1 Basic Electronics

and Computer
Funda mentals

Introduction
Computer is an electronic equipment that works on
electricity. Every component of a computer needs
electrical power to run and this power can come from a
wall outlet in the form of alternating current or from a
battery in the form of direct current. Internal components
of a computer receive the power from the internal power
supply known as SMPS (switched mode power supply).
A computer installation technician must understand the
basic principles of electrical and electronics, and also
be aware of the computer fundamentals, its internal
components, and working.
This Unit explains the basic concept of electricity and
energy foundation, electrical quantities  —  current, voltage, and
resistance; the electronic components  —  active and passive,
integrated circuits (IC), and semiconductor memory.
Further, the Unit also describes the basic components of
a computer system, hardware and software, functional
units of a computer, primary and secondary memory
of a computer, different types of computers along with
their capacity. Various input and output devices are used
to enter the data in the computer as well as to produce
output. The variety of input and output devices, their
functionality and connectivity to the computer system
are also discussed in this Unit.

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 1
Chapter

Basic Electronics

Introduction
Electricity has an important place in modern society.
In the current age, most of the electronic devices work
on electricity. Computer is also an electronic device
which works mainly on electricity. The peripheral
devices attached to the computer also work on
electricity. It is necessary to provide proper and
continuous power to the electronics equipment to
work properly. For this purpose, the surge protector
and uninterrupted power supply (UPS) are used,
which also work on electricity. Hence, electricity has
an important place in the world of computing and
computer. In this Chapter, you will understand the
basic concept of electricity, electrical quantities, and
various electronic components.

Electricity
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated
with the presence and flow of electric charge.
It has a wide range of well-known effects, such as
lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction,
and electrical current.

Energy Foundation
Electric charge is a fundamental physical property of
matter. The forms of matter are—solid, liquid, and gases
which are made up of atoms. Atoms are the fundamental
building blocks of all molecules. The centre of an atom
is called the nucleus. Atoms consist of three subatomic
particles — protons, electrons, and neutrons. Electrons
spin around the nucleus in shells, at a great distance
from the nucleus. Protons carry a positive (+) charge,
electrons carry a negative (-) charge, neutrons are neutral
and have no net charge. One coulomb of charge is equal
to 6×1018 (6,250,000,000,000,000,000) electrons.

Unit 1.indd 2 09-Oct-19 2:17:09 PM

 Protons are found in the center of the atom, with a
charge of +1 and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit, which
is approximately equal to 1.66×10. Electrons are found
in the periphery of the atom and have a charge of -1.
They are much smaller than protons and their mass is
1/1836 amu.
The steady flow of electrons is called current. Current
is what flows through electrical wires and powers
electronics items, from light bulbs to televisions.
The positively charged protons attract negatively
charged electrons, hence holding the atomic structure
as shown in Figure 1.1.
Neutron
Conductors and Insulators (No charge)
The materials can be categorised as insulators or
Protron
conductors based on its physical property known as (+ve charge)
resistivity. In an insulator, the electric charge does
Electron
not flow freely from one atom to another due to high (-ve charge)
resistivity. In a conductor, the electric charge flows
Fig. 1.1: Atomic structure
freely from one atom to another due to low resistivity.
This flow of charge is electric current.

–
– + + + – +
–
Fig. 1.2: Atoms in a wire, showing electrons travelling from one atom to
another atom

Conductors
The material in which the electrons are loosely held can
move very easily. These are called conductors. Metals
like copper, aluminium, and steel are good conductors
of electricity.

Insulators
The materials which hold their electrons very tightly do
not allow the movement of the electrons through them Fig. 1.3: Conductor and
very well. These are called insulators. Rubber, plastic, insulator in a wire
cloth, glass, and dry air are good insulators and have
very high resistance.

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 The conductors are used to carry electrical current
through wires. Insulators are commonly used as coating
for the wires as shown in Figure 1.3. This wire consists
of a core of copper (a conductor) and a coating of
polyethylene (an insulator). The copper allows current
to flow through the wire, while the polyethylene resists
the flow of the current.

Electrical Quantities
i
+ Current, voltage, and resistance are the three basic
V R building blocks of electrical and electronics. They are
– called electrical quantities.

Fig. 1.4: A simple electric Voltage

circuit made up of a voltage This is the potential difference between two points. It is
source and a resistor
also the amount of work required to move one coulomb
charge from one point to another point. Mathematically
Current = flow of charge
it can be written as V=W/Q where, ‘V’ is the voltage, ‘W’
is the work in joule, ‘Q’ is the charge in coulomb.
Value of voltage is measured in volt or joules per
coulomb. Symbolic representation of voltage is ‘V’ or ‘v’.

