key Points
 A catalyst is a substance that increases the reaction rate without being
consumed by the reaction.
 A catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by lowering the activation energy of a
reaction.
 A homogeneous catalyst exists in the same phase as the reaction it catalyzes.
 A heterogeneous catalyst exists in a different phase as the reaction it
catalyzes.
 Enzymes are homogeneous, highly specific, and efficient biological catalysts.
Calculating the Amount of Reactants and Products in a Chemical Reaction

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to calculate the amount of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction.
Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships between the amounts of

reactants used and amounts of products formed in a chemical reaction.
Consider the formation of water from the reaction between [%{\mathrm H}_2%] and [%
{\mathrm O}_2%].
[%2{\mathrm H}_2\;+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]

How many moles of water can be formed from two moles of hydrogen gas?
Learn about it!

Mole Ratios
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation indicate the relationships between

the moles of reactants and products. They are used to express the mole ratios. Mole
ratios are ratios between the moles of any two substances in a balanced chemical
equation. For example, water forms from molecular hydrogen and oxygen as presented
by the equation below.
[%2{\mathrm H}_2\;+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]
What mole ratios can be written for this reaction?
Two moles of hydrogen react with one mole of oxygen.
[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm O}_2}%]
Two moles of hydrogen produce two moles of water.
[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm

O}%]
One mole of oxygen produces two moles of water.
[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm O}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O}

%]
You can then use the knowledge about mole ratios to calculate the amounts of
reactants or products in a chemical reaction.
Learn about it!

Mole-to-Mole Stoichiometry
Suppose you know the number of moles of reactants. You then want to know how many
moles of products will be formed in the reaction.
Sample Problem:
If 1 mole [%{\mathrm H}_2%] is used up in the reaction, how many moles of [%
{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] will be formed?
How to Do
To solve the problem:
Step 1: Determine the mole ratio between [%{\mathrm H}_2%] and [%{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%].

O}%]
Step 2: Assign a variable to the unknown.
Let [%x=%] moles of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] formed from 1 mole [%{\mathrm
H}_2%].
Step 3: Set up the proportion.

O}=\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm H}_2}x%]
Step 4: Rearrange the equation to get an expression to solve for [%x%].
[%x=\frac{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O)(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm

H}_2)}{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2)}%]
Step 5: Solve for [%x%].
Solving for [%x%], you get 1 mole [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]. This means that you
will produce 1 mole [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] if you have 1 mole [%{\mathrm
H}_2%].
[%x=1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]
Learn about it!

Mass-to-Mass Stoichiometry
In laboratory experiments, you do not measure the moles of the reactants. Instead, you
measure their masses. But how do you convert number of moles into mass? In
converting mass to moles, or vice-versa, you can use the equation below.
[%\mathrm{moles}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mas}}%]
Given the mass of one reactant, you can calculate the required mass of the other
reactant.
Sample Problem 2:
How many grams of [%{\mathrm O}_2%] is needed to react with 1.00 g [%

{\mathrm H}_2%]?
How to Do
The solution to this problem is similar to the previous one, but additional steps are
needed.
Step 1: Determine the mole ratio between [%{\mathrm H}_2%] and [%{\mathrm
O}_2%].
[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm O}_2}%]
Step 2: Convert the given mass of [%{\mathrm H}_2%] to moles [%{\mathrm H}_2%].
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm H}_2}

{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm H}_2}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2=\frac{1.00\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm H}_2}

{2.016\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2=0.496\;\mathrm{mol}%]
Let [%x=%] moles of [%{\mathrm O}_2%] that reacts with 0.496 mole [%{\mathrm
H}_2%].
[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm
O}_2}=\frac{0.496\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}x%]
[%x=\frac{0.496\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{(1\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm O}_2)

(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2)}\;%]
Solving for [%x%], you get 0.248 mole [%{\mathrm O}_2%].
[%x\;=\;0.248\;\mathrm{mol}%]
Step 7: Convert the calculated moles [%{\mathrm O}_2%] to mass [%{\mathrm O}_2%].
[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm O}_2=(\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm O}_2)\;

(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm O}_2)%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm O}_2=(0.248\;\mathrm{mol})\;
(32\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm O}_2=7.94\;\mathrm g%]
Therefore, you need 7.94 g [%{\mathrm O}_2%] to react with 1.00 g [%{\mathrm
H}_2%].
Try it!
Ammonia is produced from the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen.
[%{\mathrm N}_2\;+\;3{\mathrm H}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm{NH}}_3%]
How many grams of [%{\mathrm N}_2%] and [%{\mathrm H}_2%] is needed to

produce 10.0 g [%{\mathrm{NH}}_3%]?
Use the following molar masses: [%{\mathrm N}_2\;=\;28\;\frac{\mathrm g}

{\mathrm{mol}}%], [%{\mathrm{NH}}_3\;=\;17\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}}%], and [%
{\mathrm H}_2\;=\;2\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}}%].
Try it! Solution

Step 1: Determine the mole ratio between the reactants and the product.
[%\frac{3\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}%]
[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm N}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}%]
These ratios are based on the balanced chemical equation.
Step 2: Convert the given mass of product to moles.

[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;
{\mathrm{NH}}_3}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3=\frac{10.0\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}
{17\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}\;}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3=0.588\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3%]
Step 3: Assign variables to the unknown quantities. You may use more than one
variable.
Let [%x=%] moles [%{\mathrm H}_2%] needed to form 0.588 mole [%

{\mathrm{NH}}_3%].
Let [%y=%] moles [%{\mathrm N}_2%] needed to form 0.588 mole [%
{\mathrm{NH}}_3%].
Step 4: Set up the necessary proportions.
[%\frac{3\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}=\frac
x{0.588\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}%]
[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm N}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}=\frac
y{0.588\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}\;%]
Step 5: Rearrange the equation to get an expression to solve for the variables.
[%x=\frac{(3\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2)(0.588\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3)}
{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}\;\;%]
[%y=\frac{(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm N}_2)(0.588\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3)}
{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{NH}}_3}\;\;%]
Step 6: Solve the unknowns.
[%x=0.882\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm H}_2\;\;%]
[%y=0.291\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm N}_2\;\;%]
Step 7: Convert the calculated moles to grams.
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2=(0.882\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm H}_2)\;

(2\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})\;\;%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2=1.76\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm H}_2%]

[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm N}_2=(0.291\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm N}_2)\;
(28\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})\;\;%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm N}_2=8.15\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm N}_2%]
What do you think?

Do all experiments yield the calculated amount of product? Why or why not?
Key Points
 Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships between the amounts
of reactants used and amounts of products formed in a chemical reaction.
 Mole ratios are ratios between the moles of any two substances in a balanced
chemical equation.
 You can then use the knowledge about mole ratios to calculate the amounts of
reactants or products in a chemical reaction.
Calculating the Percent Yield in a Chemical Reaction

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to calculate the percent yield (% yield) of a
reaction.
Imagine that you have 100 chances to shoot a ball inside the ring. Theoretically, you
can make all the 100 shots. However, in actuality, you may not make all them. There
would be a difference between your theoretical and actual outcomes.
In chemical reactions, there are also theoretical and actual outcomes. In this lesson,
you will learn that there is a theoretical amount of product that will be formed in a
reaction. However, it is often different from the actual amount that you get from your
experiment.
How can you express the difference between theoretical and actual product
yields?
Learn about it!
In the previous lesson, you have calculated the amount of product that will be formed
from a given amount of reactant. This amount of product is the theoretical yield of the
reaction. The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can be formed
from a given amount of reactant.
Consider the reaction below.
[%2\mathrm{NaOH}+{\mathrm
H}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4\rightarrow{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4+2{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%]
What is the theoretical yield (in grams) of [%{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%]

that will be formed when 4 moles of [%\mathrm{NaOH}%] is used in the reaction?
How to Do
Step 1: Determine the mole ratio between [%\mathrm{NaOH}%] and [%
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%].
[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4}%]
Let [%x=%] moles of [%{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%] formed from 4 moles of

[%\mathrm{NaOH}%].
[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4}=\frac{4\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}x%]
[%x=\frac{(4\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH})(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4)}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}%]

Solving for [%x%], you get 2 moles [%{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%]. This means
that the theoretical yield is 2 moles [%{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%] for every 4
moles [%\mathrm{NaOH}%].
[%x=2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%]
Step 6: Convert moles to mass.
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4=(\mathrm{moles}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4)(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4)%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4=(2\;\mathrm{mol}\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4)(142\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4=284\;\mathrm g\;
{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%]
Therefore, the theoretical yield is 284 g [%{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4%].
Learn about it!

Percent Yield
In reality, however, reactions are not always 100% successful. This means that the
actual amount of products formed from an experiment, or the actual yield, may be
lower than the theoretical yield. The actual yield is also called experimental yield.
After performing an experiment, you can calculate how efficient your reaction is in
producing the desired product. Percent yield is one way of expressing the efficiency of
a chemical reaction. It is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as
percent.
[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=\frac{\mathrm{actual}\;\mathrm{yield}}
{\mathrm{theoretical}\;\mathrm{yield}}\times100%]
In using the formula, it is important that the actual and theoretical yields have the same
units (either in moles or mass) so you can cancel their units.
Consider again the reaction between sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.
[%2\mathrm{NaOH}+{\mathrm
H}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4\rightarrow{\mathrm{Na}}_2{\mathrm{SO}}_4+2{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%]
Suppose you use 40 g [%\mathrm{NaOH}%] and produced 15 g [%{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%]. What is the % yield of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]?
Use the following molar masses: [%\mathrm{NaOH}=40\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%]

and [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=18\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%].
How can the formula be used?

Step 1: Convert the mass of [%\mathrm{NaOH}%] to moles.
[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}
{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}=\frac{40\;\mathrm g\;\mathrm{NaOH}}{40\;\mathrm
g/\mathrm{mol}}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}=1\;\mathrm{mol}\;\mathrm{NaOH}%]
Step 2: Determine the mole ratio between [%\mathrm{NaOH}%] and [%{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O%].
[%\frac{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm
O}=\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}x%]
Let [%x=%] moles of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] formed from 1 mole of

[%\mathrm{NaOH}%].
Step 4: Rearrange the equation to solve for [%x%].
[%x=\frac{(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;\mathrm{NaOH})(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O)}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaOH}}%]
[%x=1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]
Step 6: Convert moles of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] to mass of [%{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O%].
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm

O)(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O)%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(1\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm
O)(18\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=18\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O

%]
Take note that this is the theoretical yield of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%].
Step 7: Take note of the actual yield given in the problem.
[%\mathrm{actual}\;\mathrm{yield}=15\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]
Step 8: Use the formula to calculate the % yield [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from the
reaction.
[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=\frac{15\;\mathrm g}{18\;\mathrm g}\times100%]
[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=83\%%]
Try it!
Consider the synthesis of [%\mathrm{NaCl}%] from [%\mathrm{Na}%] and [%
{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%]. The reaction is represented by the balanced chemical equation
below.
[%2\mathrm{Na}+{\mathrm{Cl}}_2\rightarrow2\mathrm{NaCl}%]
When 10.0 g of [%{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%] is used, the reaction produced 12.5 grams

[%\mathrm{NaCl}%]. What is the % yield of the reaction?
Use the following molar masses: [%{\mathrm{Cl}}_2=70.9\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%]

and[%\mathrm{NaCl}=58.5\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%].
You may follow the steps below.
Step 1: Convert mass of reactant to moles.
Step 2: Determine the mole ratio between the reactant and the product.
Step 3: Let [%x=%] moles of product formed from the given mass of reactant.
Step 4: Set-up the proportion.

Step 7: Convert moles of product to mass. This is your theoretical yield.
Step 8: Take note of the actual yield.
Step 9: Calculate % yield using the formula.
Try it! Solution

Step 1: Convert mass of reactant to moles.
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}
{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2=\frac{10.0\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}
{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2=0.141\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%]
Step 2: Determine the mole ratio between [%\mathrm{NaCl}%] and [%

{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%].
[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaCl}}%]
Let [%x=%] moles of [%\mathrm{NaCl}%] formed from 10.0 g [%{\mathrm{Cl}}_2%].
Step 4: Set-up the proportion.
[%\frac{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}
{2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaCl}}=\frac{0.141\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}x%]
[%x=\frac{(0.141\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2)(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaCl})}
{1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm{Cl}}_2}%]
[%x=0.282\;\mathrm{mole}\;\mathrm{NaCl}%]
Step 7: Convert moles of product to mass. This is your theoretical yield.
[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaCl}=(\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{NaCl})\;
(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaCl})%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaCl}=(0.282\;\mathrm{mol}\;\mathrm{NaCl})
(58.5\;\frac{\mathrm g}{\mathrm{mol}})%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{NaCl}=16.5\;\mathrm g\;\mathrm{NaCl}%]
Step 8: Take note of the actual yield.
[%\mathrm{actual}\;\mathrm{yield}=12.5\;\mathrm g\;\mathrm{NaCl}%]
Step 9: Calculate % yield using the formula.
[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=\frac{12.5\;\mathrm g}{16.5\;\mathrm
g}\times100%]
[%\mathrm{percent}\;\mathrm{yield}=75.8\%%]
What do you think?

Photosynthesis is the process in which plants produce their food glucose, [%{\mathrm
C}_6{\mathrm H}_{12}{\mathrm O}_6%], from [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%], [%
{\mathrm{CO}}_2%], and sunlight. It is represented by the equation below.
[%6{\mathrm{CO}}_2+6{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O+\mathrm{energy}\rightarrow{\mathrm

C}_6{\mathrm H}_{12}{\mathrm O}_6+6{\mathrm O}_2%]
Sugarcane is only 8% efficient in doing photosynthesis. How many moles of [%

{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] will be needed by sugarcane if it needs to produce 10 moles of
glucose?
Key Points
 The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can be formed by
a chemical reaction from the given amount of reactant.
 The actual yield, also called the experimental yield, is the real amount of product
formed from the reaction when the experiment is performed.
 The ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield multiplied by 100 is the percent
yield(% yield).
 Chemical reactions do not always go into completion (not 100% successful).
Therefore, percent yields are usually less than 100%.
Calculating the Amount of Products by Determining the Limiting Reactant

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to determine the limiting reactant and
calculate the amount of product formed in a chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions begin when the reactants are combined under the right conditions,
such as correct temperature and pressure. But when do the reactions stop?
Learn about it!

A chemical reaction stops when one of the reactants is completely used up. In most
chemical experiments, the reactants are not in exact ratios specified by the balanced
chemical equation. Often, one of the reactants is used in excess, and the reaction is
allowed to proceed until one of the reactants is used up. The reactant that is completely
used up in a chemical reaction is called limiting reactant. As its name implies, it limits
the extent of the reaction, and thereby determines the amount of product that will be
formed. On the other hand, the reactant that still remains after the reaction stops is
called the excess reactant. As its name implies, it is in excess in the reaction.
How can you identify the limiting reactant and the maximum amount of product that can
be formed in a chemical reaction?
Consider the reaction below.

[%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O+2\mathrm{HCl}\rightarrow2\mathrm{KCl}+2{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O%]
If 10.0 g [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%] is made to react with 10.0 g

[%\mathrm{HCl}%], how many grams of [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] will be
formed?
Use the following molar masses: [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O=94\;\mathrm

g/\mathrm{mol}%], [%\mathrm{HCl}=36.5\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%], and [%{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O=18\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%].
How to Do
Step 1: Convert the mass of both reactants to their corresponding moles.
Moles [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%]:
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm

K}_2\mathrm O}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O=\frac{10.0\;\mathrm g}{94\;\mathrm

g/\mathrm{mol}}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O=0.106\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm

K}_2\mathrm O%]
Moles [%\mathrm{HCl}%]:
[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl}\;=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{HCl}}
{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{HCl}}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl}\;=\frac{10.0\;\mathrm g}{36.5\;\mathrm
g/\mathrm{mol}}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl}\;=0.274\;\mathrm{mol}\;\mathrm{HCl}%]
Step 2: Calculate the moles of product that can be formed from each reactant.
Moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%]:
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(0.106\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm

K}_2\mathrm O)\frac{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O)}
{(1\;\mathrm{mole}\;{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O)}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=0.212\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O%]
Moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%\mathrm{HCl}%]:
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm
O=(0.274\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl})\frac{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O)}{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{HCl})}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=0.274\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm

H}_2\mathrm O%]
Step 3: Compare the moles of product formed from each reactant.
Moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%] is less than
moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%\mathrm{HCl}%].
Step 4: Tag the reactant that gives a lower amount of product as the limiting reactant.
Since moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%{\mathrm K}_2\mathrm O%] is less
than moles [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] from [%\mathrm{HCl}%], [%{\mathrm
K}_2\mathrm O%] is the limiting reactant.
Step 5: Convert the moles of product formed from the limiting reactant to mass. The
calculated mass is the maximum amount of product that you can form from the reaction.
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm

O)(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O)%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=(0.212\;\mathrm{mol})(18\;\frac{\mathrm g}

{\mathrm{mol}})%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O=3.82\;\mathrm g\;{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O

%]
Try it!
Consider the combustion of butane, one of the main components of liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG).
[%2{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}+13{\mathrm

O}_2\rightarrow8{\mathrm{CO}}_2+10{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]
How many grams of [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] is produced when 100 g [%{\mathrm

C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%] undergoes combustion with 200 g [%{\mathrm O}_2%]?
Use the following molar masses: [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}=58\;\mathrm

g/\mathrm{mol}%], [%{\mathrm O}_2=32\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%], and [%
{\mathrm{CO}}_2=44\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}%].
You may follow the steps below.
Step 1: Convert the mass of each reactant to their corresponding moles.

Step 5: Convert the moles of product formed from the limiting reactant to mass.
Try it! Solution

Step 1: Convert the mass of each reactant to their corresponding moles.
Moles [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm

C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}}{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm
H}_{10}}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}=\frac{100\;\mathrm g}{58\;\mathrm

g/\mathrm{mol}}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}=1.72\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm

C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%]
Moles [%{\mathrm O}_2%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm O}_2=\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm O}_2}

{\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm O}_2}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm O}_2=\frac{200\;\mathrm g}{32\;\mathrm g/\mathrm{mol}}

%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm O}_2=6.25\;\mathrm{mol}\;{\mathrm O}_2%]
Moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%]:
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=(1.72\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm
H}_{10})\frac{(8\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2)}{(2\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10})}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=6.88\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2\;%]
Moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm O}_2%]:
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=(6.25\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
O}_2)\;\frac{(8\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2)}{(13\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm
O}_2)}%]
[%\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=3.85\;\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2\;%]
Moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm O}_2%] is less than the moles [%

{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%].
Since moles [%{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm O}_2%] is less than moles [%

{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] from [%{\mathrm C}_4{\mathrm H}_{10}%], [%{\mathrm O}_2%] is
the limiting reactant.
Step 5: Convert the moles of product formed from the limiting reactant to mass. This is
maximum amount of product you can form from the reaction.
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=(\mathrm{moles}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2)
(\mathrm{molar}\;\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2)%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=(3.85\;\mathrm{mol})(44\;\frac{\mathrm g}
{\mathrm{mol}})%]
[%\mathrm{mass}\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2=169\;\mathrm g%]
What do you think?

The hydrogenation of benzene is an exothermic process, that is, energy (in kilojoules,
kJ) is released when the reaction happens.
[%{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_6+3{\mathrm H}_2\;\rightarrow{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm

H}_{12}+208\;\mathrm{kJ}%]
How much energy (in kJ) is released when 2 moles [%{\mathrm C}_6{\mathrm H}_6%]
is made to react with 2 moles [%{\mathrm H}_2%], and the reaction is only 80%
successful?
Key Points
 The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up in a chemical
reaction. It determines the maximum amount of product that can be formed from
the reaction.
 The excess reactant is the reactant that is still present after the reaction stops.
Chemical Reaction: Endothermic and Exothermic
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how chemical reactions are
accompanied by energy changes.
Chemistry is defined as the science that studies matter — its properties, changes, and
the energy associated with these changes.
Have you ever wondered how energy participates in chemical reactions?
Learn about it!

A chemical reaction occurs when two or more substances react to form new
substances or products. It is often accompanied by energy changes. It can be classified
either as endothermic or exothermic, depending on the energy changes
([%\mathrm{ΔE}%]) it undergoes.
[%\mathrm{ΔE}\;=\;\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm E\;–\;\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm E%]
Endothermic reactions require energy for it to proceed. This means that the final
energy of the reaction is higher compared to its initial energy due to the added energy.
Therefore, the [%\mathrm{ΔE}%] is positive.
[%\mathrm{Reactants}\;+\;\mathrm{Energy}\;\rightarrow\;\mathrm{Products}%]
For example, the high-temperature electrolysis of water is an exothermic reaction. This

reaction is used to make hydrogen fuel and breathable oxygen.
[%2{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O\;+\;\mathrm{Energy}\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm H}_2\;+\;

{\mathrm O}_2%]
On the other hand, exothermic reactions release energy. This means that the final
energy of the reaction is lower compared to its initial energy because energy is given
off. Therefore, the [%\mathrm{ΔE}%] is negative.
[%\mathrm{Reactants}\;\rightarrow\;\mathrm{Products}\;+\;\mathrm{Energy}%]
Explosions involve exothermic reactions. For example, the decomposition of ammonium
nitrite yields water and nitrogen and releases a large amount of heat.
[%{\mathrm{NH}}_4{\mathrm{NO}}_2\;\rightarrow\;{\mathrm N}_2\;+\;2{\mathrm
H}_2\mathrm O\;+\;\mathrm{Energy}%]
Examples
Are the following reactions endothermic or exothermic?
Example 1:
When [%{\mathrm H}_2%] combines with [%{\mathrm O}_2%], an explosion may be

observed as [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%] is being formed.
The balanced chemical equation that represents this reaction is:
[%2{\mathrm H}_{2\;}+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]
Where is the energy in the reaction?
To answer this, take note that explosion is observed as [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]
is being formed. Explosions occur when energy is released.
The reaction is written as:
[%2{\mathrm H}_{2\;}+\;{\mathrm O}_2\;\rightarrow\;2{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O\;

+\;\mathrm{Energy}%]
Because energy is on the product side, the reaction is exothermic.
Example 2:
When [%{\mathrm{CaCO}}_3%] is heated, it decomposes to [%\mathrm{CaO}%] and [%

{\mathrm{CO}}_2%].
The balanced chemical equation that represents this reaction is:
[%{\mathrm{CaCO}}_3\;\rightarrow\;\mathrm{CaO}\;+\;{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]
Where is the energy in the reaction?
To answer this, take note that the reaction proceeds when [%{\mathrm{CaCO}}_3%] is
heated. Heat is a form of energy and it must be applied for the reaction to occur. The
reaction is written as:
[%{\mathrm{CaCO}}_3\;+\;\mathrm{Energy}\rightarrow\;\mathrm{CaO}\;+\;
{\mathrm{CO}}_2%]
Because energy is on the reactant side, the reaction is endothermic.
Explore!
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce their food glucose ([%{\mathrm
C}_6{\mathrm H}_{12}{\mathrm O}_6%]) along with [%{\mathrm O}_2%] from [%
{\mathrm{CO}}_2%] and [%{\mathrm H}_2\mathrm O%]. Is photosynthesis an
endothermic or an exothermic process?
To answer this, you should know where the energy is placed in the reaction (either
reactant or product side). In what form is the energy involved in photosynthesis? What
does the plant do with the energy for photosynthesis to occur?
Try it!
Matches are lighted by striking the head of the matchstick against the specially
prepared pad found along the side of the matchbox. The head of the matchstick
contains [%{\mathrm{KClO}}_3%] while the strip contains [%{\mathrm P}_4%].
1. Obtain a matchstick and a matchbox.

2. Strike the head of the matchstick against the pad in the matchbox.
3. Feel the surroundings near the lighted matchstick.
4. Based on your observation, is the reaction between [%{\mathrm{KClO}}_3%] and
[%{\mathrm P}_4%] endothermic or exothermic? Explain your answer.
Warning: Do not play with matches. Use only one to two matchsticks at a time when
doing the activity to avoid causing large fires.
What do you think?

Exothermic reactions give off heat. Thus, they are good sources of energy. How do you
think are the heat from these reactions harvested to convert them to usable forms of
energy (e.g. mechanical, electrical)?
Tip
Common misconception is that exothermic reactions are accompanied by increase in
energy while endothermic reactions are accompanied by decrease in energy.
To avoid this, remember the following:
 The term exothermic came from the Greek words exo meaning "outside"

andtherme meaning "heat." So the energy EXits in EXothermic reactions, hence
the energy becomes lower.
 On the other hand, the term endothermic came from the Greek
words endomeaning "outside" and therme meaning "heat." So energy ENters
in ENdothermic reactions, hence the energy becomes higher.
Key Points
 Endothermic reactions are accompanied by an increase in energy because the
energy is absorbed ([%\mathrm{ΔE}%] is positive) by the reactants.
 Energy is found on the reactant side for an endothermic reaction.
 Exothermic reactions are accompanied by a decrease in energy because
energy is released ([%\mathrm{ΔE}%] is negative) when products are formed.
 Energy is found on the product side for an exothermic reaction.
 [%\mathrm{ΔE}\;=\;\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm E\;–\;\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm E%]
Harnessing Energy from Different Sources

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how energy is harnessed from
different sources of energy.
Where does the electricity we use every day come from and how are they
generated?
Learn about it!

