Act. 2

ACTIVITY NO.
2: We Are All Made of Star Stuff (Formation of the Heavy Elements)

NAME: DATE:
YEAR & SECTION: SCORE:
Concept Notes:
Cosmic ray spallation is a form of naturally occurring nuclear fission and nucleosynthesis. It refers to the formation of
chemical elements from the impact of cosmic rays on an object.
Summary of the Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective by Carl Sagan
Sagan covers several topics, and focusses mainly on the possibility of extraterrestrial intelligence, the likelihood of the
existence of more advanced civilizations, and their distribution in the local galaxy, and in the universe. He describes the
hypothetical opinions of more advanced intelligences and their views of the Earth, as well as communication with
mankind. He also discusses the popularity of UFO sightings and attempts mathematically to portray the probability of
such events. Sagan also discusses his view of astrology as a pseudoscience.
Key Terms:
Fusion is the combining of nuclei to form a bigger and heavier nucleus.
Isotope is a form of a chemical element whose atomic nucleus contains a specific number of neutrons, in addition to the
number of protons that uniquely defines the element.
Stellar Evolution is the process by which a star changes over the course of time.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis is the process by which the natural abundances of the chemical elements within stars vary due
to nuclear fusion reactions in the cores and overlying mantles of stars.
Supernova Nucleosynthesis is a theory of the production of many different chemical elements in supernova explosions,
first advanced by Fred Hoyle in 1954.
Proton-Proton Chain Reaction is one of the two (known) sets of fusion reactions by which stars convert hydrogen to
helium. It dominates in stars the size of the Sun or smaller.
Triple Alpha Process Nucleosynthesis is a set of nuclear fusion reactions by which three helium-4 nuclei (alpha particles)
are transformed into carbon.
Alpha Ladder/Process is one of two classes of nuclear fusion reactions by which stars convert helium into heavier
elements, the other being the triple-alpha process.
CNO Cycle (for carbon–nitrogen–oxygen) is one of the two known sets of fusion reactions by which stars convert
hydrogen to helium. It is a catalytic cycle.
Main Sequence Star is any star that is fusing hydrogen in its core and has a stable balance of outward pressure from
core nuclear fusion and gravitational forces pushing inward.
Red Giant Star is a dying star in the last stages of stellar evolution.
Supernova - is a dying star in the last stages of stellar evolution. The largest explosion that takes place in space.
R-Process/Rapid Neutron Capture Process involves rapid capture of neutrons by the atom. It is a set of reactions in
nuclear astrophysics that are responsible for the creation (nucleosynthesis) of approximately half the atomic nuclei
heavier than iron.
S-Process/Slow Neutron Capture Process - involving slow neutron capture in red giants. It is a series of reactions in
nuclear astrophysics which occur in stars, particularly AGB stars. It is responsible for the creation (nucleosynthesis) of
approximately half the atomic nuclei heavier than iron.
Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by
which elements are formed within stars. The abundances of these elements change as the stars evolve.
Evolution of Stars
The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud. As the
cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a stellar core called protostar. Due to strong gravitational force, the
protostar contracts and its temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K, nuclear
reactions begin. The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase pressure and stop the contraction. When
the contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become a main sequence star.
In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the
proton-proton chain. When most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into
helium, fusion stops, and the pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes
the star to a point that helium and hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted
to carbon in the core while hydrogen is converted to helium in the shell
surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.
When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon, then the rate of fusion decreases. Gravity
again squeezes the star. In a low-mass star (with mass less than twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a
carbon fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer material of
the star is blown off into space. The only thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon
core. The star becomes a white dwarf.
However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough mass such that temperature and pressure
increase to a point where carbon fusion can occur. The star goes through a series of stages where heavier elements are
fused in the core and in the shells around the core. The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion; neon from
oxygen fusion; magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and iron from silicon fusion. The star
becomes a multiple-shell red giant.
The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon

fusion. Elements lighter than iron can be fused because when two of
these elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass lower
than the sum of their masses. The missing mass is released as energy.
Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases energy.
However, this does not happen to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing
energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei requires an input of energy.
Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron can be produced
in a massive star, but no elements heavier than iron are produced.
When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the
star is doomed. Gravity squeezes the core until the star explodes and
releases a large amount of energy. The star explosion is called a
supernova.
Pieces of Evidence
The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the early part of the 20th century provided a crucial
piece of evidence to support the star formation theory. Other pieces of evidence come from the study of different stages
of formation happening in different areas in space and piecing them together to form a clearer picture.
Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different stages of star formation. For instance,
astronomers measure the IR released by a protostar and compare it to the IR from a nearby area with zero extinction.
Extinction in astronomy means the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by gases and dust particles
between an emitting astronomical object and an observer. The IR measurements are then used to approximate the
energy, temperature, and pressure in the protostar.
Exercises: Complete the diagram by filling in missing terms.
B. Additional Exercises:
1. Which of the following processes is
likely to generate the heaviest element?
a. CNO cycle b. r-process c. triple-
alpha process d. Big Bang
nucleosynthesis
2. Below is the Alpha Ladder or Process:
Which of the following reactions is not a

part of the alpha ladder?
3. If an element is used up by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning” even though no actual combustion
occurs. Which of the following processes is likely to involve “carbon burning”?
a. alpha ladder b. CNO cycle c. triple-alpha process d. s-process
4. Modified True or False: If the statement is true, write True. If it is False, replace the underlined portion with the
correct word or phrase.
a. A star gets lighter as time goes on.
b. The heavy elements in a star are found in its core.
c. Most of the heaviest elements were formed in stellar nucleosynthesis.
d. In stellar nucleosynthesis, heavier elements are formed from combining lighter ones.

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ACTIVITY NO.

2: We Are All Made of Star Stuff (Formation of the Heavy Elements)

The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon

Which of the following reactions is not a

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