There are several sources of energy that are harnessed to generate the power
distributed by our electricity providers. These energy sources include fossil fuels,
biogas, geothermal, hydrothermal, batteries, solar cells, and biomass.
Fossil fuels and Biogas
Fossil fuel is the general term given to combustible products of buried organic matter
that decayed under extreme temperature and pressure. Fossil fuels include crude oil
(e.g., octanes [%{\mathrm C}_8{\mathrm H}_{18}%]), natural gas or biogas ([%
{\mathrm{CH}}_4%]), and coal ([%\mathrm C%]).
Biogas is a gas produced from anaerobic (absence of oxygen) decomposition of

organic matter.
How is energy harnessed?
The components of fossil fuels are heated and vaporized to steam which drives the
turbines and generate electricity.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy refers to the heat produced inside the Earth. This energy is
harnessed from the molten rocks near volcanic regions.
The molten rocks heat the groundwater to steam which drives the turbines to generate
electricity.
Learn about it!

Hydrothermal Energy
Hydrothermal energy refers to the heat obtained from hot water from hydrothermal
vents or seawater in contact with hot rock beds.
Hot water from hydrothermal vents is collected into a heat exchanger. The heat from the
water is transferred to another fluid (e.g. isobutane) which evaporates and drives the
turbines to generate electricity.
Batteries
Batteries are also called electrochemical cells. They are devices that store and
convert chemical energy into electrical energy. They can be disposable or rechargeable.
The energy from batteries comes from a chemical reaction (e.g. redox reaction between
[%{\mathrm{CuSO}}_4%] and [%\mathrm{Zn}%] to form [%{\mathrm{ZnSO}}_4%] and
[%\mathrm{Cu}%]).
When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes move within the battery,
and chemical reactions are completed at the two terminals of the battery. The flow of
electrons in the reactions generate the current (flowing charges) and delivers electricity
to the external circuit.
Learn about it!

Solar Cells
Solar cells are devices that can collect light energy from the sun and convert it into
electricity.
Light energy is collected over solar panels. The collected energy can be stored in
batteries or can be directly converted to electricity.
Biomass
Biomass refers to the organic matter from living organisms and often refers to plants or
plant-based materials that can be converted to energy. It is the oldest source of energy
known to man.
The biomass is burned to generate heat. The heat produced can be directly used to do
daily chores such as cooking.
Electricity may also be generated from biomass. The components of biomass are
burned in a boiler. The generated heat is used to produce steam which drives the
turbines to generate electricity.
Learn about it!

Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy
Energy sources may be renewable or nonrenewable. Renewable energy sources are

those that are naturally replenished. Biogas and biomass are renewable energy
sources. Geothermal, hydrothermal, and solar energies can also be considered
renewable. In contrast, nonrenewable energy sources are finite, so they will get
depleted over time. Crude oil is a nonrenewable energy resource.
How about batteries? Disposable batteries are nonrenewable. Rechargeable batteries
can be classified as nonrenewable or renewable, depending on the energy source used
for recharging (e.g., if solar energy is used to recharge the batteries, then it is
renewable).
Electricity from Power Plants
Power plants are designed to generate electricity from energy harnessed from different
sources. Common among power plants are vapor-driven turbines. The turbines are
rotated by the vapor and in turn spin a generator. The spinning generator then produces
electricity that is transported by transmission lines to the distributors and to our homes.
Try it!
Research on the following and classify the type of energy source they use to generate
electricity.
1. Daniell Cell
2. Malampaya power plant
3. Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban) power plant
4. islaSOL II
5. Sultan Energy Philippines
6. Green Power Bukidnon Phil. Inc.
What do you think?

What other energy sources do we harness for power? Are they renewable or not?
Key Points
 Energy is harnessed from the following sources: fossil fuels, biogas, geothermal,
hydrothermal, batteries, solar cells, and biomass.
 Energy sources may be renewable or nonrenewable.
 Renewable energy sources are those that do not get depleted.
 Nonrenewable energy sources are finite, so they will get depleted over time.
 Common structures in all power plants are the steam- or vapour-driven turbines
which spin generators to produce electricity.
Household Cleaning Products
THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give examples of household cleaning
products and explain the need to use them.
Cleaning products contain substances that remove dirt, stain, and bad smell. There
are different cleaning products, and some of them are used to clean surfaces such as
bathroom tiles, floors, sinks, and drains. Others are used to clean clothing, blankets,
and curtains.
Cleaning products include detergent, bleach, air freshener or purifier, and

disinfectant. What are the cleaning products you use at home?
Learn about it!

Detergent
A detergent contains surfactants, which are substances with cleaning properties.
Surfactants have long water-insoluble hydrocarbon tail and water-soluble polar heads.
When these molecules are placed in water, they form micelles. They orient themselves
with the hydrocarbon tails, sticking to one another while the polar heads are pointing
outwards and into the water.
A mixture of detergent and water is a colloid. Micelles are dispersed throughout the
water, so the mixture appears cloudy. When oil or grease is present, the micelle
disperses and entraps the grease. When the detergent is rinsed out, the grease comes
with it.
Learn about it!
Bleach
Bleach is a household cleaning agent used to remove dyes and whiten clothing. The
color that stains white fabrics typically arise from organic dyes and pigments. For
example, when carrot juice spills on your white garment, the pigment beta-carotene
binds with the fabric.
Chlorine-based bleach is used to break the chemical bonds of the pigment. The pigment
is changed to a different substance that do not absorb visible light. Hence, the stained
garment appears white again.
Learn about it!

Air freshener or Purifier
Air freshener or purifier is used to emit fragrance in different spaces at home,
especially in restrooms. It can be in the form of spray, candle, oil, bead, or gel. Its main
purpose is to eliminate or mask unpleasant odors. Its name is misleading though
because it does not really freshen or purify the air.
Solid or liquid air fresheners (candle, oil, bead, or gel) have volatile fragrant molecules.
These molecules easily change from solid or liquid into gas, even at room temperature.
When they mix with air, they move via diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of particles
from higher concentration to lower concentration. Hence, the air freshener molecules
spread out across the room.
Spray air fresheners are aerosols. Aerosols are colloids of solid or liquid particles in

gas. The fragrant molecules dissolve in air. When these molecules are allowed to
escape their spray containers, they mix with air, and the fragrant smell spreads.
Learn about it!

Disinfectant
A disinfectant is an antimicrobial household product. It kills microorganisms on
surfaces of inanimate objects. Note that it is different from antiseptics, which are used
on living things to kill microorganisms. The effectiveness of a disinfectant depends on
the number of microorganisms, environment (temperature), time of exposure, and
nature of microorganisms.
Most disinfectants, such as alcohol and chlorine, work by denaturing proteins of

microorganisms. When their proteins are damaged, metabolic processes are disrupted,
causing death.
Explore!
Check the cleaning agents you use at home. What are the kinds of surfaces those
agents clean? What are the things you consider in buying those cleaning products?
What do you think?

What are the safety precautions that must be done when using cleaning products?
Key Points
 Cleaning products contain substances that remove dirt, stain, and bad smell.
They come in different physical forms such as solids, liquids, and aerosol.
 Cleaning products include detergents, bleaches, deodorizers, and disinfectants.
Active Ingredient in Product Labels

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the active ingredient in common
household products used for cleaning.
The active ingredient is the compound that acts to fulfill the function of a said product.
A finished household product is usually a mixture of many different compounds.
How can we identify the active ingredient of a product assuming it is a mixture?
Learn about it!

All products have an active ingredient that enables it to work. Some products only have
one active ingredient while others may have more than one. Here are some important
pointers in determining the active ingredient.
 The active ingredient can be classified as acidic, basic, or neutral.

 The determination of its acidity or alkalinity often dictates how the product will
work.

 The active ingredient must always be labelled in consumer goods.
Learn about it!

Importance of an Active Ingredient
Knowing the active ingredient in certain products will tell you what function they can
serve. Product labels are required to put down their active ingredients. Some of these
ingredients may be toxic to the user or even to the environment. In some cases, a few
household products will share the same active ingredient, allowing them to be used for
different purposes. While other products may have the same function, they have
different active ingredients.
Example
The table below contains different cleaning products with specific active ingredients and
their specific functions.
Learn about it!
Different active ingredients have different modes of action on how they are able to clean
certain materials. The basic idea for most of these ingredients is to convert a “dirt”
substance into something that is soluble in water.
The active ingredient determines the mode of action of a specific product.
 Dissolution - A common mode of action based on the principle of like-dissolves-

like and the concept of solvent – solute interactions.
 Acid–Base - Certain substances are either acidic or basic. An acid will react with
a base, or vice versa, allowing it to be dissolved or carried away by water.
 Reduction – Oxidation - Oxidizing agents work to convert certain substances
into water-soluble ions.
 Surfactants - Detergents and soaps can be classified as surfactants. They form
tiny vessels known as micelles that carry away the undesired material.
 Disinfectant - The reagent targets a biological organism responsible for an
undesired effect.
Example
Micelles form from amphiphatic molecules. Amphiphatic molecules are molecules that
have polar and non-polar regions in their structure. This amphiphatic nature allows them
to form micelles.
The micelles are soluble in water due to the polarity of the head, and the nonpolar tail
interacts with oils and greases that allow it to be carried in a vessel that can dissolve in
water.
Explore!
Product development is an essential part of the industry. A little knowledge in chemistry
is a useful skill in finding alternative products because active ingredients may share
similar properties. These ingredients can be found in everyday materials. Homemade
cleaning materials using similar ingredients can be made from common items such as
vinegar, citrus fruits (lemons and calamansi), and baking soda.
Can you give examples of how baking soda (sodium carbonate, basic properties) or
vinegar (acetic acid, acidic properties) can be used as substitute cleaning products?
Try it!
Given the different modes of action of specific active ingredients, list down as many
possible chemical reagents you can find in your house that may fit under these modes
of actions.
Key Points
 Active ingredient is the reactive and functional ingredient of a household
product.
 An active ingredient may have several mechanisms where it can remove stains,
ranging from acid-base, oxidation – reduction, disinfectants, surfactants, and
dissolution (via solvent – solute interaction).
 Two different products can have similar modes of action as long as their active
ingredients have similar properties.
Other Uses of Ingredients in Cleaning Agents

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the common ingredients (other
than active ingredient) in cleaning agents and their uses.
Active ingredients are only a part of the entire mixture that we call the product or in this
case, the cleaning agent. For all cases of practicality, the product cannot be sold as a
pure active ingredient for commercial and practical reasons. Other components of the
mixture have specific purposes in making the cleaning agent.
Learn about it!

A cleaning agent is a mixture of many compounds. They are considered as additive
ingredients. These additive ingredients have some functions in the product. Some
ingredients are added to mixtures while others have more complex mechanisms.
Some functions if additive ingredients include: solvents, fragrance enhancers, masking

agents, builders, preservatives, antimicrobial agents, and bubble enhancers.
Solvents
A solvent is often used to increase the quantity of the cleaning agent. The solvent is
used to dilute the cleaning agent to its minimum functional concentration. For instance,
ethanol which is used as a disinfectant is functional at 40% solution while bleach can be
functional as low as 5% solution.
Fragrance enhancers
In other cases, fragrance enhancers are added to products to mask a more putrid smell.
Particularly, bathroom cleaners use these added fragrances. Fragrances often come in
the form of essential oils.
Learn about it!

Masking agents
A scent of a product is often underestimated in terms of its toxic effects. Some cleaning
agents have masking agents to remove fragrance for chemically sensitive users or
people who present with allergies. However, the molecule of fragrance still remains in
the product.
Builders
The term 'builders' is something used in discussing surfactants. In the case of cleaning
agents, these builders are often present in detergents. Builders are substances that
prevent other contaminants from reacting with the active ingredient in the detergent.
Learn about it!

Preservatives
Cleaning agents that are stored for long term periods need some sort of preservative to
keep the active ingredient functional. These may come in the form of salts, organic
reagents, or buffers that maintain pH balance
Antimicrobial reagents
Microbes are often the cause of infection or cause some products to degrade. The
purpose of a cleaning agent is to maintain the appearance or use of a certain material.
Therefore it would make sense for antimicrobials to be present in cleaning agents.
Bubble enhancers
Adding bubble enhancers to allow detergents to do their job more effectively by
enhancing the covered area of the surfactant. The formation of foam/bubbles facilitates
the surfactant by aiding in the accumulation of unwanted particles.
To summarize, the functions of additive ingredients are (but not limited to the following):
 serve as disinfectant for hygienic purposes and to prolong the shelf life of the
product
 enhance or mask a specific property; and
 protect the active ingredient from attacking other molecules
Examples
Triclosan is an example of an antimicrobial additive that reduces or prevents bacterial
contamination. They are usually present in toothpastes and soaps.
Sodium tripolyphosphate is a common example of a builder found in detergents. It

allows surfactants to work at their full potential. It also acts as a pH buffer and prevents
deposition of soil.
Explore!
Unscented products can be misleading in some cases and can still cause an allergic
reaction for people who have a reaction to it. Why is this so?
Try it!
Collect various samples of water (from the streams, seawater or tap water) and a
control of distilled water. Add a drop of detergent in approximately the same amount of
water. Shake well, and try to quantify the appearance of bubbles. What can you say
about the bubbles?
Key Points
 Additive ingredients are not innate, and they have a specific function in making
the product what it is.
 There is a variety of additive ingredients with a variety of functions such as
masking agents, enhancing agents, or preservatives.
Personal Care Products

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give common examples of personal care
products used to enhance the appearance of the human body.
There are numerous personal care products you can find in grocery stores and
shopping malls worldwide. What are these personal care products? And why do
people use them?
Learn about it!

Personal care products are consumer products used in personal hygiene and for
beautification. These products have two classifications, personal hygienic items and
cosmetics though there is only a small distinction between the two. Personal hygienic
items are the products people use to keep themselves clean while cosmetics are often
described as luxury products used for enhancement of physical beauty.
Products for Personal Hygiene

Shampoo and Conditioner
Shampoo and conditioner are both haircare products. They are viscous liquids used to
clean hair. They are used by applying them to wet hair, massaging them into the scalp,
and rinsing them.
Shampoos are particularly used to remove the unwanted buildup of dust and other
particles on the hair without stripping out sebum. Sebum, a mixture of triglycerides,
wax, and fatty acids, is secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans. The main function
of sebum is to lubricate the hair and keep it manageable.
Hair conditioners are used to change the texture and appearance of hair. When
shampoos strip out much sebum, hair conditioners provide the oils (EFAs - essential
fatty acids) which function as natural sebum. These EFAs keep the hair softer and
more pliable. Conditioners also often contain moisturizers, which hold moisture in the
hair.
Learn about it!

Soap
Soap is a personal care product used for bathing and cleaning the skin. It can remove
the oil and dirt particles adhered to the skin. These particles are often insoluble in water
so they cannot be washed off by water alone. Soap breaks up these particles into
smaller sizes and mixes them with water.
How does soap mix the insoluble particles with water?
Soap is made up of fatty acids, which are molecules with two different ends –
hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends. When mixed with water, the soap molecules form
a micelle. The hydrophobic ends attach to the unwanted particle while the hydrophilic
ends are attracted to water. So when water is used to rinse off the soap, dirt particles
are washed away.
Facial Cleanser
Have you ever wondered why there are marketed cleansers especially made for
the face? Is there really a difference between the facial cleansers and body
soaps?
The skin on your face has more sebaceous glands than most parts of the
body. Sebaceous glands produce sebum which lubricates the skin and protects it from
bacteria. Sebum reaches the surface of the skin through the hair follicles. When
sebaceous glands become overactive, too much sebum is produced. The sebum is
combined with dead cells (keratin) which are naturally present in the skin, and their
combination results in a plug. Because the follicle is plugged, the bacteria
called Propionibacterium acnes present in the skin proliferate. The bacterial growth
causes acne, the painful inflammation and swelling of the facial skin. Acne and other
facial skin diseases are often prevented using facial cleansers.
Facial cleansers remove makeup, dead skin cells, and dirt that can clog the pores.
Best facial cleansers should have a pH near 4.7, the average pH of the skin’s surface.
Bar soaps with high pH (9 to 10) can disrupt the pH balance of the skin and favor the
overgrowth of P. acnes. Also, the cleanser should not have thickeners which are
present in bar soaps. These thickeners allow the soaps to form a rigid bar shape, but
they can clog the pores resulting in acnes. Lastly, bar soaps may remove natural oils
from the facial skin and cause sebaceous glands to overproduce sebum, which
eventually lead to clogged pores.
Learn about it!

Deodorant and Antiperspirant
There are two types of sweat glands found in the skin, eccrine and apocrine
glands. Eccrine glands can be found on almost all over the body, with the highest
density in palms and soles. They produce sweat, an odorless substance comprised
mostly of water and sodium chloride. They are active in thermoregulation because the
evaporation of sweat has a cooling effect on the body. On the other hand, apocrine
glands are found only in certain areas of the body, including armpits and some parts of
external genitalia. These glands secrete an oily fluid which is odorless before microbial
activity. The oily fluid is comprised of fats and proteins which are broken down by
bacteria into certain acids with bad smell. The bad smell in the armpits is often masked
using personal care products such as deodorant and antiperspirant.
The terms deodorant and antiperspirant are often used interchangeably, but they
actually differ. Antiperspirants control sweat and body odor by preventing sweat to
reach the skin surface and by reducing the bacteria that cause body
odor. Deodorantsonly contain antimicrobial agents to prevent body odor, but they do
not control sweat. However, both of these products contain fragrances that mask the
smell of body odor.
Toothpaste
When you eat, some food stays on your teeth. This food can be broken down by mouth
bacteria to form a sticky film called dental plaque. When plaque builds up and hardens,
it forms tartar. Tartar is a crusty deposit that traps stains on the teeth and causes
discoloration. When tartar forms, bacteria will build up and damage the gums. Pockets
between gums and teeth will form when the gums are infected with the bacteria. So to
prevent the formation of plaque and occurrence of gum disease, teeth must be cleaned
by brushing. Plaque begins forming 4 to 12 hours after brushing so it is important to
brush teeth at least twice a day.
Toothpaste is a paste or gel used with a toothbrush to remove food from the teeth and
kill the bacteria which cause bad breath. It contains abrasives which scrub away stains
and plaque on your teeth. Abrasives also polish the teeth so they look fresh and clean
after brushing.
Learn about it!

Cosmetics
Cosmetics are substances or products used to enhance the appearance or scent of the
body without affecting the body’s structure and functions. Common cosmetics include
facial makeup and fragrances.
Facial Makeup
Generally, women use more cosmetics than men. Many women apply facial makeup to
enhance their facial features or cover imperfections of the skin. They use products such
as foundation, concealer, lipstick, lip gloss, lip balm, blush, eyeshadow pencil, mascara,
and eyeliner.
Foundation is used to cover blemishes and even out skin color. When extra coverage
is needed to conceal acne and undereye circles, a concealer is used. A concealer is
often thicker and more solid than foundation so it can provide longer lasting coverage of
skin imperfections.
Lipstick is intended to add color and texture to the lips. It is different from a lip
glosswhich is intended to add shine to the lips. Lip balm is also used to add color, but
its main purpose is to moisturize and protect the lips from chapping.
Blush or rouge is used to add color to the cheeks to make them look more defined.
Different colors of blush compliment different skin tones.
Eyeshadow, eyebrow pencil, and mascara are all used to accentuate the eyes.
The eyeshadow is used to add color on the eyelids and under the eyebrows to make
the eyes more attractive while eyebrow pencil is used to darken the eyebrows to make
them more defined. Mascara is applied to darken the eyelashes and make them appear
longer and thicker.
Fragrances
Have you ever flipped through a catalogue of beauty products and found different
names for fragrances?
Cologne, eau de toilette, and perfume are the common names of fragrances. They all
contain essential oils, such as vanilla, rosehip, and peppermint oils, that are diluted with
a solvent such as ethanol, propylene glycol, and water. The difference among these
fragrances is the concentration of the essential oil.
Cologne is a shortened version of “eau de Cologne.” Eau is the French word for water
while Cologne came from the French city “Koln” where a particular scent was first made.
Cologne is the most diluted fragrance, with about 2 to 5% essential oils. It often smells
sweet and fruity. Because it has less essential oils and higher percent alcohol, its smell
do not last very long compared to other fragrances. It is not viscous so it is often applied
by “splashing” it in the body.
Eau de toilette or toilet water has more concentration of essential oil compared to
cologne. It has about 5 to 15% oil. Because it has more oil compared to alcohol, it is
more viscous and is often sold in spray bottles.
Perfume is the most concentrated of all the fragrance options so it is also the most
expensive. It has about 15 to 40% essential oils. It has thicker and oilier consistency so
it is often in stopper bottles.
Try it!
Find the personal care products you use at home. What are the purposes of these
products? What are your reasons for choosing the brand of your personal care
products?
What do you think?

Why is it important for you to understand the chemistry of personal care products?
Key Points
 Personal care products are consumer products used in personal hygiene and
for beautification.
 Personal care products include shampoo, hair conditioner, soap, facial cleanser,
deodorant, antiperspirant, toothpaste, facial makeup, and fragrances.
The Major Ingredients of Personal Care Products

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the major ingredients of personal
care products.
In the previous lesson, you have learned about personal care products and the reasons
why people use them. Some of their ingredients may differ from how cleaning agents
work but one thing is certain–the active ingredients for cosmetic products need to have
a non-toxic concentration on humans.
Learn about it!

Personal care products are products that people use for personal hygiene and
beautification.
Different personal care products that we usually use are listed below as well as their
active ingredients.
Deodorants
The major ingredients of deodorant include aluminum-based compounds such as

aluminum chloride, aluminum chlorohydrate, and aluminum zincronium.
A complex coordination compound involves a central atom (usually a metal ion) and

ligands that share its electrons with the electropositive central atom.
In deodorants, the aluminum compound usually forms a complex coordination
compound. Aluminum chlorohydrates is a general group of compounds that have
coordinate covalent bonds. These compounds block pores and the sweat glands in the
armpit.
Body Lotions
Body lotions can be classified as emulsions. Emulsions are dispersions of fine particles

that do not dissolve in a medium. An emulsifier is a class of surfactant that is usually
added to make two immiscible substances miscible. Cetearyl alcohol is an example of
an emulsifier.
Note the evident formation of micelles by the emulsifier molecule, allowing two
immiscible phases to dissolve.
The ability of a certain molecule to attract atmospheric moisture or moisture, in general,

is called hygroscopicity. Compounds such as glycerol are added to products that are
meant to be retained on the skin.
The structure of glycerol makes it a very viscous substance due to very strong
intermolecular forces. Furthermore, it is also a polar molecule which allows it attract
water molecules. The glycerol molecule is also the backbone of a triglyceride molecule.
A triglyceride molecule, upon hydrolysis, will release one molecule of glycerol and three
molecules of fatty acids.
Learn about it!
Perfume
A perfume will contain essential oils and glycerol as its major components. Essential
oils are naturally extracted oils from plant or animal sources that have a strong
fragrance. You will notice that most of these compounds are organic by nature, and will
require an organic solvent.
Essential oils are a group of volatile organic compounds. In contrast to glycerol, they
have relatively weak intermolecular forces, allowing their scent to be easily dispersed.
As with most organic compounds, essential oils can be classified as alcohols,
aldehydes, esters, and others. Unsaturated molecules generally have weaker
intermolecular forces compared to their saturated counterparts.
Shampoo/Conditioner
Major ingredients of shampoos include surfactants that form micelles. These shampoos
usually use ammonium compounds due to their high versatility to function as a
surfactant and thickening agents.
Ligands such as EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid) is added to help preserve
the shampoo from reacting with metals which can ruin the quality of the product. EDTA
is a commonly used chelating agent with a high affinity towards most metals
Learn about it!

Soaps
Specialized soaps for skin are still made of surfactants that act the same way as
detergents. The application of surfactants can also be found in hand lotions, shampoos,
and conditioners.
Make-ups
Make-ups are usually made up of colored pigments and/or metal oxides.
Pigments and metal oxides give color due absorption of visible light at a certain
wavelength. This absorption is possible due to certain structural configuration or
electronic transitions.
Electronic transitions are made possible by movement of electrons to empty orbitals

as with the case of adjacent double bonds (conjugation) or transition metals.
Such is the case with carminic acid which gives the color red, due to the presence of
multiple conjugated sites.
Explore!
The realm of cosmetics is not an invention of the 20th century due to fashion and a high
standard of living. Cosmetics has been in practice as early as the time of the Greeks, all
the way to modern civilization. Furthermore, not all cosmetic practices today have been
modernized, more than beautification, cosmetics have a cultural impact. What are some
examples of ancient cosmetic products that have their closest modern day
contemporaries?
What do you think?

How do we make sure that our personal care products remain safe? What hazards are
present in handling these products?
Key Points
 Personal care products are products that people use for personal hygiene and
beautification.
 Cosmetic products can have more than one major ingredient that works hand in
hand to make a certain product functional.
 Active ingredients have multiple mechanisms such as surfactants, coordination
complexes, moisturizers, emulsions and special receptor interactions. Others
work due to their natural properties such as scent and color.
The Precautionary Measures Indicated in Various Cleaning Products and Cosmetics

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the precautionary measures
indicated in various cleaning and personal care products.
How do you choose a cleaning or personal care product? How do you read their
labels?
Learn about it!

You often choose a cleaning or personal care product based on its effectiveness,
popularity, and price. Have you also considered its effect on your health and on the
environment?
Effects on Human Health

Personal care products are applied on the body, so there is a possibility that their
ingredients enter the body through skin absorption or by ingestion. Therefore, it is
important that these products are healthy and nontoxic.
When choosing a personal care product, learn to read the labels. Be aware of toxic
substances that may be found in the product you want to buy. Below are some of the
substances you have to avoid.
 Poisonous heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, and mercury can be found in a wide
range of personal care products. When these heavy metals enter the body, they can
accumulate and replace the metals that are normally present for specific functions in the
body. They can often be found in products such as whitening toothpaste, lipstick,
sunscreen, and concealers.
 Hydroquinone is often found in skin lighteners and facial cleansers. This substance has
been reported as a cancer-causing agent and respiratory tract irritant. It has been
banned in Europe and restricted in Canada. However, many products sold in Asia still
contain hydroquinone.
 Phthalates are substances often found in color cosmetics, fragrance lotions, and hair
care products. They are linked to endocrine disruption and reproductive toxicity. They
are often written in labels as phthalate, DEP, DEHP, or DBP. Choose products labelled
"phthalate-free," but consider their other ingredients.
 Nitrosamines are substances produced by diethanolamine (DEA) and truethanolamine

(TEA) which are both found in nearly every kind of personal care product. They cause
organ system toxicity and endocrine system disruption. It is safe to avoid products
containing DEA and TEA.
Learn about it!

Effects on the Environment
Cleaning products are often disposed in the environment. For instance, detergents are
mixed with water that goes down the drain. Hence, the detergent may find its way into
the ground and into bodies of water. It is important that these products are safe for the
environment. Below are some properties you need to consider in buying products.
Corrosive
These corrosive products are often presented in dilute amounts, some, may not be even
harmful upon acute exposure. However, prolonged exposure (if not immediately washed
and rinsed with water) can lead to corrosive burns.
These also serve as a warning to keep away from the eyes and nose. Aerosolized
products once dispersed can be light enough to linger in the air. These molecules can
then make contact with the eye, or be inhaled.
Poison/Toxic
As mentioned in previous topics, certain products are really meant to act as a poison. A
pesticide is harmful towards certain organisms. But remember, toxicity is a function of
concentration. If you are exposed constantly, certain toxins may accumulate.
Learn about it!

More than symbols, product labels provide certain information that is essential for the
product’s use and maintenance.
Storage Instructions
Products contain information about specific storage instructions to keep their

functionality.
Directions for Use
Products such as pesticides have specific instructions to better use the product while
maintaining the health of the user and the materials which these household products
are applied to.
Manufacturing and Expiration Date
Keeping track of the expiration date has obvious reasons. You would not want the
product to be expired before using it. However, the manufacturing date is also important
to keep track of. In the event of an incident (poisoning, etc.), manufacturers can track
the product down in order to make sure that the batch of products is recalled for further
testing and analysis. This is a process called quality assurance wherein products are
randomly tested for the concentration of their ingredients and other parameters.
What do you think?

What do you think we should do to lessen the effects of various compounds from a
variety of cosmetics and cleaning products to the environment given that we are
continuously creating new products?
Key Points
 Cleaning products and cosmetic products have various warning hazards that
include flammability, corrosiveness, toxicity, and harmful to the environment.
 Important details to note in a product label are (but not limited to) the following:
storage, directions, and manufacturing and expiration dates.
Aristotelian Mechanics
THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain what the Greeks considered to be
the three types of terrestrial motion.
What were the early ideas of Greek philosophers regarding motion?
Learn about it!

How do objects move? How do moving objects stop from moving? The Greek
philosophers sought answers to these questions about motion. Their ideas on motion
were significantly influenced by Aristotle, a Greek philosopher and astronomer. His
ideas were accepted because they were based on observations and made logical
sense.
Ancient Greeks believed that the cosmos or the universe was divided into two realms –
celestial and terrestrial. The motion of the objects in the celestial realm was perfect
and circular. They all revolved around Earth. On the other hand, the motion in
the terrestrial realm was unstable and imperfect, and there should be a cause for
motion.
Learn about it!

Types of Terrestrial Motion
According to Aristotelian mechanics, there are three types of motion: natural motion,
voluntary motion, and involuntary motion.
Natural Motion
Ancient Greek philosophers believed that all things in the terrestrial realm were made
out of the four elements – air, earth, fire, and water. Their natural motion is to go back
to their natural state depending on the element that composed them. Their motion was
either upward or downward.
The natural state of objects made of earth was in the geosphere. For example, when a
rock, an object made of the element earth, was thrown upward, its tendency was to go
back to its natural state. Therefore, it would move downward, towards the Earth’s
center. On the other hand, the natural state of objects made of air was in the
atmosphere. For example, the smoke from a flame would move upward to go back to its
natural state.
Similarly, the natural state of objects made of water was in the hydrosphere while those
made of fire was in the thermosphere.
Learn about it!

Voluntary Motion
According to Aristotle, voluntary motion was an innate characteristic of humans and

animals. The cause of their motion was in themselves because they have the will to
move.
Involuntary Motion
Involuntary motion was the characteristic motion of plants and minerals. They could
not move because they do not have the will to do so. They could only move due to
mechanical forces.
Explore
Many years after Aristotle’s time, an Italian physicist, Galileo Galilei contradicted
Aristotle’s ideas on motion. What are his ideas on motion?
What do you think?

How do ancient Greek philosophers describe the motion of celestial bodies?
Key Points
The three types of terrestrial motion according to the Aristotelian mechanics are:
 natural motion where objects tend to go back to their natural state, which is

based on the element that composes them;
 voluntary motion of humans and animals due to their innate will to move; and
 involuntary motion of minerals and plants due to mechanical forces.
Diurnal Motion, Annual Motion, and Precession of the Equinoxes

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain diurnal motion, annual motion,
and precession of the equinoxes.
When you look at the night sky, you will notice that stars appear to be attached to an
imaginary spherical surface. This spherical surface is known as the celestial
spherewhose center is the Earth.
How do celestial bodies move in the celestial sphere?
Learn about it!

The movement of different celestial bodies can be described as diurnal motion, annual
motion, and precession of the equinoxes.
Diurnal Motion
Diurnal motion is the apparent daily revolution of the celestial sphere around the
celestial poles as a direct effect of the Earth’s rotation on its axis. In other words, it
refers to the apparent movement of stars and other celestial bodies around Earth. The
circular path that the celestial bodies take to complete the diurnal motion is
called diurnal circle.
The apparent motion of celestial bodies viewed from Earth is east to west. If you
observe the night sky, the stars seem to move in a counter-clockwise direction (from
east to west) with respect to Polaris or North Star. Similarly, the apparent daily motion of
the sun, which is the closest star to Earth, is counter-clockwise. You can observe that
the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Some stars, called circumpolar stars, never seem to go away from the horizon, or never
set or rise. The closer you get to the poles, the larger the circle of circumpolar stars is.
On the other hand, the nearer you get to the equator, the circle of circumpolar stars
decreases until it vanishes at the celestial poles.
Learn about it!

Annual Motion
Annual motion is the apparent yearly movement of the stars as observed from Earth as
a direct effect of the Earth’s revolution around the sun.
The sun revolves 360 degrees a year around a path on the celestial sphere called
the ecliptic. The sun moves eastward with respect to the stars on the celestial sphere.
It can be observed that the sun’s altitude changes with season. Its altitude is at
maximum during summer solstice and at minimum during winter solstice. Also, sunrise
and sunset points in the horizon changes with season. The sun rises north of east in the
summer, and south of east in the winter.
As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, different stars and constellations appear on the
horizon throughout the year. These are known as the constellations of the Zodiac.
Learn about it!

Precession of the Equinoxes
As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, it intersects the celestial equator twice during a
year at two points. These points are called the equinoxes: vernal and autumnal. During
an equinox, the length of daytime is almost equal to the length of nighttime. Vernal or
spring equinox happens every March 20 while autumnal equinox occurs every
September 22. The gravitational force of the sun and the moon on Earth causes the
cyclic precession or “wobbling” of the Earth’s axis of rotation.
Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic
as Earth ‘wobbles,’ and this motion happens about every 26 000 years. At present,
Earth’s North Pole points to Polaris. However, it will eventually point to another star,
Vega, because of precession.
Explore!
Different stars and constellations appear on the horizon throughout the year. These are
known as the constellations of the Zodiac. Research what these constellations of the
Zodiac are and how they move as the Earth wobbles.
What do you think?

How did astronomers know that the Earth is spherical?
Key Points
 Diurnal motion is the apparent daily motion of the stars, including the Sun as
seen from the Earth due to the Earth’s rotation.
 Annual motion is the apparent yearly motion of the stars, including the Sun as
seen from the Earth due to the Earth’s revolution around the Sun.
 Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the equinoxes along the
ecliptic as the Earth wobbles.
How the Greeks Knew That the Earth Is Spherical

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how the Greeks knew that the Earth
is spherical.
The shape of the Earth is oblate spheroid. It has bulging equator and squeezed poles.
Have you ever wondered what the early philosophers thought about the shape of
the Earth?
Learn about it!

Around 500 B.C., most Greeks believed that the Earth was round, not flat. It was
Pythagoras and his pupils who were first to propose a spherical Earth.
In 500 to 430 B.C., Anaxagoras further supported Pythagoras' proposal through his
observations of the shadows that the Earth cast on the Moon during a lunar eclipse. He
observed that during a lunar eclipse, the Earth's shadow was reflected on the Moon's
surface. The shadow reflected was circular.
Around 340 B.C., Aristotle listed several arguments for a spherical Earth which included
the positions of the North star, the shape of the Moon and the Sun, and the
disappearance of the ships when they sail over the horizon.
North Star
The North Star was believed to be at a fixed position in the sky. However, when the
Greeks traveled to places nearer the equator, like Egypt, they noticed that the North
Star is closer to the horizon.
The Shape of the Sun and the Moon

Aristotle argued that if the Moon and the Sun were both spherical, then perhaps, the
Earth was also spherical.
Disappearing Ships
If the Earth was flat, then a ship traveling away from an observer should become
smaller and smaller until it disappeared. However, the Greeks observed that the ship
became smaller and then its hull disappeared first before the sail as if it was being
enveloped by the water until it completely disappeared.
Learn about it!

The Size of the Spherical Earth
Ancient scholars tried to provide proof of a spherical Earth and its circumference
through calculations. It was Eratosthenes who gave the most accurate size during their
time. While he was working at the Library of Alexandria in Northern Egypt, he received
correspondence from Syene in Southern Egypt which stated that a vertical object did
not cast any shadow at noontime during the summer solstice. But this was not the case
in Alexandria where, at noon time during the summer solstice, a vertical object still casts
a shadow. These observations could only mean that the Sun, during this time in
Alexandria, was not directly overhead.
Eratosthenes then determined the angle the Sun made with the vertical direction by
measuring the shadow that a vertical stick cast. He found out that in Alexandria, the Sun
makes an angle of 7.2° from the vertical while 0° in Syene. To explain the difference, he
hypothesized that the light rays coming from the sun are parallel, and the Earth is
curved.
From his measurements, he computed the circumference of the Earth to be

approximately 250 000 stadia (a stadium is a unit of measurement used to describe the
size of a typical stadium at the time), about 40 000 kilometers.
Try it!
Prepare a flashlight and two ping pong balls. In a dark room, align the flashlight and the
balls horizontally. Illuminate one ball with the flashlight and observe the shadow it casts
on the ball behind it.
What is the shape of the shadow? How is the result of the experiment related to
Aristotle's arguments about the shape of the Earth?
What do you think?

What could life on Earth be like if it is not a sphere?
Key Points
The following observations led the Greeks to conclude that the Earth is sphere:
 The Earth casts a circular shadow on the Moon during a lunar eclipse.
 The North Star has different positions depending on the location of the observer.
 The Moon and the Sun are both spherical.
 A sailing ship becomes smaller and then its hull disappears first before the sail as
if it is being enveloped by the water until it completely disappears.
 The angle of the Sun with the vertical direction at noon time during a summer
solstice varies from place to place.
How Plato's Problem of "Saving the Appearances" Constrained Greek Models of the
Universe
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how Plato’s problem in “saving
the appearances” constrained Greek models of the universe.
How did Plato’s ‘saving the appearances’ disproved the Greeks models of the
universe?
Learn about it!

Greeks' Notion on the Movement of Planets
In Greek Astronomy, the philosophers favored a broader approach when it comes to

theories on the movement of planets. Greeks were able to formulate a scheme of
planetary motion based on the present observations that they account that time. The
two most notable principles of Greek philosophers in describing the motion of the stars,
the sun, and the planets include the theory of planetary motion and the apparent motion
of the planets.
The theory of planetary motion assumed that the planets must move ‘perfectly’ in a

circular motion. In the same way, the Greeks believed that the apparent motion of the
planets were based on the uniformity of their behavior as move on their orbits, without
considering the irregularities in their movement. For example, in the celestial sphere,
the stars appear to rotate uniformly, from east to west, until they return back to their
starting point. From these ideas, Plato posed an important question to his students that
revolved in the two main principles of the Greek philosophers.
Plato’s ‘Saving the Appearances’
Before he posed his question, Plato first cited his observations about the stars and the
planets. He explained that the stars appear to move around the earth in a 'perfect' path.
However, he described that some of the ‘stars’ appear to 'wander' across the sky, giving
irregular figures throughout the year. He accounted the 'wandering stars'
as planets and that they move in a uniform and orderly manner in circles or in
combinations of circles. Finally, he asked his students on how can they explain all these
observations about the planetary motion and ‘save the appearances’ (in today's term, 'fit
the observations with the data').
He posed the question because the observations about the planetary motion and the
apparent motions of the planets did not seem to coincide with each other. Given that the
planets move in a perfect path or in a uniform circular motion, there were still apparent
irregular motions of the planets or planets that still 'wander' across the sky.
Learn about it!

Plato’s question was not meant for him to answer but instead, it became the goal of
astronomers and philosophers.
The Aristotelian System
Aristotle believed that all matter consists of a mixture of four elements: earth, water, air,
and fire. Each of these elements has a tendency to reach its ‘natural place’. However,
these elements are only present in terrestrial objects. In the case of the celestial bodies,
a fifth element called aether, was the reason why the heavens were created. The
aether has its own motion based on its nature: pure and absolute. Its motion has no end
and no beginning; thus, its natural place is a circular motion. However, the Earth was
an exception. It cannot have the circular motion of the aether due to its nature, which
was primarily composed of the element earth.
Based on this philosophy, Aristotle devised a system to explain the uniform and ordered
movement of the celestial bodies. In his system, the stars were embedded outside the
largest sphere where the “prime mover” is found. The prime mover keeps the stars
moving in a constant motion, causing a friction to the smaller spheres of the outer
planets and the spheres where the sun and the inner planets were located.
Aristotle, however, was not able to explain the apparent motion of celestial bodies.
Using his system, he was not able to explain why the sun, the moon, Venus, and Jupiter
seemed brighter, closer or farther from the Earth at times. A set of uniform motions of
the celestial bodies around the Earth means that these bodies cannot change their
distance from the Earth.
Learn about it!

The Heliocentric Theory
It was Aristarchus of Samus who first suggested a system that puts the sun at the
center of the universe, where the moon, the earth, and the five planets, revolved around
the sun in different sizes of orbits at different speeds. However, there were serious flaws
that the ancient people saw in his system.
First, Aristarchus violated their philosophical doctrines: the Earth is immobile and its
natural place is at the center of the universe, and the position of the sun is differentiated
from the celestial bodies. Second, he was not able to provide mathematical
computations and predictions of the celestial paths. Finally, the Greek thinkers refuted
Aristarchus idea by creative reasoning. They posed a scenario that if the earth moves
around the sun, the large orbit of the earth will carry itself closer or farther to a certain
fixed star in the celestial sphere. Thus, the angle at which the star is viewed will be
different with the different points as observed in the earth annually (known today as the
annual parallax).
With all these flaws, the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus was disregarded by the Greek
thinkers.
Learn about it!

The Modified Geocentric Model
Apollonius, Hipparchus, and an influential astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy modified

the geocentric theory to answer the question posed by Plato that had not been
answered by the previous geocentric theory. This modified theory states that:
1. The celestial bodies move in an eccentric path if these bodies do not move
around in a uniform circular motion around the stationary earth.
2. The celestial bodies, such as the sun or a certain planet, have two uniform
circular motions, as depicted with a small circle (epicycle) and a larger circle
(deferent) which take different speeds and direction. The reversal in the direction
of motion is called retrograde motion. During this motion, the planets appear
brighter because it is closer to the earth.
However, with all these modifications in the previous geocentric theory, this modified
theory still failed to answer the question posed by Plato.
The Ptolemaic System
Of all the theories, systems, and ideas that had been laid down to answer Plato's
question, Claudius Ptolemy was the only one who was able to answer Plato's
question. He still made a few modifications of the modified geocentric theory and was
able to explain about the planetary motion and the apparent motion of the planets. This
theory gave an accurate description of what could be observed given the instruments
they use and was based on the Greeks' philosophical and physical doctrine regarding
nature and the celestial bodies.
However, the success of this theory in answering Plato's "saving the appearances" had
been displaced with the heliocentric theory, which is up to now, has been the accepted
model of the universe.
Key Points
 The two most notable principles of Greek philosophers in describing the motion
of the stars, sun, and planets include the theory of planetary motion and the
apparent motion of the planets.
 From these ideas, Plato posed an important question to his students that
revolved in the two main principles of the Greek philosophers.
 He explained that the stars, given that they are unchanging bodies, appear to
move around the earth in a perfect path.
 He described that some of the ‘stars’ appear to wander across the sky, giving
irregular figures throughout the year. He accounted them as planets and defined
that these planets move in a uniform and orderly manner in circles or
combination of circles.
 He asked his students on how can they explain all these observations in the
planetary motion and ‘save the appearances’ (in today's term, 'fit the data').
The Models of the Universe: Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to compare and contrast the models of the
universe by Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus.
What are the models of the universe proposed by different philosophers?
Learn about it!

Eudoxus’ Model
Eudoxus of Cnidus (born c. 395 – 390 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician,
was the first to propose a model of the universe based on geometry. His model
composed of 27 concentric spheres with Earth as the center. The Sun, the Moon, the
planets, and the fixed stars have spheres. Each sphere is attached to a larger sphere
through a pole. The rotation of the spheres on their poles once every 24 hours accounts
for the daily rotation of the heavens. It is unclear whether Eudoxus regarded these
spheres as physical entities or just mathematical constructions.
Aristotle’s Model
Aristotle (born c. 384 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and astronomer, considered the model
proposed by Eudoxus, but he considered these spheres as physical entities. He thought
that these spheres were filled with the divine and eternal “ether” that caused the
spheres to move. He introduced the Prime Mover, as the cause of the movement of the
spheres. His model composed of 56 spheres that guided the motion of the Sun, the
Moon, and five known planets. As the spheres move, they maintained the same
distance from the Earth. Also, they moved at constant speeds.
Learn about it!

Aristarchus' Model
Aristarchus of Samos (born c. 310 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician, was
the first to hypothesize that the Sun is the center of the universe. He visualized that the
Moon orbits around a spherical Earth which then revolves around the Sun. He believed
that the stars are very far away from the Earth as evidenced by the absence of stellar
parallax – that is, the stars do not change positions relative to each other as the Earth
revolves around the Sun.
Through geometrical models and mathematical computations, he concluded that the

Sun is 20 times farther from the Earth than the Moon is to the Earth; the Earth is about
three times larger than the Moon; and the Sun is 20 times larger than the Moon. He also
reasoned out that smaller spheres orbit around larger ones. Thus, the Moon orbits
around the Earth, and the Earth orbits around the Sun.
Learn about it!

Ptolemy’s Model
The Sun, Moon, stars, and planets were believed to move in a uniform circular motion –
the “perfect” motion assigned to celestial bodies by the ancient Greeks. However,
observations showed otherwise. The paths of the celestial bodies are not circular, and
they vary in distances. Babylonians even showed that some planets exhibit a retrograde
motion – a motion opposite to that of other planets.
To explain “imperfect motions” of heavenly bodies, Claudius Ptolemy (born c. 90 A.D.),
a Greco-Egyptian astronomer and mathematician, proposed his own geocentric (Earth-
centered) model of the universe. He accounted for the apparent motions of the planets
around the Earth by assuming that each planet moved around a sphere called
an epicycle. The center of the epicycle then moved on a larger sphere called
a deferent.
The Ptolemaic System
1. A planet moves counter-clockwise around the epicycle.

2. The epicycle’s center also moves counter-clockwise around the center of the deferent
(indicated by the + sign in the image).
3. The center of the epicycle moves around the equant with a uniform speed.
4. The Earth is not exactly at the center of the deferent, or it is eccentric (off the center).
This explains why, as observed from the Earth, the Sun or a planet moves slowest when
it is farthest from the Earth and moves fastest when it is nearest the Earth.
5. The motion of the planet can be described by points 1-7 in the figure below. At point 4,
the planet moves in a retrograde (clockwise) motion. The planet is brightest at this point
because it is closest to the Earth.
Learn about it!
Copernicus' Model
In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer born in
Poland, ended the geocentric astronomy era by publishing his work On the Revolutions
of the Heavenly Spheres wherein he explained that the Sun, not the Earth, is the center
of the universe.
In his work, he reiterated the ancient Greek concept that the motion of spherical
heavenly bodies is uniform, eternal, and circular. He then reasoned that because Earth
is spherical, then its motion is circular. He added that the Earth has three different
motions: daily rotation on its axis, yearly motion around the Sun, and the precession, or
change in orientation, of its axis every 26 000 years.
He also proposed that the fixed stars are immovable. Their apparent movement is a
consequence of the Earth’s rotation. These stars are at immeasurable distances from
the Earth, so there is no observable parallax.
By placing the Sun at the center of the universe and the orbits of Mercury and Venus in
between the Sun and the Earth, Copernicus’ model was able to account for the changes
in the appearances of these planets and their retrograde motions. The need for
epicycles in explaining motions was eliminated.
Try it!
Parallax is the effect wherein an object’s position appears to change when viewed by an
observer from different positions. You can demonstrate this by looking at your forefinger
at arm’s length. Cover your left eye and look at your forefinger. Then transfer the cover
on your right eye and observe the position of your forefinger. What did you observe?
What do you think?

What models of the universe are accepted in the scientific community today?
Key Points
 Eudoxus’, Aristotle’s, and Ptolemy’s models have the Earth as the center of the
universe while Aristarchus’ and Copernicus’ models have the Sun as the center.
 Eudoxus’ model has 27 concentric spheres for the Sun, Moon, planets, and the
stars whose common center is the Earth.
 Aristotle’s model of the universe is composed of 56 spheres guiding the motion of
Sun, Moon and the five known planets.
 Aristarchus said that smaller celestial bodies must orbit the larger ones and since
the Sun is much larger than the Earth, then the Earth must orbit around the Sun.
 Ptolemaic model introduced the concepts of epicycle, deferent, and equant to
explain the observed “imperfect” motions of the planets.
 Copernicus’ model recognized that the Earth rotates on its axis, revolves around
the Sun, and undergoes precession.
Astronomical Phenomena Known to Ast

ronomers before the Advent of Telescopes
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to cite examples of astronomical phenomena
known to astronomers before the advent of telescopes.
Which planets are easily seen in the sky without the aid of telescopes?
Learn about it!

Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are easily seen in the sky without the aid of
telescopes. These planets can be easily confused with stars and are only seen at
specific times of the day. The best time to look for these planets would be before
sunrise and after sunset.
Even before the invention of the telescope, ancient people have already observed
different astronomical phenomena. The most observable objects in the sky are the sun
and moon.
Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a primitive version of a sundial, called

gnomon, in systematically observing the motion of the sun. By looking at the shadows
that the gnomon casts, they were able to observe that the sun rises in the eastern part
of the sky, reaches its highest point in midday, and sets in the western part of the sky.
Also, they recorded that the points where the sun rises and sets on the horizon varies
over a year and these variations happen periodically. They observed that these
variations are related to weather and so concluded that seasonal changes in climate
happen during a course of one year.
Learn about it!

Phases of the Moon
Ancient people have observed that the moon changes its path and its appearance
within a period of 29.5 days. They observed that the moon changes its appearance from
thin semi-circular disk to full circular disk. These phases of the moon is the basis of
ancient calendars.
Lunar Eclipse
Besides their observation in the different phases of the moon, they also noticed that
there are times when the moon or part of it seemed to be covered by a shadow for a
brief moment. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth casts its shadow on the moon
when the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon.
A phenomenon such as this is known as a lunar eclipse wherein the moon changes into
a dark or blood red color.
Solar Eclipse
Aside from lunar eclipse, the occurrence of a solar eclipse was also observed. Solar
eclipse occurs when the Moon is in between the Sun and the Earth and the moon
partially or completely blocks out the sun.
The Motion of the Stars
It was also observed that the stars appear to be attached to a celestial sphere that
rotates around an axis in one day. This axis intersects the celestial sphere at a point in
the northern sky and is presently close to the northern star, Polaris. Also, the
constellations’ positions in the night sky vary depending on the time of the year.
Visibility of Planets
Astronomers have discovered that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are
planets because they have noticed that the stars are in a fixed position with respect to
each other (like how constellations are always grouped). But there are very bright stars
that change positions periodically. These “stars” do not belong to any group of
constellations in the sky. Thus, they are called "wanderers” or planetes in Greek terms.
Explore!
Without using a telescope, try locating the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn in the night sky. Do this every month to see if there are changes in their
positions.
Try it!
Observe how and when a specific constellation changes its position in the night sky.
Key Points
Even before the advent of the telescopes, ancient astronomers were able to observe
the:
 rising and setting of the Sun in the east and the west, respectively,
 point where the Sun rises and sets in the horizon varies in a year,
 phases of the moon,
 lunar eclipse,
 solar eclipse,
 daily and annual motion of the stars, and
 planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
Models of Astronomical Phenomena: Copernican, Ptolemaic and Tychonic

Astronomical
Phenomena
Copernican
Ptolemaic
Tychonic
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to compare and contrast different models
of astronomical phenomena (Copernican, Ptolemaic, and Tychonic).
In Modern Science, what are the members of the present known Solar System?
Learn about it!

Today, the Solar System consists of eight planets namely Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. All these planets revolve around a massive ball
of helium and hydrogen known as the Sun. There are other bodies within the Solar
System such as moons that revolve around the planets, asteroids, and planetoids.
Before this knowledge of our present-day Solar System, classical astronomers have
developed various models to explain how bodies in the universe are positioned with
respect to each other. Three of the most popular models are the Copernican, Ptolemaic
and Tychonic models.
Ptolemaic Model
The Ptolemaic model known as the Geocentric model, was developed by an Egyptian
astronomer Claudius Ptolemy. It came from the Greek words geo meaning Earth
and centric meaning center. This model explains that the Earth is the center of the
universe and everything else revolves around it. Each planet moves in a circular path
called epicycle which moves around a larger circular path called deferent. The moon
revolves around the Earth followed by the other planets.
Learn about it!

Copernican Model
This is also known as the Heliocentric model developed by a Polish mathematician

Nicolaus Copernicus. It came from the Greek words helios meaning sun
and centricmeaning center. This model explains that the center of the universe is the
Sun and that the majority of the planets revolve around it. Also, the epicycle moves in
an elliptical motion not circular. The moon revolves around both the Earth and the Sun
while Earth revolves around the Sun.
Tychonic Model
This model was developed by a Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. It was the
combination of Ptolemaic and Copernican models. This explains that the planets of the
Solar System revolve around the Sun but the Earth is the center of the universe.
The Sun, due to its massive size, attracts the remaining planets and drags them along
its revolution around the Earth - like metals attracted to a magnet! Simply put, the Sun
revolves around the Earth and the planets revolve around the Sun.
Explore!
Observe the night sky for a week. What do you notice at the stars? Why do they change
position every night? Also, why do you think the night sky changes with the seasons?
Try it!
Get a tablespoon of sand, a piece of paper, and a magnet. Place the sand on top of the
piece of paper and the magnet at the bottom of the paper. Move the magnet at any
direction. What do you notice in the sand? Why do you think the sand moved in the
same direction the magnet did? How will you relate it to our topic for today?
What do you think?

Which of the three models of the Universe is most similar to the present day description
of the Solar System?
Key Points
 Ptolemaic model – The Earth is at the center of the universe and everything in
the universe revolves around the Earth.
 Copernican model – The Sun is at the center of the universe and majority of the
bodies in the universe revolves around the Sun.
 Tychonic model – The Earth is at the center of the universe. The sun revolves
around the Earth and all the other planets revolve around the Sun.
Galileo's Astronomical Discoveries

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how Galileo’s astronomical
discoveries disprove Greek beliefs of the universe.
How did Galileo's astronomical observations help astronomers look at the

universe in a different point of view?
Learn about it!

Galileo Galilei, a Renaissance Italian astronomer, used the telescope to observe the
cosmos and his discoveries provided evidence to prove or disprove existing Greek
beliefs and models of the universe
Galileo’s Astronomical Discoveries and Observations
The Ptolemaic Model of the Universe proposed by a Greco-Egyptian

astronomer Claudius Ptolemy posed that the Earth is stationary and is the center of
the universe and that the stars, planets, and the Sun revolve around it.
Phases of Venus
The Ptolemaic model believed that the Earth was stationary and all the others
including the stars, planets, and the Sun are revolving around it.
Galileo observed that the brightest planet, Venus, as seen from Earth, behaved similarly
like the Moon. He noticed that Venus has a systematic change in shadows and lighting,
just like the lunar phases.
Galileo observed that Venus is in its “new phase” when it is in between the Earth and
the Sun and waxes as it moves in its orbit. During this phase, we cannot see Venus
because no light from the Sun is reflected towards us. Venus is in its “full phase” when
the Sun is in between Venus and Earth. It is still not visible from Earth because the Sun
is blocking it. Through these observations, Galileo disproved that the other planets
revolve around the Earth.
Moons of Jupiter
Prior to the use of telescopes, the satellites or moons of Jupiter were unknown. When
Galileo observed Jupiter, he noticed that there were planet-like bodies close to it. He
first noted that there were four bodies moving around Jupiter. After some time, one of
them disappeared and “hid” behind Jupiter. He later named the bodies or satellites as
Io, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa.
The discovery of the moons of Jupiter disproved Ptolemaic Model by showing that not
everything revolves around the Earth.
Learn about it!

Supernovas
Before Galileo concretized the concept of supernovas, scientists have already observed
new stars appearing in the sky. These stars are called stellar nova or new stars. In
1604, Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer, observed a nova in Prague. This nova
was called a supernova because the nova exuded enormous amount of light in just a
short period indicating that it was exploding. It was also labelled as Kepler’s nova.
At the time, Kepler was working as a mathematician at Imperial court and as Galileo
was also a mathematician, they were able to compare their data of their observations of
the said nova all over Europe. They measured the parallax of the nova from different
locations. A parallax is the angle that can be measured when an observer looks at the
same object from different locations. The greater the distance between the two
locations, the greater the parallax and the closer the object is to the observer, the
greater the parallax. Galileo and Kepler’s sets of data showed that there were no
measurable parallax for the nova and the fixed stars which means that they were at
immeasurable distances from the Earth even farther than the moon. These observations
were able to show that the sky is changing.
Sizes of the Stars

Ancient Greek philosophers, led by Aristotle, believed that the sky was perfect
and unchanging. Also, the Ptolemaic model states that since everything revolves
around the Earth, the stars’ distance from the Earth would not change and they
should be located at specific positions as seen from the Earth.
Given that the Earth is moving, the stars should appear to vary in sizes. However,
Galileo noticed that “fixed stars” did not change in size when observed with the naked
eye and observed through a telescope. He then postulated that if the stars have
significant and immeasurable distances from the Earth, then their size as observed from
the Earth should remain constant. He was able to prove this through his observations of
the supernova in 1604.
Learn about it!

Lunar Craters
Ancient Greeks assumed that the moon had a smooth surface.

Galileo discovered that the surface of the moon was uneven and rough. He also
observed that it had high points (mountains and hills) and low points (trenches and
ditches).
Sunspots
Greek philosophers have expressed the Sun as a source of light, but no other
information about it is available at the time.
Observers back then just thought that the spots found on the Sun are planets. Galileo
clarified this idea. He observed the movement of the sunspots and noticed that one spot
took approximately 14 days to travel from one side to the other while maintaining its
constant speed. From these observations, he was able to deduce that the Sun also
rotates on an axis.
Explore
The invention of the telescope helped us discover more about the universe. As
technology advances, newer versions of the telescope are developed. How did the
telescope evolve through the years after the Greeks’ version? What astronomical
discoveries were made by the succeeding versions and who are the scientists behind
these discoveries?
Try it!
Create a concept map of how Galileo’s discoveries proved and disproved both the
Geocentric and Heliocentric models of the Universe.
Key Points
 The Ptolemaic Model of the Universe posed that the Earth is stationary, the
center of the universe, and that the stars, planets, and the Sun revolve around it.
 Galileo’s astronomical observations helped weaken the Ptolemaic model by
showing that the stars, planets, and the Sun do not revolve around the
Earththrough his observations of the phases of Venus, and the moons of
Jupiter.
 He showed that the Earth is not stationary through his observations of the
sizes of the stars showing that they appear to have identical size because of
the movement of the Earth and their immeasurable distance from the Earth.
 Galileo disproved the belief that the sky, the Moon and the Sun are perfect and
unchanging by showing his observations of the supernova, lunar craters,
and sunspots.
Johannes Kepler's Discoveries from Tycho Brahe's Collection of Astronomical Data

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how Brahe’s innovations and
extensive collection of data in observational astronomy paved the way for Kepler’s
discovery of his laws of planetary motion.
How did Johannes Kepler develop his laws of planetary motion from Tycho
Brahe’s astronomical data?
Learn about it!

Tycho Brahe
Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer and nobleman who made accurate

observations of the movement of celestial bodies in an observatory built for him by King
Frederick II of Denmark in 1576. He was able to invent different astronomical
instruments, with the help of his assistants, and made an extensive study of the solar
system. He was able to determine the position of 777 fixed stars accurately.
Johannes Kepler
When King Frederick II died, and the successor did not fully support Brahe’s work, he
moved to Prague in 1599 where he was supported by Emperor Rudolf II and worked as
an imperial mathematician. Emperor Rudolf II recommended Johannes Kepler to work
for him as an assistant. Kepler was born to a poor German family and studied as a
scholar at the University of Tübingen in 1589.
Brahe and Kepler's Work
Brahe and Kepler had an unsteady working relationship. Kepler was Brahe's assistant.
However, Brahe mistrusted Kepler with his astronomical data in fear of being shadowed
by his assistant.
Brahe assigned to Kepler the interpretation of his observations of Mars, whose

movement did not match Brahe’s calculations. Kepler was tasked to figure out what
path Mars followed as it revolved around the Sun. It was believed by many scientists
that Brahe gave this task to Kepler to keep him occupied and left Brahe to develop his
laws of planetary motion.
Learn about it!

Kepler's Discoveries from Brahe's Data
Kepler postulated that there must be a force from the Sun that moves the planets. He
was able to conclude that this force would explain the orbit of Mars and the Earth,
including all the other planets, moved fastest when it is nearest from the Sun and
moved slowest when it is farthest from the Sun.
Eventually, Brahe decided to give all his data to Kepler hoping that he would be able to
prove his Tychonic system and put together new tables of astronomical data. This table
was known as Rudolphine Tables, named after the Roman emperor and was useful in
determining the positions of the planets for the past 1000 years and the future 1000
years. This table was the most accurate table that is known to the astronomical world.
After Brahe died in 1601, Emperor Rudolf II assigned Kepler as the new imperial
mathematician, and all of Brahe’s writings, instruments, and the Rudolphine tables were
passed on to him. From Brahe’s data, Kepler was able to formulate his laws of planetary
motion: the law of ellipses, the law of equal areas, and the law of harmonies.
Learn about it!

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
The Law of Ellipses

When Kepler tried to figure out Mars’ orbit, it did not fit the then-famous theory that a
planet follows a circular path. He then postulated that instead of a circular path, planets
follow an oval or an ellipse orbit.
This orbit matched his calculations and explained the “irregularities” in the movement of
Mars. He was able to formulate his first law of planetary motion, the law of
ellipseswhich describes that the actual path followed by the planets was elliptical, not
circular, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.
The Law of Equal Areas

The second law, which is the law of equal areas states that when an imaginary line is
drawn from the center of the Sun to the center of a planet, the line will sweep out an
equal area of space in equal time intervals.
The law describes how fast a planet moves in its orbit. A planet moves fastest when it is
nearest the Sun and slowest when it is farthest from the Sun, and still, the same area is
swept out by the line in equal amounts of time.
The Law of Harmonies

The law of harmonies, which is the third law, describes that the square of a planet’s
orbital period (T2) is proportional to the cube of a planet’s average distance from the
Sun (R3). It states that that the ratio of the squares of the periods of two planets is equal
to the ratio of the cubes of the average distances of these two planets from the Sun or:
2
T1/2T2=3R1/3R2
where the subscript 1 indicates planet 1 and subscript 2 indicates planet 2.
What do you think?

How does Kepler's third law of planetary motion apply to objects in the solar system?
Key Points
 Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer and nobleman who made accurate
observations of the movement of celestial bodies.
 Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician who worked as
an assistant to Brahe and formulated the three laws of planetary motion based
on Brahe’s extensive astronomical data.
 The Law of Ellipses which states that planets follow an elliptical orbit.
 The Law of Equal Areas states that when an imaginary line is drawn from the
center of a planet to the center of the Sun, an equal amount of space is swept in
equal amount of time.
 The Law of Harmonies states that the ratio of the squares of the period of two
planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of the planets’ average distance from
the Sun.
Kepler's Third Law of Planetary Motion

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to apply Kepler’s third law of planetary
motion to objects in the solar system.
How can Kepler's third law of motion be applied to objects in the solar system?
Learn about it!

How many Earth years does it take for Jupiter to revolve around the Sun if it is
approx. km away from the Sun?
In previous lesson, you have learned how Johannes Kepler used Tycho Brahe’s
extensive astronomical data to come up with the three laws of planetary motion.
While Kepler’s laws have successfully described the distance and period of planet’s
orbits, Isaac Newton deepened the laws by integrating his law of universal gravitation.
This is highly evident in his derivation of Kepler’s third law, which, not only describes the
planets discovered during Kepler’s time but predicts the motion of most planets and
local bodies orbiting the Sun that were discovered thereafter.
Kepler's Third Law of Motion
The proportionality in Kepler’s third law requires the introduction of a constant k to make
it into a functional equation, or
T2=kR3T2=kR3
Newton showed using the law of universal gravitation that
T2=4π2GMsR3T2=4π2GMsR3
where:
T is the period of orbit in seconds (s)
R is in meters (m)
G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2 Nm2/kg2, also known as universal

gravitational constant
MsMs is the mass of the Sun approximately 1.989x1030kg1.989x1030kg kg
This equation is a good approximation for bodies that revolve around the Sun where the
Sun’s mass is dominant compared to the bodies. It also neglects relativistic effects.
Finally, it is a good approximation for bodies with low eccentricities.
From this equation, it can be deduced that the farther the body is from the Sun, the
longer it will take complete its orbit.
How can this formula be used?
Step 1: Identify what is asked.
time in Earth years
Step 2: Identify what are the given. Make sure the units are consistent while solving:
R=778x106km=778x109mR=778x106km=778x109m
G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2
Ms=1.989x1030kgMs=1.989x1030kg
Step 3: Identify the right equation to use. Derive if necessary. For this problem, the
equation should be
T=4π2GMsR3−−−−−−√T=4π2GMsR3
Step 4: Substitute the given values to the formula, and solve for what is being asked.
T=4(3.14)2(6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2)(1.989x1030kg)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−−−√(778x109m)3T=4(3.14)2(6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2)(1.989x1030kg)(778x109m)3
T=3.74x108sT=3.74x108s
Step 5: Examine the final answer. Check if it answers the problem. For this problem, T
should be in Earth years, therefore,
T=3.74x108s(1hr3600s)(1day24hr)(1Earthyear365.26days)T=3.74x108s(1hr3600s)
(1day24hr)(1Earthyear365.26days)
T=11.9EarthyearsT=11.9Earthyears
This mean it takes Jupiter 11.9 years to complete one orbit around the Sun.
Try it!
Estimate how far is Earth from the Sun if it takes 365.25 days for it to complete one
orbit. Express the answer in kilometers.
Try it! Solution

R in kilometers.
Step 2: Identify what is given.
T=365.25daysor31557600sT=365.25daysor31557600s
G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2G=6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2
Ms=1.989x1030kgMs=1.989x1030kg
Step 3: Identify the right equation to use.
R3=T2GMs4π2R3=T2GMs4π2
R=T2GMs4π2−−−−−−√3R=T2GMs4π23
Step 4: Substitute the given.
R=T2GMs4π2−−−−−−√3R=T2GMs4π23
R=(31
557600s)2(6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2(1.989x1030kg)4(3.14)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−√3R=(31557600s)2(6.67x10−11Nm2/kg2(1.989x1030kg)4(3.14)23
R=1.50x1011mR=1.50x1011m
Step 5: The problem is asking for R in kilometers. Therefore,
R=1.50x1011m(1km1000m)R=1.50x1011m(1km1000m)
R=1.50x108km
What do you think?

How many days would it take for Mars to revolve around the Sun once if it is away from
the Sun?
Key Points
 According to Newton, Kepler’s third law of planetary motion not only describes
the planets discovered during Kepler’s time but predicts the motion of most
planets and local bodies orbiting the Sun that were discovered thereafter.
 The farther the body is from the Sun, the longer it will take complete its orbit.
Aristotelian Conceptions: Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion

UNIVERSAL LAWS IN PHYSICS
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain Aristotle’s conceptions in motion
(vertical motion, horizontal motion, and projectile motion).
Aristotle is one of most influential Greek philosophers whose ideas were the basis for
many concepts that time.
How did he view and explain the motion of objects?
Learn about it!

Aristotle’s view on motion was based on his observations, which made his ideas
acceptable and stood for many years.
Motion is an object’s change in position with respect to time. According to Aristotle,

motion can either be a natural motion or a violent motion.
Natural Motion
An object will move and will eventually return to its natural state depending on the
composition that the object is made of. An object made of material similar to earth will
return to earth or an object that is similar to air will return to the air. For example, a ball
mostly resembles the earth so when it is thrown upward its natural tendency is to go
back to Earth, its natural state or the smoke mostly resembles the air so its natural
tendency is to go up the atmosphere.
Violent motion
An object will move if an external force such as pushing or pulling is applied to it. No
motion will take place unless there is a 'mover' in contact with an object.
Learn about it!

Aristotle’s View on Projectile Motion
Aristotle believed that the motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it is the
object's time to fall back into the ground. An impetus will be kept by the object until such
time that the initial force is forgotten, and the object returns to its natural state to stop
moving and fall to the ground.
Example
A cannon is fired which give the cannonball an impetus that will dictate its course until
such time that the impetus is forgotten, and the cannonball will naturally fall to the
ground.
What do you think?

What ideas challenged the Aristotelian principle of motion?
Key Points
 According to Aristotle, motion can either be a natural motion or a violent motion.
 An object will move and will eventually return to its natural state depending on
the composition that the object is made of. This referred as the natural motionof
an object.
 An object will move if an external force such as pushing or pulling is applied to it.
This is referred as the violent motion of an object.
 The motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it is the object's time to fall
back into the ground. This is referred as the projectile motion of an object.
Galilean Conceptions: Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to describe how Galileo used his discoveries in
mechanics (and astronomy) to address scientific objections to the Copernican model.
Why do objects move?

Scientists and philosophers alike have been trying to answer this question even before
300 B.C. One of the well-known philosophers who attempted to do this was Aristotle.
His attempt was based on inductive-deductive reasoning and was accepted for
centuries.
However, Galileo Galilei challenged the Aristotelian view of motion when he had his
actual and thorough experiments. He disagreed with most of Aristotle’s claims and
provided his own description of motion.
Learn about it!

Galilean Conceptions vs. Aristotelian Conceptions
According to Aristotle, motion can be either natural or violent motion. In a natural

motion, the object will move and will return to its natural state based on the object's
material or composition. In contrast, an object moving in a violent motion requires an
external force (push or pull) for the object to move.
He also had his view on the projectile motion of an object. He believed that an object
thrown at a certain angle is given an impetus—a force or energy that permits an object
to move. It will continue to move in such state until the object’s impetus is lost, and the
object returns to its natural state, causing it to stop and fall to the ground.
Galileo disproved Aristotle’s claims and believed that the motion of objects is not simply
due to the composition of objects. He mentioned that motion can be described by
mathematics and the changes in some physical variables such as time and distance.
Using his actual and thorough experiments, he was able to prove that:
1. an object in uniform motion will travel a distance that is proportional to the time it
will take to travel;
2. a uniformly accelerating object will travel at a speed proportional to some factor
of time; and
3. an object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in motion; an external force
is not necessary to maintain the motion.
Learn about it!

Galileo's Conceptions of Motion
Horizontal motion
An object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in motion, and an external force is

not necessary to maintain the motion. If the Earth’s surface is very flat and extended
infinitely, objects that are pushed will not be impeded. Thus, the objects will continue to
move. This kind of motion, however, is not evident in nature. For example, if a ball is
pushed on an infinitely flat plane, the ball will continue to roll if unimpeded.
Vertical motion
In the absence of a resistance, objects would fall not depending on their weight, but in
the time of fall. Also, if the object encountered a resistive force from a fluid equal or
greater than its weight, it will slow down and reaches a uniform motion until it reaches
the bottom and stops. For example, without any resistance, a 1-kg object will be as fast
as a 10-kg object when falling because they fall with the same amount of time, given
that they are released from the same height. Also, a stone dropped in the ocean will
sooner or later travel at constant speed.
Learn about it!

Projectile motion
Galileo believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the horizontal

direction and uniformly accelerated motion in the vertical direction. If it is not impeded, it
will continue to move even without an applied force. For example, when you shoot a ball
in a basketball ring, the ball does not need a force to keep it moving.
Explore!
In a vacuum chamber, a 1-kg object and 10-kg object was dropped at a certain height
and at the same time. Which of the following objects will reach the ground first?
Try it!
Who has a more acceptable view of falling objects, Aristotle or Galileo? Try to test it in
the following activities below. Take note that in every activity, both objects should be
dropped at the same time and at the same height.
1. Drop a book and a flat sheet of paper coming.

2. Drop a book and a sheet of paper crumbled to a ball.
3. Drop a book with a small flat sheet of paper on top of it.
In all three cases, which object reach the ground first? Whose view is more acceptable
then, and why?
Key Points
 Galileo believed that an object in uniform motion will travel a distance that is
proportional to the time it took to travel; a uniformly accelerating object will travel
with a speed proportional to some factor of time; and an object in motion, if
unimpeded, will continue to be in motion; an external force is not necessary to
maintain the motion.
 Galileo believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the
horizontal direction and uniformly accelerated motion in the vertical direction.
How Galileo Inferred That Objects in Vacuum Fall with Uniform Acceleration
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how Galileo inferred that objects in
vacuum fall with uniform acceleration.
Recall that a body moving with uniform acceleration changes its speed by a constant
value per unit of time.
Imagine yourself holding a bowling ball and a ping pong ball. If you drop these
balls simultaneously, which ball do you think would have greater acceleration
upon reaching the ground? Why?
Learn about it!

Galileo proved with his experiments that when objects are dropped simultaneously, they
will reach the ground at the same time regardless of their masses and air resistance. In
another set of experiments, he discovered that objects fall with uniform acceleration.
Galileo was fascinated by the behavior of falling objects. He knew that falling objects
increase their speed as they go down. This change in speed is acceleration. However,
he did not have any equipment to measure this change, so he used inclined planes to
lessen the acceleration of the moving bodies. He was then able to investigate the
moving bodies carefully.
On his experiment, he had observed the following:
 A ball rolling down an inclined plane increases its speed by the same value after
every second. For example, the speed of a rolling ball was found to increase by 2
m/s every second. This means that the rolling ball would have the following
speeds for every given second
 As the inclined plane becomes steeper, the acceleration of the rolling ball
increases.
 The maximum acceleration of the rolling ball was reached when the inclined
plane was positioned vertically as if the ball is simply falling
These observations lead Galileo to conclude that regardless of the mass of objects and
air resistance, falling objects would always have uniform acceleration.
Example
Hold a book and a piece of paper at the same height, then drop them simultaneously.
Did the objects reach the ground at the same time? If no, which object reached the
ground first?
Now, perform the same procedure, but this time, crumple the paper. Did the objects
reach the ground at the same time? If no, which object reached the ground first?
This experiment agrees with Galileo’s findings that when there is little or no air
resistance, objects that are dropped simultaneously will reach the ground at the same
time, regardless of their masses. Given that both objects (paper and book) reached the
ground simultaneously, we can infer that the increase in speed of each object is equal.
Therefore, falling objects have the same acceleration when there is no air resistance
(e.g. vacuum).
Recall the question at the start of this lesson regarding the bowling and ping pong balls.
When these balls are thrown from the same height and in a vacuum, they will fall at the
same acceleration regardless of their masses.
Explore
Given two one peso coins, released at the same time, Coin A is dropped while Coin B is
thrown horizontally coming from the same height. Which one do you think would reach
the ground first?
Try it!
If an object falls with an acceleration of 5 m/s what would be its speed after 3 s given its
2
starts at 0 m/s at 0s?
What do you think?

If a speedometer is attached to a falling object and the reading increases by 10 m/s
every second, what is the object’s acceleration?
Key Points
 A body with uniform acceleration changes its speed by a constant value.
 Galileo proved that when objects are released simultaneously from a certain
height, they reach the ground at the same time, regardless of their masses and
air resistance.
 Galileo discovered that all objects fall with the uniform acceleration in vacuum.
The Position vs. Time and Velocity vs. Time Graphs of Constant Velocity Motion
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the position vs. time and
velocity vs. time graphs of constant velocity motion are different from those of constant
acceleration motion.
Recall the following terms of the basic quantities that describe motion.
 Distance is the total length or ground covered by an object.

 Displacement is the change in the position of an object or the shortest distance
between the initial and the final position of an object .
 Speed is how fast the object is moving and can be calculated by dividing the total
distance by the total time spent to cover that distance.
 Velocity is how fast and where the object is moving and can be calculated by
dividing the displacement of an object to the time spent.
 Acceleration is the change in the velocity of an object per unit time. An object
accelerates when there is a change in the object’s speed, direction, or both
speed and direction.
Learn about it!

An object is said to be in motion when its position changes relative to a reference point,
usually the ground. The motion of an object can be described in different ways; it can be
described using distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Motion can also be presented graphically like the position vs. time and velocity vs. time
graphs which show the type of motion an object undergoes in a unit of time.
Position vs. Time Graph of Constant Velocity
A position vs. time graph of a body moving with constant velocity in a straight path will
look like the graph below.
The graph shows that as time goes by, the body changes position by the same amount;
hence, it shows a straight line with a slope slanting to the right. The slope of a position
vs time graph represents velocity. If we calculate the slope of this line, we will get a
constant value that corresponds to the velocity of the body.
slope=riserun=△y△x=y2−y1x2−x1slope=riserun=△y△x=y2−y1x2−x1
In this graph, the slope at positions 0-2 m is:
slope=y2−y1x2−x1=2m−01s−0=2m/sslope=y2−y1x2−x1=2m−01s−0=2m/s
While the slope at positions 4-6 m is:
slope=y2−y1x2−x1=6m−4m3s−2s=2m/sslope=y2−y1x2−x1=6m−4m3s−2s=2m/s
The calculated slopes show the same value which means that the body is moving with
constant velocity.
Learn about it!

Velocity vs. Time Graph of Constant Velocity
The velocity vs. time time graph of a body moving with constant velocity looks like the
graph below.
The graph shows that as time goes by, the body's velocity does not change; hence, the
graph is a horizontal line. If we calculate the slope for this line which corresponds to the
body’s acceleration, it will reveal this value:
In this graph, the slope at 2-3 seconds is:
slope=y2−y1x2−x1=2m/s−2m/s3s−2s=0m/s1s=0m/s2
Learn about it!

Velocity vs. Time Graph of Constant Acceleration
The velocity vs time graph of a body moving with constant acceleration is shown below.
The graph looks exactly the same with the position vs. time graph of a body moving with
constant velocity but this one means the opposite. The body in this graph is accelerating
with a constant value that can be shown by calculating its slope.
Slope at positions 2-3 seconds:
slope=y2−y1x2−x1=6m/s−4m/s3s−2s=2m/s1s=2m/s2slope=y2−y1x2−x1=6m/s−4m/s3s
−2s=2m/s1s=2m/s2
Slope at positions 4-5 seconds:
slope=y2−y1x2−x1=10m/s−8m/s5s−4s=2m/s1s=2m/s2
Try it!
Draw the position vs. time and velocity vs. time graph of the following scenario:
You walk 3 m to the kitchen at a velocity of 1 m/s, pause by the sink for 2 s, and walk
back to the living room at 1 m/s.
Key Points
 The position vs. time graph of a body moving with constant velocity is a straight
line that slants to the right and has a constant slope that corresponds to the
body’s constant velocity.
 The velocity vs. time graph of a body moving with constant velocity is a flat line
and has a zero slope which means the body is not accelerating.
 The velocity vs. time graph of a body moving with constant acceleration is a
straight line slanting to the right and has a constant value for its slope which
corresponds to the body’s constant acceleration.
Acceleration in Physics
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to recognize that the everyday usage and
the physics usage of the term “acceleration” differ.
When does an object accelerate? Does the term only refer to fast-moving
objects?
earn about it!

Acceleration in everyday usage
In everyday terms, acceleration refers to objects which are moving so fast. This is
demonstrated in a speeding race car or a runner who accelerates to finish a short sprint.
On the other hand, a race car that suddenly slows down or a runner who accidentally
stumbles is not accelerating.
Acceleration in physics
In physics, an object that moves fast may not be accelerating. Also, an object that
moves slowly may be accelerating.
Acceleration is the rate at which an object’s velocity changes. Velocity is the rate at

which an object changes position. Acceleration indicates how fast an object changes its
velocity. Just like velocity, it is a vector quantity, which means it has both magnitude and
direction. Magnitude refers to the amount or size of a quantity. For example, 3 m/s.
An object accelerates when its velocity changes in magnitude, direction, or both

magnitude and direction.
Example
The car in the following situations is accelerating.
A. When the traffic light turned green, the car sped up from 0 km/hr to 20 km/hr.
B. When the driver saw the pedestrian, the car slowed down from 20 km/hr to 0.
C. The driver turned the car to the right while maintaining his speed of 40 km/hr.
In situation A, the car is accelerating because the magnitude of the car’s velocity
changed. It increased from 0 km/hr to 20 km/hr.
In situation B, where the car decreased its velocity from 20 km/hr to 0 is accelerating
because there is a change in the magnitude of its velocity. It accelerates even if it went
slower and eventually stopped.
An object which maintains a constant magnitude of velocity but changes direction is

accelerating. This can be seen in situation C where the driver was initially going 40
km/hr forward and turned 40 km/hr to the right. The car accelerates because there is a
change in its velocity’s direction.
An object that goes from 40 km/hr eastward to 20 km/hr southward accelerates because
there is a change in its velocity’s magnitude and direction.
Learn about it!

Objects that move in uniform circular motion have constant speeds but still accelerate
because they constantly change in direction as they go around the circular path.
Satellites orbiting the Earth maintain a nearly circular orbit and travel very fast at an
almost constant speed like the International Space Station which moves at
approximately 27 000 km/hr. Even though these satellites have constant speeds, they
are accelerating because they constantly change direction as they move in a circular
path around the Earth.
Try it!
Conduct a survey to at least 20 persons about how they perceive acceleration. How
many persons have misconceptions on what acceleration is?
What do you think?
How is an object’s acceleration related to its mass and the force applied to it?
Key Points
 In everyday usage, acceleration refers to fast moving objects such as a speeding
race car.
 In physics, acceleration is the rate of change in an object’s velocity.
 An object accelerates when there is a change in its velocity – which means there
could either be a change in its magnitude, direction, or both magnitude and
direction.
The Three Laws of Motion

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain each of Newton’s three laws of
motion.
The systematical study of motion started way back from the ancient civilizations when
they started observing and predicting the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial
bodies. Aristotle stated that motion can be classified as ‘natural’ and ‘violent’ motion.
Natural motion can be observed in nature, such as falling of leaves while violent

motion is one that is unnatural and instigated by other factors. For example, it is natural
for a rock to roll down the hill, but in order for the rock to move up the hill, someone or
something must push it upward.
Learn about it!

After a couple of millennia, several more scientific studies about motion has been made.
Sir Isaac Newton in 1687 published his book entitled Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) which contains his
treatise on motion and the three laws of motion.
The laws of motion are useful ways of thinking about the motion of everyday objects.
Though considered as a scientific law, it still has limitations.
The laws of motion are valid when the objects we are analyzing are not travelling at the
speed of light nor the object is too small.
Learn about it!

Inertia
Inertia is the existing state of matter, whether at rest or in uniform motion in a straight
line unless a net external force is applied to change its state. It is the tendency of an
object to resist changes in its state of motion.
1st Law: The Law of Inertia
An object at rest or in motion will stay at rest or in motion with constant velocity unless
acted upon by a net external force.
According to this law, an object at rest will remain at rest unless you push or pull them
with enough net force.
For instance, when a book is at rest on the table several forces act on it: the downward
force exerted by gravity and the upward or normal force exerted by the table on the
book. When we say net force, the sum of all the forces acting on the object is equal
to zero thus, it is at rest or there is no change in its speed. In the case of the book, the
downward and normal force are of the same magnitude but opposite in direction that is
why they add up to zero.
The same is true for objects that are moving. If no net force acts on a moving object,
then it will neither increase nor decrease its speed. Therefore, it will continue to move
with constant speed in a straight line.
For instance, why do we move forward when the driver steps on the brakes after
moving at a constant speed in a straight line? When the car moves, our body moves
with it. Based on the first law, in the absence of a net force, an object will move at a
constant speed. When net external force is applied, in this case, when the driver steps
on the brakes, then there is a change in the velocity of the car; however, because of
inertia, our body tends to stay in motion that is why our body moves forward
involuntarily.
On the other hand, when we are on a car that is at rest, our body is also at rest. When a
net external force is applied to the car that starts the car moving, our body tends to stay
at rest that is why our body moves backwards involuntarily.
Inertia and Mass
An object’s inertia depends on its mass. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. It is

a quantity that only depends on the inertia of an object. This implies that heavier objects
are harder to move or when it is already moving, it is hard to stop. Simply put, the
greater the mass, the greater the amount of inertia.
Learn about it!

2nd Law: The Law of Acceleration
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force exerted on the object
and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
This can be mathematically expressed as
a=Fma=Fm
where
a is the acceleration of an object
F is the force applied on an object
m is the mass of an object
The second law picks up where the first law ends. The law of acceleration describes the
change that will happen if a force is applied on an object. Acceleration is the amount of
change in speed and/or direction of movement an object.
Let’s look at the first part of the law of acceleration:
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force applied on an object.
For instance, the first crate is pushed to the right by a single man which causes it to
accelerate. What will happen if two persons will push the same crate?
Increasing the amount of force applied on an object also increases the acceleration of
the object. When a quantity is in direct proportion to another quantity, there is an
increase in the first quantity. In this case, the force applied will result in the increase of
the other quantity, the acceleration of the object.
Now let’s look at the second part of the law of acceleration:
The acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
For instance, when the man pushes the crate to the right, it accelerates to the right.
What do you think will happen if the mass of the crate is doubled?
In this case, increasing the mass of the object makes it harder to accelerate. This is in
agreement with the first law of motion. Therefore, in order to accelerate a heavy object,
one must apply a great amount of force. Simply put, the acceleration of the object will
depend on two things: the mass of an object and the force applied on it.
Learn about it!

3rd Law: The Law of Action and Reaction
When an object exerts a force on another object, the second object exerts an equal and
opposite force to the first object.
Have you ever wondered why you don’t fall when you lean on a post? When you lean
on a post you are exerting force on the post and in return the post exerts force on you,
preventing you from falling. The amount of force that the post exerts on you is the same
as the amount of force that you exert on it.
In the interaction of objects, force always comes in pairs. Consider your movement
when you are walking. Your feet is pushing the ground downward, we can label this as
the action force. On the other hand, the reaction is provided by the second object on
which the feet is in contact with, and it is equal and opposite to the direction of the
reaction force. Thus, the reaction force is the ground that pushes your feet up, which
actually enables you to walk.
Action and reaction do not cancel each other out. Unlike in the first law of motion where
the forces act on an object, these forces are acted on different objects such as the
action force acted by your feet to the ground, and the reaction force acted by the ground
to your feet.
Explore!
In the game of bowling, a heavy ball is rolled down an alley to hit the duckpins. When
the bowling ball and the duckpins interact, can you identify the action and reaction
forces here? What are the effects of the action and reaction forces on the bowling ball
and the duckpins?
What do you think?

What is the difference between Newton's first law of motion with Galileo's concept of
inertia?
Key Points
 Sir Isaac Newton in 1687 published his book entitled Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica which contains his treatise on motion and the three laws
of motion.
 The first law of motion states that an object at rest or in motion will stay at rest
or in motion with constant velocity unless acted upon by a net external force.
 The second law of motion states that the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the force exerted on the object and inversely proportional to the
mass of the object.
 The third law of motion states that when an object exerts a force on another
object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force to the first object.
Newton’s Law of Inertia vs. Galileo’s Assertion on Horizontal Motion

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain the subtle distinction between
Newton’s 1st law of motion (or Law of Inertia) and Galileo’s assertion that force is not
necessary to sustain horizontal motion.
In the previous lesson, you have learned Newton’s laws of motion which provided the
framework for the understanding of how forces and motion are related.
Before Isaac Newton came up with his laws of motion, a lot of scientists have laid the
foundation for the study of force and motion. One of these scientists was Galileo Galilei.
Who was Galileo Galilei? What were his contributions to the concept of inertia?
Learn about it!

Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist who first explained the concept of inertia. He
observed that when a ball rolls down an inclined plane, its speed increases; and when it
rolls upwards, its speed decreases. This change in speed was due to gravity.
When the ball rolled down the inclined plane, it was pulled by gravity, so its speed
increased. The opposite happened when the ball rolled up the inclined plane. He then
asked himself what would happen to the ball if it was rolling on a horizontal plane such
as the floor.
A ball rolling on the floor is not moving with or against gravity, so what would
happen to its speed?
Galileo thought that the ball rolling on a floor would remain moving with constant
velocity if the friction between the floor and ball would be removed.
Learn about it!

Galileo tested his theory in an experiment using two inclined planes.
When the ball was rolled from one inclined plane to the next, it almost reached the
height from which it was released as shown in Figure A. If the steepness of the second
inclined plane is decreased, the ball would still reach the same height from the point it
was released as shown in Figure B. Finally, he then removed the second inclined plane
and watched the ball as shown in Figure C. He observed the ball and made his
conclusion: the ball would continue to move in a straight line with constant speed.
Galileo asserted that if friction was absent, the ball would continue to move with
constant velocity. It would continue its state of motion unless a push or a pull compels it
to change that state. Galileo called this tendency of materials to resist change in their
state of motion as inertia.
His assertion was the inspiration for Newton’s 1st law of motion. They both implied that
no force is needed to keep the motion of an object and the object’s inertia would keep it
from changing its state of motion.
Learn about it!
Is there a difference between Galileo’s assertion and Newton’s first law of
motion?
There is a subtle difference. The difference lies in the concept of force. Galileo knew
about friction but did not know about the concept of force. He used the term 'push and
pull' to signify forces. It was Sir Isaac Newton who defined the concept of force and its
relation to motion.
What do you think?

Since there is no gravity in space, will it be easier to lift a sack of rice in space
compared here on earth? What does the law of inertia and Galileo’s assertion tell us
about this?
Key Points
 The concept of inertia was a result of Galileo’s studies of motion.
 Inertia refers to the tendency of any material to change its state of motion.
 Galileo asserted that if a rolling ball was ‘left alone’ it will continue to move with
constant velocity.
 The only difference between Galileo’s assertion and Newton’s first law of motion
is the concept of force.
 Galileo did not know yet the concept of force, and it was Newton who finally
explains the nature of forces.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion and Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation: Identical
Acceleration
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to use algebra, Newton’s 2nd Law of
Motion, and Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation to show that, in the absence of air
resistance, objects close to the surface of the Earth fall with identical accelerations
independent of their mass.
Galileo Galilei described free falling bodies or bodies that fall under the sole influence
of gravity with an acceleration of approximately 9.8m/s2 regardless of the bodies’
masses.
How was the acceleration due to gravity g=9.8m/s2 obtained? How do Newton's
second law of motion and law of universal gravitation apply in this case?
Learn about it!

Newton's Second law of Motion
In the previous lessons, we have learned that the law of acceleration states that the
acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force exerted on the object and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
This is known as Newton’s second law of motion where a net force acting on a body
(F), with constant mass (m), causes an acceleration (a) in the direction of the force and
can be expressed as a mathematical equation:
F⇀=ma⇀Equation1F⇀=ma⇀Equation1
This law of motion has been successful in predicting the acceleration of constant-mass
systems. It can also be extended to objects described by Galileo as free falling bodies.
Learn about it!

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
In classical physics, gravity is an attractive force exerted by any object that has mass. It
is the force that keeps us close to the Earth’s surface, and the Earth around the Sun. It
also acts to attract anyone and anything to each other since matter as we know has
mass.
In the Book III of Principia Mathematica, Sir Isaac Newton described the behavior of

gravity and formulated the law of universal gravitation which states that the attractive
gravitational force (F) between bodies with masses ( m1m1 and m2m2) is directly
proportional to the product of their masses but inversely proportional to the square of
the distance of the centers of their mass distributions (r). Below shows a simple diagram
of the relationships.
The relationship of the gravitational force between two objects can also be expressed
as:
F=Gm1m2r2Equation2F=Gm1m2r2Equation2
where:
F is in newtons, N
m1m1 and m2m2 are in kilograms, kg
r is in meters, m
G=6.67×10−11Nm2kg2G=6.67×10−11Nm2kg2.
G is the universal gravitation constant that is a proportionality constant used in
describing the gravitational force between two objects.
Learn about it!

Acceleration of Free Falling Bodies
Newton's second law of motion and law of universal gravitation can be used to solve for
the acceleration of free falling bodies near the Earth’s surface (a).
Let us assume that a free falling body with a mass mFFBmFFB falls freely close to the
Earth’s surface. Let us also say that the Earth is a sphere with a
radius rE=6.371×106mrE=6.371×106mand a
mass mE=5.9723×1024kgmE=5.9723×1024kg.
Equation 1 can be written as:
F=mFFBaF=mFFBa
where:
mFFBmFFB is the mass of a freely falling body

Equation 2 can be written as:
F=GmEmFFB(rE+rFFB)2F=GmEmFFB(rE+rFFB)2
where:
mEmE is the mass of the Earth

mFFBmFFB is the mass of a freely falling body
rErE is the radius of the Earth
rFFBrFFB is the radius of a freely falling body
Combining the two equations we get,
mFFBa=GmEmFFB(rE+rFFB)2Equation3mFFBa=GmEmFFB(rE+rFFB)2Equation3
Algebraically, mFFBmFFB can be cancelled, resulting to,
a=GmE(rE+rFFB)2Equation4a=GmE(rE+rFFB)2Equation4
Since the radius of the Earth, rErE is significantly larger than the radius of a freely
falling body, then rFFBrFFB can be cancelled out in the total rr. Thus,
a=GmEr2EEquation5a=GmErE2Equation5
Equation 5 shows that acceleration only depends on the Earth’s mass and radius, not
on the mass of the free falling body. To get the acceleration of free falling bodies, we
substitute the radius and the mass of the Earth and the gravitational constant in this
equation. Thus,
a=[6.67x10−11Nm2kg2][5.9723x1024kg6.371x106m]a=[6.67x10−11Nm2kg2]
[5.9723x1024kg6.371x106m]
a=g≈9.8m/s2a=g≈9.8m/s2
The value of the derived a appears frequently in many computations in classical
mechanics; thus, it is assigned to be g, or the acceleration due to gravity.
What do you think?

Would the value of g increase, decrease, or remain constant if the free falling body is far
from the Earth’s surface?
Key Points
 Newton’s second law of motion is expressed as F⇀=ma⇀F⇀=ma⇀
 Newton’s law of universal gravitation can be expressed as
F=Gm1m2r2F=Gm1m2r2
 In the absence of air resistance, objects close to the surface of the Earth fall at
the same rate of g=9.8m/s2g=9.8m/s2 independent of their mass.
Newton’s Law and Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 describe laws, axiom, and empirical laws; and

 explain why Newton’s laws motion are considered axioms while Kepler’s laws of
planetary motion are empirical laws.
Think about chess and checkers. If you are familiar with these two games, then you
certainly know the rules of these games.
Now think about this:
Do the set of rules of chess applicable to checkers and vice-versa?
If you have answered no, then you are correct. The rules of these games are unique
from one another, the same way Newton’s laws and Kepler’s Laws are unique. So how
are they related?
Learn about it!

There are many scientific laws that describe movements of objects. Newton’s laws of
motion generally describe the motion of bodies ranging from tiny objects, such as a
speck of dust, to very large objects, such as stars. On the other hand, Kepler’s laws of
planetary motion specifically describe the motion of orbiting planets. Both of these laws
describe the motion of objects, but how are they related?
Laws, Axioms, and Empirical Laws
Scientific laws, like Newton’s laws and Kepler’s laws, are descriptions of an observed
occurrence. Unlike theories, laws do not explain the cause of the observed
phenomenon or why it happens. In science, we can say that laws are the ‘rules of the
game’ followed by all things in our world.
Laws can be considered as axioms or empirical laws. An axiom, in Mathematics, is a

well-established statement. Just like in the game of chess and checkers, the set of rules
are already established and we just accept it to be true or the proper way of playing this
game even without proving that they are the ‘proper way’ to play the game. An axiom,
although accepted and taken to be true, remains unprovable.
Empirical laws, on the other hand, are descriptions supported by factual observations
and are not derived from existing laws.
Learn about it!

Newton’s Laws of Motion and Kepler’s Planetary Motion
Newton’s laws of motion are considered to be axioms. The three laws of motion are
actually unproven and unprovable but we accept them to be true. They provide useful
ways of thinking for us to understand the motion of the objects around us.
Let us consider the first law of motion:
An object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion remains in
motion in with constant velocity unless acted upon by an external, unbalanced force.
Can you identify any situation in which this ‘law’ holds true?
If you have made assumptions first before giving an example, then that is the first sign
that this is an axiom. An axiom holds true only within the context that they are applied.
Therefore, we can say that the Newton’s laws of motion are axioms because they hold
true only when assumptions are established.
On the other hand, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are empirical laws because they
are based on his observation and computation of planetary movements; it is not derived
from any existing law and is evidence-based descriptions.
Let us look at the first law of planetary motion by Johannes Kepler:
Each planet moves on an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.
Do you think you have to make assumptions about this ‘law’ to be true?
If you have answered no, then you are correct. As an empirical law, we can directly
observe and gather physical evidence that this law is true.
Tips
To differentiate between axioms and empirical laws, you need to remember that axioms
are accepted truths but they are unproven and unprovable while empirical laws are
based on factual observation and evidence.
Try it!
Read and analyze the statements below.
1. The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force applied and

inversely proportional to its mass.
2. The imaginary line connecting a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in
equal times.
Which statement do you think is an axiom? Which is an empirical law? Justify your
answers.
What do you think?

Galileo's law of simple pendulum is considered as an empirical law. This law, however,
fails to match the movement of the pendulum exactly because of certain impediments
such as friction around a pivot-point. Why is this law still considered an empirical law?
Key Points
 Scientific laws describe a certain phenomenon without explaining why they
occur or what causes their occurrence.
 An axiom is a statement that is accepted to be true but remains unproven or
unprovable.
 Axioms hold true only when assumptions are made.
 An empirical law is based on factual observations and evidence.
 Newton’s laws of motion and Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are both scientific
laws that describe motion.
 Newton’s laws are axiom because they are unproven and unprovable and holds
true only when assumptions are made.
 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are empirical laws because they are based on
observation and evidence.
The Law of Conservation of Momentum

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to use the law of conservation of
momentum to solve a one-dimensional collision problem.
Mass is the measure of inertia of an object which is at rest. That is, the greater the
mass of the object, the greater is its tendency to stay at rest (or it is harder to get it
moving). Whereas, momentum is the measure of inertia of moving objects. That is, the
greater the momentum (or the faster the object moves) the greater is its tendency to
stay moving (or it is harder to stop).
Learn about it!

Let us say that the cue ball (m = 0.17 kg), with a velocity of 3 m/s, and the eight
ball (m = 0.16 kg) with a velocity of 2 m/s, are moving toward each other. After the
collision, the cue ball stops and the eight ball moves in the opposite direction.
What is the velocity of the eight ball after the collision?
The momentum of an object is equal to the product of the mass and velocity of a

moving object.
We can represent momentum as:
p=mvp=mv
where pp is the momentum (kgm/skgm/s), mm is the mass (kgkg) and vv is the
velocity of the object (m/sm/s).
Look at the situation below. Two objects are moving toward each other with different
velocities. What will happen to these balls when they come in contact? What will
happen to their individual momentum?
When the billiard balls collide, their individual momentum changes, which accounts for
the changes in motion of the two objects. However, their total momentum before the
collision remains the same after the collision. This is the consequence of the law of
conservation of momentum which states that the total momentum of a system does
not change if there are no external forces acting on it.
Mathematically, we can represent this law as:
pbeforecollision=paftercollisionpbeforecollision=paftercollision

Step 1: Identify the given quantities.
For simplicity, we will use the following symbol for each quantity:
m1=massofcueball=0.17kgm1=massofcueball=0.17kg
m2=massof8thball=0.16kgm2=massof8thball=0.16kg
v1=velocityofcueballbeforecollision=3m/sv1=velocityofcueballbeforecollision=
3m/s
v2=velocityof8thballbeforecollision=2m/sv2=velocityof8thballbeforecollision=2
m/s
v
′1=velocityofcueballaftercollision=0m/sv1′=velocityofcueballaftercollision=0m/s
the velocity of the 8th8th ball after collision
Step 3: Solve for v′2v2′ using the law of conservation of momentum.

To get the total momentum, we should add the individual momentum before and after
the collision.
pcueball+p8thball=pcueball+p8thballpcueball+p8thball=pcueball+p8thball
m1v1+m2v2=m1v′1+m2v′2m1v1+m2v2=m1v1′+m2v2′
Since we have an expression of equality, we can transpose m1v′1m1v1′ on the left
side, changing its sign from positive to negative. Now that leaves m2v′2m2v2′ on the
right side. To isolate v′2v2′, we will divide both sides of the equation with m2m2.
m1v1+m2v2−m1v′1=m2v′2m1v1+m2v2−m1v1′=m2v2′
m1v1+m2v2−m1v′1m2=v′2m1v1+m2v2−m1v1′m2=v2′
We now have a working equation for v′2v2′. Substituting the values of the given, the
velocity of the eight ball after collision will be:
v′2=m1v1+m2v2−m1v′1m2v2′=m1v1+m2v2−m1v1′m2
v′2=(0.17kgx3ms)+(0.16kgx2ms)−(0.17kgx0)2msv2′=(0.17kgx3ms)+(0.16kgx2ms)
−(0.17kgx0)2ms
v′2=0.42m/sv2′=0.42m/s
Therefore, the velocity of the 8th8th ball after the collision is 0.42 m/s.
Try it!
A 0.63-kg basketball, with a velocity of 10 m/s, and a 0.27-kg ball of clay, with a velocity
of 2.5 m/s, are moving toward each other. After the collision, the two objects stuck
together and moved as one object. What will be the velocity of the ball-clay system after
the collision?
Try it! Solution

m1=0.63kgm1=0.63kg
m2=0.27kgm2=0.27kg
v1=10m/sv1=10m/s
v2=2.5m/sv2=2.5m/s
velocity of basketball and clay after collision

Step 3: Solve for v′v′.
Since the velocity of the basketball and the ball of clay are the same, the momentum of
the ball-clay system will be equal to the sum of their masses multiplied by their velocity
after collision.
pbaketball+pclay=pbasketball−claysystempbaketball+pclay=pbasketball−claysystem
m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)=(m1+m2)v′(m1+m2)m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)=(m1+m2)v′(m1+m2)
m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)=v′m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)=v′
Now substituting the values, the velocity of the ball-clay system after collision is:
v′=m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)v′=m1v1+m2v2(m1+m2)
v′=(0.63kgx10ms)+(0.27kgx10ms)(0.63kg+0.27kg)v′=(0.63kgx10ms)+(0.27kgx10ms)
(0.63kg+0.27kg)
v′=7.75m/sv′=7.75m/s
Therefore, the velocity of the basketball and clay after collision is 7.75 m/s.
Tips
 If the object is at rest, its momentum is zero.
 To check your answer, add the momentum after and before collision. If they are
equal you are most likely correct, if not go back and check your solution.
Try it!
Apply the law of conservation of momentum in solving the following problems.
1. In an unfortunate accident, a 1500-kg car moving at 15 m/s collided with parked

500-kg motorcycle. If the motorcycle moved 5 m/s to the right after collision, what
is the velocity of the car after collision?
2. A 60-kg skater slides across the skating rink at a rate of 6 m/s. He picks up his
40-kg son who is standing at the center of the rink. What will be the velocity of
skater and his son?
What do you think?

The total momentum of a system does not change if there are no external forces acting
on it.
Are there any exceptions to this law?
Key Points
 Momentum is equal to the product of mass and velocity of an object which is
mathematically represented as p=mvp=mv.
 The law of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a
system does not change if there are no external forces acting on it. It is
represented as pbeforecollision=paftercollisionpbeforecollision=paftercollision.
 The greater the momentum of a moving object, the harder it is to stop its motion.
 When objects collide, their individual momentum changes after collision which
accounts for the changes in motion of the objects.
 The total momentum of the objects before the collision is equal to the total
momentum after collision.
Mass, Momentum, and Energy Conservation

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain the contributions of scientists to
our understanding of mass, momentum, and energy conservation.
Mass, momentum, and energy are three quantities that can be conserved. In Physics,

when we say a quantity is conserved, it means that after an interaction or a reaction, no
part of that quantity is lost.
In this lesson, you will identify the contributions of different scientists that lead to the
understanding of these quantities and their conservation.
Learn about it!
Law of Conservation of Mass
The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an enclosed system is neither

created nor destroyed by a chemical reaction. Thus, in a chemical reaction, the mass of
the reactants must be equal to the mass of the products.
Below are the people who had contributed to the understanding of mass and its
conservation.
 Ancient Greek philosophers believed that 'nothing comes from nothing' which

implied that everything in the present had come from an origin.
 Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was a Persian polymath who wrote that a body of matter
could not disappear completely. It could only change its form, condition, and
other properties. These changes could turn it into a different form of matter.
 Mikhail Lomonosov was a Russian writer and polymath who disproved the
phlogiston theory, which assumed that matter contained phlogiston— a fire-like
substance that existed in combustible materials. He showed in an experiment of
burning metals that the mass of metals remained the same after burning.
 Antoine Lavoisier proposed the law of conservation of mass. This law states
that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is always equal to the
total mass of the reactants; and atoms are neither created nor destroyed, but
rearranged to form new substances.
Learn about it!

Law of Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.

It can only be transformed from one form to another. Hence, the total energy of an
isolated system never change.
Below are some of the scientists who had contributed to the development of the law of
conservation of energy.
 Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer and physicist who studied an

'interrupted pendulum. His experiment showed that the energy was conserved in
the pendulum causing it to swing to the same height as it was released. If energy
was not conserved, it would have stopped and have not completed its swing. In a
modern sense, he demonstrated that kinetic energy can be converted to potential
energy and vice versa.
 Christian Huygens was a Dutch mathematician who published his laws of
collisions. He noted that the kinetic energies of colliding objects were the same
before and after the collision.
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German polymath and philosopher who used
Huygen's work on collision to derive a mathematical formulation for energy that is
related to motion (kinetic energy). It is called vis viva which is the Latin word for
'living force' and represented as mv2mv2.
 Émilie du Châtelet performed experiments where she dropped a ball into soft
clay at different heights. She learned that the ball's kinetic energy was
proportional to the square of its velocity, and the deformation on the clay was
proportional to its initial potential energy. She then proposed that energy is
different from momentum.
 Albert Einstein developed a theory that united the concepts of mass and
energy. Einstein’s energy-mass equivalence implies that neither mass nor energy
are separately conserved, but they could be interchanged. The total ‘mass-
energy’ of the universe is conserved.
Learn about it!

Law of Conservation of Momentum
Just as mass and energy are conserved, momentum is also conserved. The law of
conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of an object does not
change (i.e it remains at rest or in motion with constant velocity) if there are no external
forces acting on it.
Below is a list of scientists who have contributed to the development of the law of
conservation of momentum.
 Jean Buridan was a teacher and philosopher who first used the term ‘impetus’ to
signify the notion of momentum. According to his theory, an impetus set an
object in motion, and it increases as the object's speed also increases.
 Rene Descartes was a French philosopher and mathematician who proposed
that the total 'quantity of motion' of the universe is conserved and it is equal to
the product of the object's size and speed. This is almost the same as the
modern concept of conservation of momentum, however, Descartes had no
concept of mass that was different from weight and size of the object.
 John Wallis was an English mathematician who suggested the law of
conservation of momentum. This law states that a body will remain at rest or in
motion, unless an external force applied to it is greater than its resistance. This
statement is similar with the first law of motion of Sir Isaac Newton.
 Isaac Newton was an English physicist and mathematician who defined the
'quantity of motion' as a product of velocity and mass and later identified it as
momentum. He implied that when no force acts on the object, the quantity of
motion is conserved.
What do you think?
In terms of Einstein’s mass and energy equivalence, can you think of a process in which
energy is converted to mass?
Key Points
 Mass, momentum, and energy are quantities that can be conserved in a physical
interaction.
 The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an enclosed system is
neither created nor destroyed by a chemical reaction.
 People who had contributed to the understanding of mass and its conservation
include some of the ancient Greek philosophers, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mikhail
Lomonosov, and Antoine Lavoisier.
 The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to another. Hence, the total
energy of an isolated system never change.
 Some of the scientists who had contributed to the development of the law of
conservation of energy include Galileo Galilei, Christian Huygens, Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz, Émilie du Châtelet, and Albert Einstein.
 The law of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a
system does not change as if there are no external forces acting on it.
 Some of the scientists who had contributed to the development of the law of
conservation of momentum include Jean Buridan, Rene Descartes, John Wallis,
and Isaac Newton.
Reflection, Refraction, Transmission, and Absorption of Light

LIGHT: A WAVE AND A PARTICLE
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe what happens when light is
reflected, refracted, transmitted, and absorbed.
What happens to light when it interacts with matter?

Learn about it!
When light interacts with matter, it can be reflected, refracted, transmitted, or absorbed.
Reflection
Reflection occurs when light bounces back as it hits a reflecting surface, such as a
mirror. This phenomenon can be described using light rays.
The ray of light that hits the reflecting surface is called an incident ray. After hitting the
surface, it bounces off as a reflected ray. The incident ray and the reflected ray form
angles with the normal line, which is a line perpendicular to the reflecting surface. These
angles are called angle of incidence and angle of reflection, respectively.
The relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection is illustrated
in the law of reflection. This law states that the angle of incidence, the angle of
reflection, and the normal line are found on the same plane; and the angle of incidence
is equal to the angle of reflection.
Types of Reflection
There are two types of reflection: regular reflection and irregular reflection.
 Regular reflection, also known as specular reflection occurs when light strikes a

smooth surface like a mirror, and light rays are reflected in one direction.
 Irregular reflection or diffuse reflection occurs when light strikes a rough surface, and
light rays are reflected in random directions.
Learn about it!
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light due to the change in its speed when it obliquely
passes two different media. When light travels from a medium with a low refractive
index to a medium with a higher refractive index, it slows down and refracts closer to the
normal line. On the other hand, when light travels from a medium with a high refractive
index to a medium with a lower refractive index, it speeds up and refracts away from the
normal line.
The light ray that is entering a different medium is called the incident ray while the bent
ray is called the refracted ray.
Refractive index describes how light propagates through a medium. A higher refractive
index means the light propagates slower, and its direction changes more upon entering
a medium. A lower refractive index means the light travels faster, and its direction
changes less upon entering a medium.
Learn about it!

Transmission
Transmission is the passing of light through a material without being absorbed. For
instance, an incoming light will just pass through a glass window as transmitted light.
The extent of the transmission of light depends on the type of the material the light
strikes. Transparent and translucent materials transmit light, but opaque materials do
not. If light is not transmitted, it may have been reflected or absorbed.
Learn about it!

Absorption
Absorption of light occurs when light strikes a material, and the energy that it carries is
absorbed by the atoms of the material and is converted into thermal energy.
White light is composed of different components of a spectrum: red, orange, yellow,

green, blue, indigo, and violet (ROYGBIV). When an object reflects all the components
of light, it appears white. However, when an object absorbs all the components of light,
it appears black.
Selective absorption describes the tendency of an object to absorb specific

frequencies of light. An object that appears with a particular color means that the object
absorbs most of the frequencies and reflects only the color of the object. For instance,
the leaf absorbs all the frequencies of light except for green. The green color is reflected
and perceived by the observer’s eye.
Explore!
Imagine a marching band that marches in a straight line from a solid ground into a
muddy land.
What do you think will happen to the speed of the marching band as it moves from the
solid ground to the muddy land? How can you relate this with the refraction of light?
Try it!
Get a number of colored pieces of cellophane and a flashlight. Then ask somebody to
shine the flashlight on the cellophane.
Answer the following questions:
1. What can you say about the color that passes through the cellophane and the
color of the cellophane used?
2. What happened to the rest of the spectrum colors that you did not see?
What do you think?

Can light be reflected and refracted at the same time?
Key Points
 Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it strikes a surface.
 Refraction is the bending of light due to the change in its speed when passing
two different media.
 Transmission is the passing of light through a material without being absorbed.
 Absorption of light occurs when light strikes a material, and the energy that it
carries is absorbed by the atoms of the material and is converted into thermal
energy.
The Emergence of Light: Newton and Descartes

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how Newton and Descartes
described the emergence of light in various colors through prisms.
Descartes viewed light as waves while Newton believed that light was composed of tiny
particles called corpuscles. Both of them knew that when light passed through a prism,
different colors were produced.
How did the two scientists explain the separation of light into different colors
when it passed through a prism?
Learn about it!

Two of the many scientists who studied the behavior of light were Rene Descartes and
Sir Isaac Newton. Separately, they conducted experiments using a prism to explain the
emergence of the colors of light upon passing it.
Rene Descartes's View on the Emergence of Colors of Light

Rene Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who first
studied and explained the concept of refraction. In one of his experiments, he produced
a rainbow by using a water-filled glass sphere and sunlight. He explained that refraction
of light caused the formation of rainbows. He then studied the refraction and emergence
of colors of light in a prism. He observed that the different colors of light refracted at
varying degrees. He noted that the red light refracted more than the blue light.
Descartes explained the emergence of the colors of light using the concept of
the plenum, the invisible substance that permeated the universe. He thought that light
was a disturbance that traveled through the plenum. He pictured the particles of plenum
as tiny balls which were in contact, and rotating with the same speed. He explained that
when these particles passed through the prism and encountered a slit on the edge, their
rotational speed would change. This change resulted in the emergence of a color. Other
parts of the slit produced other colors of light.
Learn about it!

Sir Isaac Newton's View on the Emergence of Colors of Light
Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist and mathematician who was famous
because of his contributions in describing motion and the nature of light. His studies
included the emergence of colors as light passed through a prism. In his experiment, he
saw that the red light refracted the least while the violet light refracted the most.
According to Newton, this difference in refraction occurred due to the differences in the
mass of the colors of light.
Newton believed that particles of matter exert equal force to the particles of light
regardless of its color. He then explained that when light particles passed through an
interface of matter, the colors of light which have different mass and inertia will be
deflected at varying degrees. He noted that particles with greater mass and inertia are
deflected less when acted upon by the same force. For instance, particles of red light
has more mass than those of violet light. Therefore, red light was deflected less than the
violet light.
Try it!
Create a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences of Newton and
Descartes’ view on the emergence of light in various colors through prisms.
What do you think?

The ideas of Descartes and Newton are not the same. Can you cite instances where
their ideas are parallel?
Key Points
 Rene Descartes believed that colors emerge from light when the rolling balls
that make up a substance change speed when light passes through it. When the
balls encounter a slit on the edge of a prism, the ball next to the slit starts to
rotate which causes the change in the speed of the rotation of the balls and this
change produced a color.
 Sir Isaac Newton believed that light colors emerge upon passing a prism due to
the difference in the mass and inertia of the colors that caused the difference of
deflection of each.
Waves
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to cite examples of waves (e.g., water,
stadium, sound, string, and light waves).
Waves are disturbances produced by vibrating particles of matter. They transfer energy

as they propagate through a medium or space.
Learn about it!

Waves can be classified in two ways. They can be classified based on (1) how they
propagate; and (2) the orientation of the wave propagation relative to the direction of
energy transfer.
Mechanical and Electromagnetic Waves
Waves can be classified based on how they propagate or their ability to transmit energy
through a vacuum. They can be either mechanical or electromagnetic waves.
There are waves that can only propagate when a medium is available; they are
called mechanical waves. Some examples of these waves are:
 Sound waves, which can travel fastest on solids.

 Water waves, which need water to propagate.
 Seismic waves, which can travel through and on the surface of Earth.
 Stadium waves, which can propagate through the movement of the people in a
stadium.
 Slinky, string, and jump rope waves, which can propagate when used.
There are waves that can still travel even without a medium.These type of waves are
called electromagnetic (EM) waves. They are produced by the vibration of charged
particles. There are seven EM waves arranged either from increasing frequency or
decreasing wavelength. They are the following:
 Radio waves, which are used to transmit radio and TV signals.
 Microwaves, which are used in microwave ovens and in sending messages
through cellular phones.
 Infrared, which has a medical application in detecting heat leaks.
 Visible light, which is the only EM wave that can be seen by the naked eye.
 Ultraviolet, which is blocked by the ozone layer because too much of this can
cause skin cancer.
 X-rays, which can penetrate through most of the things and also used for
medical purposes.
 Gamma rays, which are more penetrating than X-rays and also used for medical
purposes.
Learn about it!

Longitudinal and Transverse Waves
Waves carry energy, and the direction of the energy transfer relative to the direction of
the wave is the other way of classifying waves. Waves can either be longitudinal or
transverse.
Longitudinal waves propagate parallel to the direction of the energy transfer. The

movement of these waves is back and forth, and they carry the energy in that direction
as well. Longitudinal waves are composed of regions of compressions and rarefactions.
Compressions are regions where the particles are closest to each

other. Rarefactionsare regions where the particles are furthest from each other.
Examples of these waves are the sound waves and earthquake waves.
Transverse waves propagate perpendicular to the direction of the energy transfer.
They move in up and down manner and they carry the energy back and forth. These
waves are composed of various parts such as crests, troughs, amplitudes, and
wavelengths.
The crest is the top of the wave while the trough is the bottom of the wave.
The amplitude is the maximum displacement of the wave from the horizontal axis or its
origin. The wavelength refers to distance between a crest and a crest or a trough and a
trough. Examples of these waves are the EM waves and waves on a string.
Explore!
Surface waves are the combination of transverse and longitudinal waves. How will you
describe the movement of a surface wave?
Try it!
Get a slinky and make the transverse and longitudinal waves. Did you observe the
same pattern as stated in the discussion?
What do you think?

During the old times, when there were no phones yet, people tend to place their ear on
the ground to know if there are people or animals heading to their place. What do you
think are the reasons behind this scenario?
Key Points
 Waves can be classified in two ways. They can be classified based on (1) how
they propagate; and (2) the direction of wave propagation relative to the direction
of energy transfer.
 Mechanical waves need a medium to propagate. Examples of mechanical
waves are water waves and sound waves.
 Electromagnetic waves do not need any medium to propagate. Examples of
these waves include microwaves and X-rays.
 Transverse waves travel perpendicularly relative to the direction of energy
transfer.
 Longitudinal waves travel in a parallel direction relative to the direction of
energy transfer.
Dual Nature of Light

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 describe how the propagation of light, reflection, and refraction are explained by
the wave model and the particle model of light; and
 describe how Galileo and Roemer contributed to the eventual acceptance of the
view that the speed of light is finite.
What happens to light when it hits a surface?
Learn about it!

Propagation of Light, Reflection, and Refraction
There were two prominent theories about the nature of light back in the seventeenth
century. These are the wave theory and the particle theory.
The Wave Theory of Light
In 1690, Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch astronomer and physicist, proposed the wave

theory of light. This theory states that light is a longitudinal wave transmitted through
an aether ‒ a mystical substance that exists and fills all the spaces in the universe. He
believed that the aether moved in the same direction as light, and formed a wave which
carried the light waves.
The Corpuscular Theory of Light
In 1675, Isaac Newton proposed the corpuscular theory, also known as the particle

theory of light. This theory states that light was composed of tiny particles
called corpuscles. According to Newton, light traveled through a vacuum in a straight
line, and cannot be considered as a wave.
Learn about it!

Refraction
According to the wave theory, when a beam of light travels into two different refractive
indices, the beam undergoes refraction by changing its direction as it passes from the
first medium into the next medium. Some of the light waves would pass through, while
the rest of the waves travel at a slower rate in the first medium due to the high refractive
index of the second medium. Since the wavefront is traveling at two different speeds, it
will bend in the second medium thus, changing the angle of propagation. Just like how
the sound waves and water waves refract, light follows the same way.
On the other hand, the particle theory of light suggested that when the light particles
pass through a medium like water, they experience an attractive force towards the
water. When light passes from air (less dense medium) to water (denser medium), it
slows down and bends towards the normal which means away from the surface.
Learn about it!

Reflection
According to the wave theory, when light waves struck a mirror, they are reflected
according to their angles, but the wave turned back to front and produced a reversed
image. The shape of the waves depends on the distance of light from the mirror. Just
like sound waves, which echoes upon striking a surface, light waves behaves the same
way.
In the particle theory, an emitted light, whether near or far, is reflected as it arrives at

the mirror surface. A huge number of particles travel side by side with each other and
they bounce at different directions upon reaching the interphase, producing a reversed
image as depicted in the figure above. Light reflects the same way as a ball hits a
surface.
Learn about it!
The Speed of Light
In 1638, Galileo Galilei conducted an experiment to measure the speed of light by

positioning two observers, each with lanterns equipped with shutters.
The time between the openings of the shutters of the two observers indicated the time
for the light to travel back and forth between lamps. Light traveled so fast that made it
impossible to measure the time interval with just using the shutters.
This led to his basic principle or relativity, which states that the same laws of motion
are applied to any system that is moving at a constant speed, regardless of their
specific speed and direction.
Ole Roemer in 1678 was the first person to measure the speed of light. He was
observing the orbit of Io, the closest of the four large moons of Jupiter. His goal was to
get an accurate value for the moon’s orbital period by the eclipses of Io by Jupiter.
The orbital value of Io is 1.769 Earth days. The moon is eclipsed by Jupiter once every
orbit. As the years past, Roemer noticed that the time interval between eclipses became
shorter as Earth moved toward Jupiter and longer when it moved away from it.
He concluded based on the collected data that the time difference was due to the finite
speed of light. The light coming from Jupiter had to travel farther to reach Earth when
they are on the opposite sides of the sun than when they are close to each other. He
estimated that the time required for light to travel across Earth’s diameter is twenty
minutes. Thus, the speed of light can be computed by dividing the diameter of Earth’s
orbit by the time difference.
Explore!
Have two identical flashlights and turn them on in such a way that light from the
flashlight will cross each other. What do you see on the point of intersection of the two
lights?
Try it!
Try to observe the smoke that comes from a barbeque stand or from a grill. Looking
from afar, does the smoke appears like a wave? Try to move closer to the smoke and
observe it. What do you see?
What do you think?
Will it be possible to see the dual nature of light at the same time?
Key Points
 In 1690, Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch astronomer and physicist, proposed
the wave theory, which states that light was a longitudinal wave transmitted
through an aether.
 In 1960, Isaac Newton proposed the corpuscular theory also known as
the particle theory, which states that light was composed of tiny particles
called corpuscles.
 Galileo Galilei tried to measure the speed of light, but needed much longer
distance to have a significant measurement.
 Ole Roemer was able to measure the speed of light by studying the changes in
the time of orbit of Io, a moon of Jupiter.
The Photon Theory

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain how the photon theory of light accounts for atomic spectra;
 discuss why red light is used in photographic dark rooms;
 determine why you easily get sunburned in ultraviolet light but not in visible light;
and
 explain how you see colors.
Have you ever wondered how we see colors?
Learn about it!

The Photon Theory of Light
Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Inside an atom, electrons
are located at specific energy levels, and they can move to higher energy level when
given a certain amount of energy, for example through collisions with light.
Light is composed of photons. Based on the photon theory of light, a photon is a

discrete bundle of electromagnetic energy moving at the speed of light, has no rest
mass but has momentum, and carries energy. This energy is given to an electron upon
their collision, which causes it to move up to the next energy level. After about 10−810-
8 s, it will go back to its original level and emit light in the form of photons.
The emitted light has a certain wavelength that corresponds to different colors. It can be
observed as a series of colored lines with black spaces in between. This is
called atomic spectra. Each element has its unique set of spectral lines.
Learn about it!

The Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect refers to the ejection of electrons from a surface of a metal in

response to light directed to the metal.
Albert Einstein proposed that light consisted of individual photons, which interacted

with the electrons in the surface of the metal. For each frequency or color of the incident
light, each photon carried energy.
Increasing intensity of light corresponded to increasing incident of photons while the
energy of the photons remained the same. More electrons are ejected upon the
increase in incident light. Increasing the frequency of light would increase the energy of
the ejected electrons.
The energy carried by a photon is directly proportional to its frequency. The

arrangement of the visible spectrum of light shows that red color has the least
frequency, which means it also has the least energy.
Since photographers use light-sensitive photographic papers, red light would not

overexpose and ruin the pictures during the developing process.
Learn about it!

Color Spectra
Colors are not innate to objects. They give off light that appears as colors. Colors only
exist in the human visual system and is determined by frequencies. When light reaches
the eye, it falls into a receptor cell at the back of the eye or retina and gives signals to
the brain, which interprets the image with colors.
Colors are based on frequencies. Given an ample bright light at around 400 THz, a
person would be able to perceive a dull red. As the frequency increases, the color
gradually changes from red to violet.
Ultraviolet Radiation
Different colors of light have photons of different energies. Based on the frequency and
wavelength in a visible light, red has low frequency and long wavelength, which means
that it contains less energy. Blue, on the other hand, has high frequency and short
wavelength, which means it contains more energy. Beyond the visible light,
the ultraviolet light has greater frequency and shorter wavelength, which means it
carries greater energy than the visible light. This explains why we easily get
sunburned under the ultraviolet rays of light than under the visible light.
Explore!
Imagine you are looking at a rainbow. You can see the ROYGBIV colors namely red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. They are seen under a visible light.
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation comes right after violet. How come UV is invisible to us?
Try it!
Get three (3) different colored pieces of cellophanes (red, blue, and green), one red
apple, one green leaf, and a cotton ball. Place each object behind each cellophane one
at a time.
What do you think happens to the color of the object when it passes through colored
screens like cellophane?
What do you think?

Infrared and ultraviolet fall outside the visible light. Under certain conditions, can
infrared be seen with the naked eye?
Key Points
 The photon theory of light states that a photon is a discrete bundle of
electromagnetic energy moving at the speed of light; it has no rest mass but has
a momentum and carries energy.
 Atomic spectra is the unique set of frequencies emitted by an atom whenever
its electron undergoes excitation and returns to its original energy level.
 The frequency of a photon is directly proportional to the energy it carries. The
higher the frequency of the photon, the greater is its energy.
 Since red light has the least frequency in the color spectrum of light, it also has
the least amount of energy and can therefore be used in photographic dark
rooms because it would have the least effect on a very sensitive paper film.
 Given that ultraviolet has a higher frequency than the visible light, it follows that it
would also have greater energy, which causes us to get easily sunburned under
the UV light compared to visible light.
 The colors we see depends on the frequency of light that the object absorbs and
reflects.
The Relationship Between the Speed of Light, Wavelength, and Frequency

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to apply the wavelength-speed-frequency
relation.
All forms of electromagnetic radiation, including the visible light which is perceived with
our eyes, travel at a constant speed in vacuum.
What is the relationship between the wavelength and frequency of light?
Learn about it!

What is the frequency of light with a wavelength of 628 nm?
Light, like other forms of electromagnetic radiation, is characterized by its wavelength,

frequency, and speed.
Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive troughs or peaks in a wave. It is
described by a unit of distance or in meters. Frequency is the number of wave cycles or
oscillations that passes a specific point in a given period of time. Finally, the speed of
light has a constant value of approximately 300 000 000 m/s
or 3.00x108m/s3.00x108m/s.
The relationship between speed, wavelength, and the frequency of a specific color of
light is described by the equation
c=λfc=λf
where cc is the speed of light (3.00x108m/s3.00x108m/s), λλ is the wavelength of
light (in meters), and ff is the frequency of light (in s−1s−1 or Hz)
Based on the formula, the speed of light is directly related to both the light wave
frequency and its wavelength, but is not affected by these two. The wavelength and
frequency are inversely related to each other; an increase in frequency will cause a
decrease in wavelength and vice versa while keeping the speed constant.

λ=628nmλ=628nm
c=3.00x108m/sc=3.00x108m/s
the frequency of light
Step 3: Solve for ff using the equation that describes the relationship between speed,
wavelength, and the frequency of light.
c=λfc=λf
f=cλf=cλ
Convert first 628 nm to meters. Thus,
628nmx1m1x109nm=6.28x10−7m628nmx1m1x109nm=6.28x10−7m
f=3.00x108m/s6.28x10−7mf=3.00x108m/s6.28x10−7m
f=4.80x1014Hzf=4.80x1014Hz
Therefore, the frequency of light is 4.80x1014Hz4.80x1014Hz.
Try it!
The frequency of blue light as it scatters in the sky is 7.5x1014Hz7.5x1014Hz. What is
the wavelength of this blue light in nanometers?
Try it! Solution

f=7.5x1014Hzf=7.5x1014Hz
c=3.00x108m/sc=3.00x108m/s
the wavelength of blue light
Step 3: Solve for λλ using the equation that describes the relationship between speed,
wavelength, and the frequency of light.
c=λfc=λf
λ=cfλ=cf
λ=3.00x108m/s7.5x1014Hzλ=3.00x108m/s7.5x1014Hz
λ=4.0x10−7mλ=4.0x10−7m
Then, convert 4.0x10−7m4.0x10−7m to nanometers. Thus,
4.0x10−7mx1x109nm1m=400nm4.0x10−7mx1x109nm1m=400nm
Therefore, the wavelength of blue light is 400 nm.
Try it!
Apply the relationship of the speed of light, its wavelength, and its frequency in solving
the following problems.
1. A specific light wave has a wavelength of 675 nm. What is the frequency of the
wave?
2. The red light has a wavelength of 690 nm. What is the frequency of the red light?
What do you think?

If a light wave moving at a constant speed reduces its frequency to one-half, what do
you think will happen to its wavelength?
Key Points
 Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive troughs or peaks.
 Frequency is the number of wave cycles or oscillations that pass a specific point
in a given period of time.
 The speed of light has a constant value of
approximately 3.00x108m/s3.00x108m/s in vacuum.
 Wavelength and frequency are inversely related to each other; an increase in

frequency will cause a decrease in wavelength and vice versa while keeping the
speed of light constant.
Electrons Can Behave Like Waves

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to cite experimental evidence which shows
that electrons can behave like waves.
Light has a dual nature––a wave and a particle.
Can a particle also behave like a wave?
Learn about it!

de Broglie Wavelength
In 1924, French physicist Louis de Broglie postulated in his PhD dissertation that if

light with a wave phenomenon acts like a particle, then a particle may also have a
wavelike behavior. He further theorized that the wavelength of a particle is related to
Planck’s constant and inversely proportional to its momentum. This relationship is
represented by the equation known as the de Broglie wavelength:
λ=hpλ=hp
where λλ is the de Broglie wavelength of a particle, hh is Planck's constant equal
to 6.63×10−34J⋅s6.63×10−34J⋅s, and pp is the momentum of the particle.
The Planck’s constant relates the amount of energy that a photon carries to the
frequency of its electromagnetic wave.
The λλ or wavelength shows the wave nature of the electron, while pp or the
momentum shows its particle nature.
Learn about it!
If you compute for the de Broglie wavelength of a 1200 kg vehicle that moves at 10 m/s,
you will get:
λ=5.53x10−38mλ=5.53x10−38m.
This wavelength is too small that it can no longer be observed, and cannot be bent even
when it encounters an opening. This is true with other macroscopic objects. However,
for microscopic particles like electrons, their wavelengths are also very small but have
the same size as the inter-atomic spacing in crystal solids. This small inter-atomic
spacing can cause electrons, which have small wavelengths, to be bent or diffracted, a
phenomenon associated with waves that encounter a barrier or small opening. This was
proven experimentally by Davisson and Germer.
Davisson and Germer Experiment
In 1927, American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer tried to verify a

prediction of classical physics that scattered electrons will appear from all directions
with little dependence on their intensity, on scattering angle, and energy of the primary
beam.
They expected that because of the small size of the electrons, they would still be
experiencing diffused reflection even if they hit a smooth surface like that of a crystal.
The diagram below shows a picture of the instrument used in their experiment.
To prevent other molecules from hitting the electrons, the setup is placed in a vacuum
chamber. They performed the experiment by bombarding a beam of electrons coming
from an electron gun, which is positioned perpendicularly to a single crystal of nickel.
They measured the intensity of the scattered beam after hitting the nickel crystal using a
movable detector, where a galvanometer is attached. A galvanometer is a device
which detects and measures small electric currents.
They found nothing significant in their experiment until their setup was broken. When air
accidentally entered the setup, the nickel was oxidized. To decrease the oxide in the
pure nickel, extreme heat was applied to the nickel and was used again to continue the
experiment. After bombarding the recrystallized nickel with a beam of electrons, they
observed that the intensity of the scattered beam was at the maximum at 50°. They
noted that this peak in the intensity is where constructive
interference occurs. Constructive interference is a process where two waves meet
and add up.
Recrystallizing the nickel made small holes in the crystal which served as a diffraction
grating. A diffraction grating is an optical device made of glass or metal with a band of
equidistant, parallel lines. When a wave encounters a diffraction grating, it bends or
diffracts. In the experiment of Davisson and Germer, the beam of electrons that passed
through several small holes was diffracted. This diffraction of electrons shows one of the
properties of a wave.
Waves that come from different openings or diffraction gratings, which are the small
holes in the recrystallized nickel, meet and form interference patterns. Interference is a
process where two waves meet. Waves can add up or interfere constructively. They
can also interfere destructively when they cancel each other.
Learn about it!

If the electrons exhibit only the behavior a particle, they would produce a pattern of two
bands on a screen after passing through a double-slit barrier as shown in the diagram
below. However, electrons also behave like waves and produce an interference
pattern of bright and dark fringes, as shown in the experiments by Davisson and
Germer and other succeeding experiments using modern setups.
The diagram below shows an electron diffraction tube, an instrument used in modern
setups of the experiments that show the wave nature of electrons.
In this vacuum tube, a narrow beam of electrons is fired by an electron gun. The
electron beam passes through a carbon in the form of graphite, which acts as the
diffraction grating. When the electron beam hits the phosphor screen, the screen glows.
The interatomic spacing in the carbon causes the electrons to diffract, producing ring
patterns in the screen.
Explore
It took scientists a long time to reconcile the dual nature of light, which led to the idea of
the duality of matter. To further see an evidence of this concept, try to observe the
smoke coming from a barbecue grill. From a distance, you will see a wave flow of
smoke going up, but look closely into it, what do you see? Does your observation tell
something about the dual nature of matter?
What do you think?

Aside from diffraction, what are the other characteristics of a wave that differentiates it
from a particle?
Key Points
 In 1924, French physicist Louis de Broglie postulated that a particle, like an
electron, may also behave like a wave.
 The de Broglie wavelength shows that the wavelength of a particle is related to
Planck’s constant, and is inversely proportional to its momentum.
 Electron is one of the subatomic particles in an atom that has a wave-like
behavior. The experiments done by Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in
1927 showed that it can be bent or diffracted, a characteristic behavior of waves.
Dispersion, Scattering, Interference, and Diffraction of Light

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to differentiate dispersion, scattering,
interference, and diffraction of light.
Light is a wave and a particle at the same time; as a wave, it can be dispersed,
scattered, interfered, and diffracted.
Learn about it!

Dispersion
Dispersion is the separation of white light into its seven color components when there
is a refraction or bending of light. White light is composed of the different color
spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Each color has its own
wave frequency; different light frequencies bend at different amounts when they pass
through a prism. When white light passes through a prism, it will refract two times
making the separation of the colors noticeable.
Light Scattering
Light scattering is the ability of particles to absorb light and scatter it in all directions.
Scattering of light components depends on the size of the particles or scatterers; small
particles scatter components of short wavelengths (high frequency) while larger
particles scatter longer wavelengths (low frequency).
Our atmosphere is composed of tiny particles that scatter the color components of white
light. The atmosphere has an abundance in nitrogen and oxygen particles, which can
scatter higher frequency components of white light. They scatter violet the most,
followed by blue, green, and so on. This selective scattering is called the Rayleigh
scattering. Our eyes are more sensitive to blue frequencies of light, which is why we
see the sky as blue.
Another example is the clouds. Clouds appear white because the water droplets in the
clouds are larger than the wavelength of light which scatter all the colors of light equally.
This type of scattering is known as Mie scattering.
Learn about it!

Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of light when it encounters an obstacle or an opening. A

shadow is usually formed when light meets an obstacle. The bending of light is not very
much noticeable, but when you look around the edges of a shadow, you will notice
blurred areas or diffraction fringes; these are the areas where diffraction of light occurs.
The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of light and the size of the
obstacle. Also, the smaller the opening, the greater is the diffraction of light as shown in
diagrams A, B, and C below. The longer the wavelength, the greater is the diffraction of
light as shown in diagrams D and E below.
Example
Diffraction effects are sometimes not helpful when viewing objects under the
microscope. When the wavelength of light has the same size as the object, diffraction
blurs the image. When the wavelength of light is larger than the size of the object, there
is no image seen.
Learn about it!
Interference
Interference is the result of the superposing of waves from different sources. If you
examine a shadow formed by the diffraction of light, you will see fringes on the edge of
the shadow. These fringes or the interference of light waves are the result of the
diffraction of light at different sides of the objects or obstacle which causes the shadow
to be fuzzy. When this property was observed in the visible light, it was considered as a
clear proof of the wave nature of light.
Constructive and Destructive Interference

Constructive interference happens when two identical parts of two waves meet such
as a crest of one wave meets the crest of another wave of the same wavelength; this
would result in a new wave with the same wavelength but twice the amplitude.
Destructive interference happens when two opposite parts of two waves meet for
example a crest of one wave meets the trough of another wave which would result in
the cancellation of the two waves.
The image below shows diffraction of light from two sources or openings. As the waves
from these two openings meet, they interfere and produce interference patterns.
The bright fringes are the areas where the waves interfere constructively, while
the dark fringes are the areas where the waves interfere destructively.
Explore
A rainbow is a phenomenon that involves the dispersion of light which results in a visible
spectrum. It usually occurs after a rain shower when there are huge amount of water
droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Is it possible to see two rainbows at the same
time?
Try it!
Try to see diffraction and interference by holding two pencil leads side by side then
shine a laser beam on the slits and project the image on a wall. Describe what you see.
Can you distinguish interference from diffraction?
What do you think?

How do dispersion, scattering, interference, and diffraction of light prove the wave
nature of light?
Key Points
 Dispersion is the separation of white light into its seven color components when
there is a refraction or bending of light. When white light passes through a prism,
it will refract two times, making the separation of the colors noticeable.
 Light scattering is the ability of particles to absorb light and scatter it in all
directions.
 Diffraction is the bending of light when it encounters an obstacle or an opening.
 Interference is the result of the superposing of waves from different sources.
 Constructive interference happens when two identical parts of two waves
meet, such as when a crest of one wave meets the crest of another wave of the
same wavelength.
 Destructive interference happens when two opposite parts of two waves meet,
for example a crest of one wave meets the trough of another wave, resulting in
the cancellation of the two waves.
Light Phenomena I
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain various light phenomena such
as:
 reflection on the concave and convex sides of a spoon;

 mirages;
 light from a red laser passes more easily through red cellophane than green
cellophane;
 clothing of certain colors appear different in artificial light and in sunlight;
 dark rainclouds; and
 red sunsets.
How do different light phenomena occur?
Learn about it!

Reflection on a Spoon
The two surfaces of a metal spoon are examples of a curved mirror. The front of the
spoon that curves inward represents a concave mirror while the back part which
bulges outward is the convex mirror. When you try to look into the front part of the
spoon, you will see a smaller and inverted version of yourself. On the other hand, if you
look at the back part of the spoon, you will see a smaller but upright image of yourself.
Why is this so?
Your image appears differently on both parts of the spoon because light reflects
differently upon hitting the concave and convex mirrors. When light rays hit the surface
of a concave mirror, the rays tend to meet or converge at the focal point of the mirror
creating a real and inverted image. When light rays strike a convex mirror, the rays
tend to scatter or diverge from the focal point. This means the real rays will not meet
and create the image but the imaginary ones will converge and create the virtual and
upright image.
Mirage
Have you ever experienced seeing a puddle of water where the sky is reflected on an
asphalt road a few meters in front of you while walking on a hot sunny day? And then
when you pass over that part where the water is supposed to be, there was none? This
is referred to as heat haze or a highway mirage.
A mirage is an optical phenomenon which creates a displaced image of an object due

to refraction of light. This happens because the air just above the asphalt road has a
higher temperature than the layer of air above it. The differences in temperature cause
differences in optical densities or refractive indices of the different layers of air which
bends or refracts light.
The image below is another example of a mirage. The sunlight that hits the tree is
reflected towards the observer's eyes. Some reflected light rays that do not pass
through layers of air with differences in temperature reach the observer's eyes without
bending (represented by the straight arrow coming from the tree to the observer).
On the other hand, other reflected light rays will have to travel through the layers of air
with different temperatures. The differences in the temperature of the layers of air bends
or refracts the reflected light rays (represented by the curved broken line coming from
the tree to the observer). The refracted light rays produce a displaced image of the tree
or a mirage (represented by the broken straight line coming from the observer's eyes to
the ground).
Learn about it!
Filter
A filter can either be a colored glass or cellophane that absorbs certain frequencies of

visible light and transmits a particular color frequency that matches the filter's natural
frequency. Light transmission occurs when a transparent object allows light to pass
through it.
When white light hits a blue glass, the glass will absorb all the color frequencies except
for blue. When a red laser hits a red cellophane, the cellophane will transmit red
because their frequencies match. On the other hand, when a red laser hits a green
cellophane, the cellophane will absorb the red light instead of transmitting it because
their frequencies do not match.
Objects Under Sunlight and Artificial Light
The color of an object that we see depends on the reflected color frequency of visible
light that reaches our eyes. Different objects absorb and reflect different color
frequencies. For example, the petals of a yellow bell appears yellow because the petals
absorb all the color frequencies of white light except for yellow which is reflected. The
reflected yellow light reaches our eyes that makes us see the color of the petals.
Objects reflect certain color frequencies based on the source that illuminates them.
Incandescent light bulbs emit lower frequency colors such as red, orange, and yellow.
Thus, the objects with these colors are enhanced under the incandescent light. On the
other hand, higher frequency colors, such as blue, are emitted by fluorescent light bubs.
This means that a red shirt will appear more red under an incandescent light than in a
fluorescent light. In the same way, a blue shirt will appear more blue under a fluorescent
light. We see the objects' "true" colors when they are illuminated by sunlight or daylight.
Learn about it!

Dark Rain Clouds
From the previous lesson, you have learned that clouds appear white because the
water droplets in the clouds scatter all the color frequencies of white light equally. On
the other hand, rain clouds appear dark because they are too thick that sunlight needs
to pass through a lot of water droplets and be absorbed before it can reach the
observer’s eye.
Reddish Sunsets
Recall that the atmospheric particles scatter higher frequency light which makes the sky
appear blue. In a similar way, sunsets appear red because sunlight travels a greater
distance as it reaches the horizon and encounters more atmospheric particles,
scattering higher frequencies of light until only the red light is left.
What do you think?

How do other light phenomena such as haloes, sundogs, primary rainbows, secondary
rainbows, and supernumerary bows occur?
Key Points
 The front of the spoon that curves inward represents a concave mirror while the
back part which bulges outward is the convex mirror.
 A mirage is an optical phenomenon which creates a displaced image of an
object due to refraction of light.
 A filter can either be a colored glass or cellophane that absorbs certain
frequencies of visible light and transmits a particular color frequency that
matches the filter's natural frequency.
 Light transmission occurs when a transparent object allows light to pass
through it.
 Different objects absorb and reflect different color frequencies.
 Objects reflect certain color frequencies based on the source that illuminates
them.
 Incandescent light bulbs emit lower frequency colors such as red, orange, and
yellow.
 Fluorescent light bulbs emit higher frequency colors like blue.
 Rain clouds appear dark because they are too thick that sunlight needs to pass
through a lot of water droplets and be absorbed before it can reach the
observer’s eye.
 Sunsets appear red because sunlight travels a greater distance as it reaches the
horizon and encounters more atmospheric particles, scattering higher
frequencies of light until only the red light is left.
Light Phenomena II
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain various light phenomena such
as: haloes, sundogs, primary rainbows, secondary rainbows, and supernumerary
rainbows.
How do haloes, sundogs, primary rainbows, secondary rainbows, and

supernumerary bows occur?
Learn about it!
Haloes
Solar halo, which is also called gloriole, icebow or nimbus, is a light phenomenon that
happens when light shines through clouds that are composed of ice crystals. Light
refracts upon passing through the ice crystals and also reflects upon hitting the crystal’s
faces; these events cause the formation of the bright ring around the Sun or Moon. Halo
is usually bright white ring but may also have colors due to the dispersion of light upon
striking the ice crystals. Below is a picture of a halo produced around the Sun.
Sundogs
Sundogs, or parhelion (with the sun), happen due to the refraction of light upon hitting
the small crystals that make up cirrus or cirrostratus clouds. These crystals are
hexagonal in shape and with faces almost horizontal upon drifting; these cause the
formation of spots of light (sundog) on either side of the Sun, or the Moon, when light
strikes them at a minimum angle of 22 degrees as shown in the image below. Since red
light is the least refracted compared to blue this makes the inner edge of a sundog to be
red hued.
The image below shows an actual sundog which has a red-hued inner edge.
Learn about it!

Rainbows
A rainbow is a light phenomenon formed from the combination of several light

properties like refraction, reflection, and dispersion. Rainbows are usually seen after
rainfall because they are formed when light strikes the scattered raindrops in the
atmosphere.
As shown in the image below, light is refracted upon hitting a raindrop that serves as the
prism. Due to the differences in the frequency of the colors of visible light, they are
refracted at different amounts and are dispersed. The dispersed colors reflect upon
hitting the other side of the raindrop and then refracted again as they go out. The colors
go out dispersed and reach the observer’s eyes.
What do you think?
Have you seen colors formed when gasoline spills on the ground? Can this be
considered as rainbow formation? Why or why not?
Key Points
 Haloes are light phenomena which are formed when light passes through clouds
and strikes the ice crystals in them.
 Haloes are bright ring which can be colored or just plain white light formed
around the sun or moon.Sundogs are spots of light formed on either side of the
sun or moon which is formed when light strikes the hexagonal ice crystals whose
faces are aligned horizontally.
 Due to the dispersion of light upon passing through the ice crystal, sundogs can
be seen with red colored inner edge since red is the least refracted color.
 Rainbow is usually after a rain shower and with sun shining.
 Primary rainbow is formed when light hits a raindrop, refracted and single
reflection happens inside the raindrop.
 Secondary rainbows are formed when two inner reflections are done instead of
one; this causes the reversal of colors in a secondary rainbow in comparison to a
primary rainbow.
 Supernumerary rainbows are formed when light strikes small raindrops with
almost the same size. These are bands of green, pink and purple colors found
inside the primary rainbow.
Electricity and Magnetism: Franklin, Coulomb, Oersted, Ampere, Biot-Savart, Faraday,

and Maxwell
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain the contributions of Franklin,
Coulomb, Oesrted, Ampere, Biot-Savart, Faraday, and Maxwell to our understanding of
electricity and magnetism.
Before, electricity and magnetism were thought to be two unrelated concepts. It was
until the discovery of several scientists who showed that electricity and magnetism are
inseparable ideas that greatly affect each other.
Who are these scientists and what were their ideas about electricity and
magnetism?
Learn about it!

Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin was the first American who contributed in the field of electricity.
Some of his findings have essentially influenced our idea of electricity now. According to
Franklin, electricity is a fluid that passes from point A to B. When the fluid moves from A
to B, there would be less fluid in A than in B; he used the word negative, meaning less
fluid and positive, meaning more fluid. Today, we know the moving fluid as the
electrons. Franklin was also the first to state the concept of conservation of electric
charge which states that the fluid cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
collected.
Franklin conducted an experiment to prove that lighting was an electrical phenomena.

He used a kite with a key attached to it, to attract lightning and indeed it did. This lead
him to the idea and invention of what is known as lightning rod. A pointed metal placed
on top of a building whose end is connected to the ground. The lightning rod serves as
a pathway for the lightning to the ground instead of damaging a house or building.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb was a French physicist known in formulating an

equation about the force between two electric charges. According to his law known
as Coulomb’s law, the force between electric charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. Aside from his law, Coulomb has invented several machines like the Torsion
balance which was used to measure the density of earth but was most effectively used
to measure weak forces.
Learn about it!

Han Christian Oersted
Han Christian Oersted was a Physics teacher who accidentally discovered the

connection between electricity and magnetism. When he was lecturing about electric
circuit to his class, a compass was present on his table and he noticed the deflection of
the compass needle when he turned the switch of the circuit on and off. He knew that
the compass needle is affected by the presence of a magnetic field provided by a
magnet, but there was no magnet around. This was the beginning of electromagnetism.
Oersted did further investigation and found out that a current-carrying wire produces a
circular magnetic field surrounding the wire and us the electric field ceases, the
magnetic field ceases as well.
Andre-Marie Ampere
Andre-Marie Ampere was a French physicist inspired by the discovery of Oersted.

After knowing that electricity and magnetism are related, Ampere wanted to investigate
the exact relationship of the two. He performed several experiments that showed two
current-carrying wires that are parallel to each other and whose current are in the same
direction attract one another and the two repel whenever the direction of the current in
each is opposite. These results lead him to formulate a law that mathematically
describes the magnetic force between two current-carrying wires known as Ampere’s
law.
Ampere did several inventions that helped improve the field of electromagnetism. One
example would be the first type of what we now called galvanometer that detects the
presence of an electric current. The unit for electric current was given the name ampere
in honor of him.
Learn about it!

Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart
Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart were French scientists who formulated an

equation named after them which tells about fundamental quantitative relationship that
exists between electric current and magnetic field. It was proven that a current-carrying
wire produces its own magnetic field. Biot-Savart law tells about the value of the
magnetic field produce by a certain source, that this value is affected by amount of
current in a wire and the length of the wire. The amount of magnetic field produced is
also affected by the orientation of the magnetic field and electric field, if the two are 90
degrees with respect to each other, magnetic field produced will be of highest value and
decreases as the angle between the two decreases as well and yields zero when the
two lies parallel to one another.
Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday was most famous for his discovery of electromagnetic induction which
is the production of electricity from changing magnetic field. Studying the works of
Oersted and Ampere, Faraday was able to show that a changing magnetic field
produces electric field. His discoveries lead to many inventions that greatly changed the
way of life of people. He was able to invent the first of all the wonderful machines used
to generate electricity like electric motor, electric transformer, electric generator and
dynamo. He also has a law known as Faraday’s law of induction which states that the
amount of electricity produced is equal to the rate of change in the magnetic flux moving
in the surface of a wire loop.
James Clerk Maxwell
James Maxwell was a Scottish physicist best known for his four equations that tells
about how electric and magnetic interacts, propagates and are affected by other
materials. He used Faraday’s and Ampere’s findings and combined them to create four
equations that mathematically describe the behaviour of electricity and magnetism
being considered as inseparable.
The four equations include Gauss’ law, Gauss’ Magnetism Law, Faraday’s Law, and
Ampere’s Law.
 Gauss’ law tells how electric fields acts around electric charges.

 Gauss’ magnetism law states that the divergence of the magnetic flux density is
equal to zero.
 Faraday’s law states that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field
 Ampere’s law states that a changing electric field produces magnetic field and a
changing magnetic field yields an electric field.
The four laws of Maxwell have revolutionized the world of Physics after Newton.
Explore!
Make a time line that will show the progress of the discoveries of the given physicists in
electricity and magnetism. Try to determine overlaps on dates and see the importance
of searching and using proven facts to pursue new discoveries.
What do you think?

If all these discoveries and findings were not found and discovered what do you think
will our current life be?
Key Points
 Benjamin Franklin discovered that lightning was electrical in nature and that
electricity involves a movement of what he called fluid in which presence of
greater fluid.
 Charles-Augustin de Coulomb was a French physicist known in formulating an
equation about the force between two electric charges.
 Han Christian Oersted was a Physics teacher who accidentally discovered the
connection between electricity and magnetism.
 Andre-Marie Ampere was a French physicist who investigated the relationship
of electricity and magnetism.
 Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart were French scientists who formulated an
equation named after them which tells about fundamental quantitative
relationship that exists between electric current and magnetic field.
 Michael Faraday was most famous for his discovery of electromagnetic
induction which is the production of electricity from changing magnetic field.
 James Maxwell was a Scottish physicist known for his four equations about how
electric and magnetic interacts, propagates, and are affected by other materials.
How Hertz Produced Radio Pulses

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how Hertz produced radio
pulses.
Recall that visible light is only one of the seven electromagnetic (EM) waves. Another
type of EM wave is the radio wave which is widely used for communication and
transmission of information regardless the distance of the sender and receiver. Radio
waves are naturally created by astronomical bodies or lightning but can also be created
artificially to serve its purpose.
When and how was the first man-made radio wave created and who first
generated it?
Learn about it!

In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell published his theory about EM waves. According
to Maxwell’s theory, EM waves move at the speed of light, c=3x108m/sc=3x108m/s,
and is created by oscillating electric and magnetic fields moving perpendicular to each
other, in which a changing electric field yields changing magnetic field and vice versa.
The first person to succeed was Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. In 1886, Hertz was able to
create the first man-made radio wave by using induction coil, Leyden jar as a condenser
and a spark gap.
Learn about it!

Hertz' First Transmission of Radio Waves
The poles of the spark gap are made up of two 2-cm radius spheres. The picture below
depicts the image of Hertz’ set-up.
Inducing high voltage to the induction coil caused a spark discharge between the spark
gaps. Relating this to Maxwell’s theory, where changing electric fields or magnetic fields
will produce EM waves, Hertz thought that whenever a spark is produced, EM waves
will be transmitted. To check if this was true, he created a receiver made of looped
copper wire whose ends were made of small knobs with small gaps in between. He ran
the experiment again and saw that a spark was produced at the receiver loop, which
means that EM waves were transmitted. His experiment was the first transmission and
reception of radio waves.
Learn about it!

The Speed of Electromagnetic Waves
To calculate the speed of the EM waves, Hertz performed another experiment that
aimed the radiation into a wide metal sheet. A standing wave was formed from which he
was able to measure the distance between nodes which served as the wavelength (λ)
(λ) of the EM wave while the **frequency** (f)(f) was calculated from the frequency of
the oscillator. From these two quantities, Hertz was able to calculate the speed of the
EM wave (v=λf)(v=λf).
The speed of the EM wave was equivalent to the speed of light which served as a proof
of Maxwell’s theory. The frequency of a wave, which is the number of cycles created in
a unit of time, was named hertz, in honor of his name.
Try it!
Research about other experiments that tried to prove Maxwell's theory.
What do you think?

What do you think would have happened to our communication system if Hertz was not
successful in his experiment?
Key Points
 Maxwell’s theory states that EM waves are produced by oscillating electric and
magnetic field and moves at the speed of light.
 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was the first scientist to prove Maxwell’s hypothesis by
conducting an experiment showing the first transmission and reception of radio
waves.
 Hertz' experiment proved that EM waves travel at the speed of light and is
created by changing electric and magnetic fields.
Theory of Special Relativity
THE PHYSICS IN COSMOS
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how special relativity resolved
the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.
Newtonian mechanics also known as classical mechanics has concepts that do not
entirely agree with all known theories in Physics like Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory
but when Einstein presented his theory of special relativity, the conflict between these
two great ideas was resolved.
How did theory of special relativity resolve this conflict?
Learn about it!

Newtonian or classical mechanics discusses the everyday motion of the objects of
normal size around us including the force that causes these motions. The concepts
under Newtonian mechanics are mainly based on ideas of Newton about motion which
correctly describes the state of motion of an object whether at rest or moving in a
straight path and the forces that maintain and can cause changes in the body’s states of
motion.
Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory consists of four formulas gathered from the different
works of Faraday and other physicists that unites all the concepts of electricity and
magnetism and had the findings that electric and magnetic fields spread as waves. In
1886, Hertz proved that these waves really exist and the propagation speed of these
waves can be calculated using the formula:
c=1ε_0−μ_0√c=1ε_0−μ_0
where:
cc is the speed of light
ε_0ε_0 is the electric field constant
μ_0μ_0 is the magnetic field constant
Learn about it!

Maxwell observed that the value of the above expression is equivalent to the speed of
light c (3.0 x 108 m/s) which implies that speed of light c must also be constant. This is
where the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell’s theory starts.
If we consider a moving object of speed 100 m/s and placed a switched on flashlight in
it, according to Newtonian mechanics the speed of the light coming from the flashlight in
this scenario would be 100 m/s + c and this contradicts what Maxwell’s theory tells that
speed of light is a constant value. Which is true between these two concepts?
The theory of special relativity proposed by Einstein in 1905 explains the problems that
involve motion of frames of reference at constant linear velocity with respect to one
another and is based on two postulates: (1) the laws of Physics are the same in all
inertial frames of reference moving with constant velocity relative to one another and (2)
the speed of light is the same in all inertial frames of reference. The second postulate
clearly tells that Maxwell’s idea is correct but does mean Newtonian mechanics is
wrong? Not totally, but the postulates of Einstein tell us that Newtonian mechanics has
limitations in terms of its application. If we consider moving objects with speed very
small compared to the speed of light, Newtonian mechanics applies like the speeds of a
flying ball and running car but if we consider speeds that is close to the speed of light a
new concept must be included in order to supply the limit of Newtonian mechanics and
that is the Lorentz transformation the counterpart of the Galilean transformation of the
Newtonian mechanics.
Key Points
 Newtonian or classical mechanics tells that the measures speed of light should
depend on the motion of the observer.
 Maxwell's electromagnetic theory tells that the value of the speed of light is
constant.
 Theory of special relativity tells that the speed of light is constant in all frames of
reference.
How the Speeds and Distances of Far-Off Objects are Estimated

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the speeds and distances of
far-off objects are estimated (e.g., cosmic distance ladder and Doppler Effect).
The Earth is just a tiny dot in comparison to the vast universe where it belongs. It is
surrounded by billions of heavenly bodies whose light needs to travel billions of light
years to reach the Earth.
Recall that a light year is a unit used to express the length traveled by light in a year
and is approximately 9.5x1015m9.5x1015m. If the light coming from heavenly bodies
needs to travel billions of light years, then that means these bodies are very far from the
Earth.
How do astronomers measure the distance of heavenly bodies from the Earth?
Also, how are their speeds measured?
Learn about it!

Cosmic Distance Ladder
There are several ways to determine the distance of far-off objects. The most common
among them is the cosmic distance ladder. No single method can be used to measure
the distances of all heavenly bodies than can be seen from earth. So the cosmic
distance ladder is composed of several methods that build on one another. The data
obtained in the first step of the ladder is used in the succeeding step and so on.
The base of the ladder is a distance measurement done directly without any
assumptions about the stars’ characteristics. For example, the measurement of
one astronomical unit (AU), which is the measure of the distance of Earth from the
Sun, is considered the base. One AU is approximately 1.50x1011m1.50x1011m. This
value is used in measuring the parallax of a star.
Parallax
Parallax is the apparent change in the position of an object due to change in the way it
is perceived. It is used in measuring distance of stars that are approximately 300 light
years away.
In measuring parallax, astronomers take a picture of a specific star, wait for six months
to pass so that the Earth has moved two AU, and then take a photo of the same star to
compare the change in its position.
The diagram above shows how parallax can be calculated. In the initial position of the
Earth (a), a photo of the star (d) is taken. After six months when the Earth has traveled
approximately two AU (b), another photo of the same star is taken.
The image of the star in the two photos will appear to shift slightly due to the change in
the position of how the star was seen. These shifts serve as the angles of an isosceles
triangle. The base of the triangle is two AU, and the length of the sides is equal to the
distance of the Earth to the star.
The d is the distance of the star and is expressed in parsec. Parsec (parallax second) is

the distance of a star that has a parallax of two arcsecond. Arcsecond is
the 60th60th part of one arcminute and one arcminute is the 60th60th part of one
degree.
One parsec is approximately 3.26 light years
or 3.09x1013km3.09x1013km. αα and ββ are angles whose difference divided by two
will give the parallax angle of the star expressed in arcsecond.
For example, the difference between αα and ββ is 0.6 arcsecond, the parallax angle (P)
can solve by dividing this value by two so P = 0.3 arcsecond.
If P = 1 arcsecond (1/3600 degree), distance d can be calculated by the formula :
d= r/(tan P ) = 150000000000/(tan 1 ") = 3 x 1013 m
This calculated d is equivalent to one parallax second (parsec) which is the basic unit
for measuring astronomical distances. The distances in parsec can be calculated by the
formula
d= 1/(P in arcsecond)
From our first problem, distance d will be:
d= 1/(0.3 arcsecond) = 3.3 parsec
Learn about it!

Spectroscopic Method
For stars whose parallax cannot be measured using the ladder, the spectroscopic
method is used. Spectroscopic method requires that the star’s apparent brightness
and spectrum be first observed.
Astronomers measure the brightness of the stars thru the process is known
as photometry. Based on Physics concepts, the brightness and distance have an
inverse-square relationship. Mathematically it can be expressed as
brightness=1distance2brightness=1distance2
In the equation, brightness decreases proportionally to the square of the distance or
when distance is doubled, the brightness of the star will be quartered of its original.
The standard measure of the brightness of a star in astronomy is the brightness of a

star that is 10 parsec away from earth. This brightness is called absolute
brightnesswhile the actual brightness of the star that we see here on earth is known as
its apparent brightness.
How do we measure the distance of the star from us using the measurement of
their brightness?
By looking at their spectral lines under the process known as spectroscopy,
astronomers analyze the spectra of nearby stars whose parallax are known to those
which are not. Astronomers are able to determine the spectral type of a star’s spectrum
by analysing its spectral lines and plotting the observations in the Hertzsprung - Russell
diagram. Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) Diagram is a graph that shows star’s luminosity
versus its temperature. It is an important tool in determining the distance of far-off
objects because astronomers believe that the stars near Earth are similar to the stars
far from earth.
If the star’s location can be plotted on HR Diagram, its absolute brightness can be read
off. Knowing the absolute brightness of a cluster of stars and comparing this to the
absolute brightness of the stars with known distance enables astronomers to roughly
estimate the distance of the cluster form Earth. The observed cluster is shifted vertically
in the HR diagram until it overlaps with the model stars (stars with known distance). The
difference in the magnitude that was used to join the two groups is called distance
modulus which is the difference between apparent and absolute magnitude (m – M)
and is the direct measure of the distance in the formula:
m−M=5logd−5m−M=5logd−5
where:
m is the apparent magnitude
M is the absolute magnitude
d is the distance to the object in parsec.
Manipulating this will give the formula for distance:
d=10(m−M+5)/5d=10(m−M+5)/5
Example
A star in a certain constellation was found to have an apparent magnitude of 3.5 with a
spectral class of G8. According to HR Diagram, the star shows an absolute magnitude
of 5.7.
Substituting this in the formula
d=10(m−M+5)/5d=10(m−M+5)/5
d=10(3.5−5.7+5)/5d=10(3.5−5.7+5)/5
d=3.63parsecsd=3.63parsecs
Learn about it!

Doppler Effect
Doppler Effect is used by astronomers to estimate the speeds of far-off objects. It is

the shift in the wavelength of the emitted light of an object which is proportional to the
speed with which the object moves. Doppler Effect occurs when the star emitting light is
moving with respect to an observer. The Doppler formula used for speeds relatively
smaller than the speed of light is:
λ−λoλo=vcλ−λoλo=vc
where:
λλ is the measured wavelength

λoλo is the original or rest wavelength
vv is the speed of the object
cc is the speed of light
Example
A certain absorption line found in the lab have a rest wavelength
of 5x1010km5x1010km and is found to have a measured wavelength
of 5.05x1010km5.05x1010km in analysing a galaxy. What is the velocity of the
galaxy?
Since speed (v)is being asked, the formula will be:
v=c(λ−λoλo)v=c(λ−λoλo)
Substituting the givens will give us
v=c(5.05x1010km−5x1010km5x1010km)v=c(5.05x1010km−5x1010km5x1010km)
v=c(0.01)v=c(0.01)
The speed of the galaxy is .01 times of the speed of light or 3x106m/s3x106m/s.
Try it!
Try to see parallax on your own.
Place your index just in front of you and try to look at it with you right eye open and your
left eye close then look at it with your left eye open and right eye close this time. What
have you noticed? What difference did you see upon changing the open and close eye?
Can you now imagine how parallax is used in determining the distance of a distant star?
What do you think?

What method can be used to determine the distance of Mars from Earth?
Key Points
 Cosmic distance ladder is a succession of methods used by astronomers to
estimate the distance of far-off objects. The ladder evolved from the fact that
there is no single method that can measure all the distance of star or galaxy that
can be seen from earth.
 The measure of the distance from Earth to Sun is called astronomical unit (AU)
and is approximately 1.50 x 1011m. This value is used in measuring the parallax
of a star that is at least 300 lightyears away
 Parallax is the apparent change in the position of an object due to change in the
way it is perceived. It is used to measure distance of stars that are approximately
300 lightyears away.
 Standard candles are those objects with known luminosity.
 Luminosity of a star is the measure of the total energy it emits per unit of time. It
depends on both radius and temperature of the star and is also the measure of
the star’s absolute brightness. Doppler Effect is the shift in the wavelength of the
light emitted by a star and is used to measure the star’s speed.
An Expanding Universe
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how we live in an expanding
universe that used to be hot and is approximately 14 billion years old.
Looking at a clear sky at night enables us to have a little glimpse of what is beyond our
atmosphere. The universe where the Earth belongs has been a study of scientists for so
long, and is still being studied to answer the question that involves the end of it. Though
no concrete answer is yet found about how the universe will end, let us try to
understand first how it began and what is currently happening with it right now.
Learn about it!

The Universe as Perceived by Early Scientists
Early scientists believed that the life of the universe is infinite. Physicists today believe
otherwise and say that the Sun that will burn out in 4.5 billion years as it expands into a
supernova, which will destroy everything on its path including the Earth. Before this
present conclusion came about, different scientists have argued and laid down different
theories, concepts, and observations that would disprove the belief that the universe is
infinite.
Some scientist laid different concepts and theories of why the universe is infinite. These
scientists include Heinrich Olbers, Sir Isaac Newton, and Albert Einstein.
 Heinrich Olbers, a German physician and astronomer, argued that if universe is

infinite, we should be seeing a night full of stars having no part of darkness. But
that is not what is observed which presumed that the universe is finite.
 Sir Isaac Newton, an English physicist and mathematician, introduced the
concept of gravity—a force of attraction, and argued that if the universe is finite,
it should be collapsing on itself due to the attractive force between objects within
the universe.This did not happen as well.
 Albert Einstein, a German-born physicist, developed his theory of gravity in the
theory of general relativity. His equations contained a cosmological constant that
cancelled the gravitational force of bodies and resulted to a static universe.
Learn about it!

All of the previous ideas about the universe as infinite have been disregarded
when Edwin Hubble, an American Astronomer, studied the Doppler shift
measurements of the velocities and the distance moved by galaxies. From these, he
found out that the universe is expanding.
The Hubble's Law
Hubble was able to figure this out by studying further the work of Vesto Slipher where
Slipher found out that the light emitted by bodies in the universe were shifted to the red
spectrum of light and this means that these bodies were moving away from Earth.
Hubble discovered the direct relationship between the distance of distant galaxies from
earth and how fast they are moving away from earth. This was known as the Hubble’s
Law and is shown by the equation:
v=Horv=Hor
where:
vv is the recessional velocity

HoHo is the Hubble's constant equal
to 70km/sMpc=20km/sMly70km/sMpc=20km/sMly (Mpc for mega parses and Mly for
mega light years); HoHo is also the value of the rate of expansion of the universe
rr is the distance of the distant galaxy from Earth
This equation shows how fast bodies are moving away from earth. Hubble plotted his
findings on a graph and found a linear relationship between v and r and shows that the
further the galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from Earth. This led him to the
idea that the universe is expanding just like what happens to raisin bread when it
expands as shown below. The raisins tend to move away from each other and the
further the raisin the greater the distance it moved.
Learn about it!
The Expanding Universe
After the discovery of the expanding universe, which is still happening up to now,
scientists thought that in its beginning it was smaller and could have started as a single
point and this point at some time exploded in what is known as the big bang which was
the beginning of the expanding universe and is approximately 14 billion years ago.
If all the galaxies surrounding us move away from our galaxy does it mean we are the
center of the universe? The answer is no. The truth is, we are also moving away from
them. All objects in the universe are moving away from each other at the rate shown by
Hubble’s equation. This means that the universe has no center and is expanding in all
directions.
To how long will the universe expands, depends on the measurement of the average
density (w) of matter in the universe and (Ho) the rate at which the universe is
expanding.
Scientists have formulated three possibilities of how universe would eventually end.
1. The open universe that tends to expand without end.

2. The flat universe which also tends to expand, will eventually slow down its
expansion to zero.
3. The close universe's expansion is limited and is bound to collapse on itself.
One of these three possibilities depends on two quantities, w and Ho, and these
quantities are being measured as accurate as possible by scientists at present.
Explore!
Have with you a deflated balloon. Place several dots on its surface before inflating it.
When you pump air inside the balloon, what happens to the distance of the dots relative
to each other? Can you point a dot that can serve as the center of the balloon? How
would you relate this to how our universe expands?
Key Points
 The universe begun as a single dot and exploded 14 billion years ago and has
been expanding ever since.
 The expanding universe was discovered by Edwin Hubble by studying the
Doppler Effect on the light spectrum of distant galaxies and found out that these
lights were all shifted to the red end of the spectrum.
 Hubble stated that there is a direct relationship between the speed of distant
galaxies and their distance from earth and this is known as Hubble’s law.
 Based on the equations of the expanding universe, the universe can possibly end
as one of the following: open, flat or close universe.
 If the universe is an open universe it would expand forever.
 If the universe is a flat universe it would expand but the expansion will slow down
to zero.
 If the universe is a close universe it would expand and collapse into itself.
Pluto was Once Thought to Be a Planet

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain why Pluto is no longer
considered as a planet.
When Pluto was discovered in 1930 until 2006, it was considered as the ninth planet of
our solar system.
What was the reason why Pluto was removed from the list?
Learn about it!
Scientists have long before predicted that the solar system has a ninth planet and
named it Planet X. Until 1930, when the American astronomer, Clyde Tombaugh,
observed in his photographic plates, an object that seemed to have moved from one
position to another. After the staff in Lowell Observatory in Arizona studied and
confirmed the images, they finally named Planet X as Pluto, from the Roman god of the
underworld, as suggested by an 11-year old girl from England.
Pluto and Eris
The mass of Pluto was not yet determined until its largest moon, Charon was
discovered. Though Pluto is almost as heavy as the moon of Earth and only 2400 km
wide it stood as the ninth planet in the solar system until another celestial body was
discovered in 2005 and was named Eris.
Eris was of the same structure but bigger and heavier than Pluto. With this discovery
many questioned the classification of Pluto as a planet or will Eris and other celestial
body with almost the same mass as Pluto be considered planet as well. For the past
years, there was no exact definition of what a planet is, but the need for one was felt
during this time. This led the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to find and provide
criteria on how a celestial body can be considered a planet. In 2006, IAU gave the three
criteria which are:
 The celestial body must be spherical due to its own gravity that pulls itself into a
round shape.
 The celestial body must orbit around the Sun.
 The celestial body must be able to clear its path from other celestial bodies.
Learn about it!

Pluto as a Dwarf Planet
Pluto passed the first two criteria but failed on the third. Due to Pluto’s very small mass,
the smallest planet in the solar system, it is not able to dominate other celestial bodies
on its path, which means that it is not able to consume or remove other bodies along its
orbit. For this reason, Pluto has been removed from being a planet and was considered
as a drawf planet.
Dwarf planets are those celestial bodies that satisfy the first two criteria given above but
fail on the third just like Pluto and Eris. There are other dwarf planets discovered like
Makemake and Haumea which like Pluto and Eris are found beyond the planet Neptune
and another one which is considered as the biggest asteroid – Ceres which is found in
the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. All those icy-cold bodies found within 50
astronomical unit (AU) from Neptune is part of a region in space called Kuiper Belt.
Explore!
Look at the picture below. You will see the orbit taken by the eight planets as well as
Pluto around the Sun. Aside from the fact that Pluto was not able to satisfy all three
criteria to be a planet, it has other several differences compared to the eight remaining
planets. One can be seen below. Can you describe the orbit taken by Pluto relative to
the orbits of the rest of the planets?
Key Points
 International Astronomical Union made criteria for a celestial body to be
considered a planet these are: the body must be spherical, must orbit around the
sun and must be able to dominate other celestial bodies along its path.
 Pluto was removed from being a planet for it failed on the third criterion; due to
its small mass, it is not able to clear the smaller bodies along its path.
 Celestial bodies that satisfy the first two criteria of being a planet but fail on the
third just like Pluto are called dwarf planets.
 Eris, Makemake, Haumea and Ceres are just some of the dwarf planets found in
the solar system.
 Kuiper Belt is the region behind Neptune that extends up to 50 AU that contains
icy-cold bodies like Pluto and its moons.
How Doppler Shifts and Transits Can Be Used to Detect Extrasolar Planets
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how Doppler shifts and Transits
can be used to detect extrasolar planets.
How can scientists identify these exoplanets knowing that planets do not have
their own light to emit?
Learn about it!

Astronomers before have wondered if the planets within the solar system are not the
only planets in the whole universe. Since 1995, they have discovered so many
extrasolar planets.
An extrasolar planet or an exoplanet is a planet that revolves around a star other than
the Sun. There are several ways that can be used to find extrasolar planets like Doppler
shifts and transit. These two methods are both indirect way of detecting an extrasolar
planets. Direct methods like taking a picture of the planet itself is only possible for near
planets and is so hard to be done for those that are millions of light years away.
Learn about it!

The Doppler Shifts
Doppler Effect is the change in wavelength of light emitted by an object due to its
motion. This method is used to detect the speed of distant objects and can also be used
to detect extrasolar planets. In Physics, when sound source is moving towards an
observer, the wavelengths of the sound tends to move closer to each other creating a
sound with higher pitch since shorter wavelength corresponds to sound with higher
frequency and thus results to higher pitch and when the sound source is moving away
from an observer the wavelengths tend to be further apart creating a sound with lower
pitch until nothing is heard by the observer. This happens to light as well. When a light
source moves closer to an observer, light waves are compressed producing shorter
wavelengths corresponding to blue light (blueshifted). On the other hand, when a light
source moves away from an observer, light waves are stretched producing longer
wavelengths corresponding to red light (redshifted).
This information is used by astronomers to detect stars whose spectral lines are moving
back and forth because these stars may have planets orbiting them. These spectral
lines shows that a planet is moving around it since a planet having its gravitational
attraction to the star affects the star’s line of orbit. Just like our Sun and the planets
orbiting around it, each of these bodies is exerting gravitational force on one another
and this attraction creates a common center of mass for each pair of planet-sun in the
solar system. Since Sun is so massive compared to any of the planets in the solar
system, this common center of mass resides inside the sun and this makes the Sun
somehow wiggle on its movement causing a shift on its spectral lines. This same thing
happens to other stars with exoplanets orbiting them. When a star has an exoplanet
orbiting around it, as observed by scientists Tthe star sometimes spins towards earth
and sometimes away from earth . When Doppler shifts are observed on a star there is
great possibility that there is an extrasolar planet orbiting it since the shift in the spectral
lines of the star is due to the gravitational attraction between the star and an unseen
planet. Unfortunately this method can only detect planets that have gravitational force
significant enough to cause change in the spin of its parent star which means this
method can only detect planets with huge masses. Extrasolar planets as heavy as earth
are hard to be detected using this method.
Learn about it!

Transit
Another way of detecting extrasolar planet when a planet crosses in front of its parent
star that causes a slight decrease in the star’s brightness. This method is called transit.
It allows scientists to describe the extrasolar planet’s density and size relative to its
parent star.
Based on observations of scientists, when an extrasolar planet as heavy as Jupiter

passes across its parent star it causes a 1% decrease in the brightness of the star. Just
like the Doppler shift method, this method can only detect extrasolar planets that are
very large and gaseous.
Most of the exoplanets found were similar to our planet Jupiter and were named Hot
Jupiters. A star called HD 209458 were found to have these kind of exoplanet through
the transit method since a decrease in the star’s brightness was periodically found at
the same time that the exoplanet is expected to pass in front of it.
What do you think?
If our planet earth passes across the sun, how do you think would the earth look like?
Will it cause a significant decrease in the brightness of the sun?
Key Points
 Doppler shift is used to detect extrasolar planets by detecting stars whose
spectral lines periodically shift to either red or blue, this leads the scientists that
an extrasolar planet might be orbiting around it.
 A star and a planet orbiting around it creates a common center mass where they
tend to move around, but since stars are more massive compared to a planet the
common center of mass is usually found inside the star making the star wiggle in
its motion which causes the shift in its spectral lines as seen on earth.
 Transit is when a planet passes across its parent star that causes a significant
decrease in the star’s brightness.
 Both these methods can only detect extrasolar planets of big masses since there
must be a significant effect in either the parent star’s orbit or brightness must be
seen and this is only possible with extrasolar planets of huge mass.

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The Formation of the Light Elements in the Big Bang Theory

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

What elements were produced during the big bang expansion?

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In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz measured the wavelengths of light

In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light from galaxies to calculate the

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias discovered a low, steady “hum” from their

Abundance of Light Elements

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nuclei to form heavier ones.

Tritium or hydrogen-3 was produced from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a

Helium-4 was also synthesized from deuterium and helium-3.

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Lithium-7 was synthesized from helium-4 and tritium.

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The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation and Evolution

How were elements heavier than beryllium formed?

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What do you think?

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The sequence proceeds as follows:

The cycle proceeds as follows:

3. Carbon-13 captures a proton and releases a gamma ray to become nitrogen-14.

5. Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay and becomes nitrogen-15.

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How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

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Nickel-58 radioactively decomposes to a more stable iron-56 through subsequent

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Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes.

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Slow neutron capture or s-process happens when there is a small number of

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What do you think?

 Neutron capture process is often accompanied by subsequent 0−1β−10β decay.

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

Can matter be infinitely divided into smaller particles?

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What do you think?

What is the structure of the atom?

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In 1803, John Dalton, a British scientist, did experiments on mixtures of gases. He

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In 1897, Joseph John Thomson, a British physicist, proposed an atomic model known

In the early 1900s, Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born physicist, established the

In 1923, James Chadwick proved the existence of the neutron, which is also situated

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Quantum Mechanical Model

What do you think?

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In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electrons by conducting a series of experiments

Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

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