Electric Current
Fig. 1.5: Flow of charge
through a cross section ‘A’ This is the movement of electric charge through a
conductive medium. In equation form, electric current
‘I’ is defined to be I=ΔQ/ΔT where, ‘Q’ is the amount of
Current
charge passing through a given area in time ‘T’. The
Conductor
SI unit for current is the ampere (A), named after the
French physicist André‑Marie Ampère (1775  – 
1836).
Voltage V Since, I=ΔQ/ΔT, we see that an ampere is one coulomb
per second, 1 A=1 C/s.
V
The flow of electricity requires a conductive medium
Fig. 1.6: Flow of electrons in the
conductor for the flow of charge known as a conductor. The
material’s ability to conduct charge is called electrical
conductance. The SI unit for conductance is siemens (S).

Resistance
It resists the flow of electrons and hence electric current
in the circuit. Conceptually, the resistance controls
the flow of electric current. An object or medium that
has high electrical resistance is called a resistor. The

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 resistance is represented by the symbol ‘R’. The SI unit
of electrical resistance is ohm (Ω). Figure 1.7(a) and (b) (a)
show the resistor and its symbol.
To understand how to measure current and
voltage in a circuit, you must also have a general
understanding of how a circuit works and how its
electrical measurements are related.
An electrical circuit is a type of network that has (b)
a closed loop, which provides a return path for the
current. A simple circuit consists of a voltage source Fig. 1.7: (a) Resistor,
and a resistor. (b) Resistor symbol
According to Ohm’s law, the electrical current ‘I’, or
movement of charge, that flows through most substances
is directly proportional to the voltage ‘V’ applied to it.
The electric property that impedes current is called
resistance ‘R’. Collisions of moving charges with atoms
and molecules in a substance transfers the energy to
the substance and limits the current. Resistance is
inversely proportional to current. Ohm’s law can
therefore be written as follows: I=V/R where ‘I’ is the
current through the conductor in amperes, ‘V’ is the
potential difference measured across the conductor in
volts, and ‘R’ is the resistance of the conductor in ohms
(Ω). More specifically, Ohm’s law states that ‘R’ in this
relation is constant, independent of the current. Using
this equation, we can calculate the current, voltage, or
resistance in a given circuit.
For example, if we had a 1.5 V battery that was
connected in a closed circuit to a light bulb with a
resistance of 5 Ω, what is the current flowing through the
circuit? To solve this problem, we would just substitute
the given values into Ohm’s law: I = 1.5V/5Ω; I = 0.3
amperes. If we know the current and the resistance,
we can rearrange the Ohm’s law equation and solve for
voltage ‘V’ where V=IR

Components — Active and Passive

An electronic circuit is composed of various components. Fig. 1.8: Different types of
Electronic components usually have two or more leads, components used in electrical
and electronics
which can be fitted into the PCB to form a working electric

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 circuit. Electronic components are mainly classified into
two classes — active and passive components.

Active components
They produce energy in the form of voltage or current.
These components require an external source for
their operation. An active component has an analog
electronic filter with the ability to amplify a signal or
produce a power gain. Examples of active components
are — diode, transistors, as shown in Figure 1.9(a).
Passive components
These do not produce energy in the form of voltage or
Fig. 1.9: (a) Active components
current. They do not require external energy to operate.
They cannot generate energy of their own and depend
on the power provided from the AC circuit. Examples of
passive components are resistors, capacitors, inductors,
sensors, and transducers as shown in Figure 1.9(b).
Active components
Fig. 1.9: (b) Passive components
The basic material used to manufacture active
components is a semiconductor. Let us first understand
the basics of semiconductors.
Semiconductor
These are materials whose conductivity is between
that of conductors and insulators. Electronic
devices are made up of semiconductor material. In
semiconductor industry, silicon and germanium are
used. Semiconductors are of two types, which are as
follows:
Intrinsic (pure)
It is the pure form of semiconductor. The ‘pure’ word
here represents that this semiconductor does not
contain any other impurity atom.
Extrinsic (impure)
It is an impure form of semiconductor. When
impurity atoms are added in the pure (intrinsic) form of
semiconductor, then that semiconductor is known as
extrinsic semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductors
are also known as impure semiconductors.

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 P‑type semiconductor: When pentavalent impurity atom
is added, an extrinsic semiconductor is formed which is
known as P-type semiconductor.
N-type semiconductor: When trivalent impurity atom is
added, an extrinsic semiconductor is formed which is
known as N-type semiconductor.

Diode
It is an electronic device which allows current to flow
easily in circuit. The most common form of diode is
P-N junction diode, which is formed when two
(a)
semiconductors, that is, P-type semiconductor and
N-type semiconductor are combined to form a new
component which is known as diode. The diode and P N
its symbol are shown in Figure 1.10 (a) and (b). The
silver ring in a diode represents the cathode. Anode Cathode

Diode passes current only in one direction, therefore

it is also known as unidirectional. The P-side is called
anode and the N-side is called cathode. When the anode
(b)
and cathode of a P-N junction diode are connected to
Fig. 1.10: (a) Diode (b) Diode
external voltage source, such that, the positive end of symbol
a battery is connected to the anode and negative end of
the battery is connected to the cathode, diode is said to
be forward biased or we can say that diode will act as
a close switch (it will be turned ‘on’). In a
forward biased condition, diode will pass
the current through it.
When the P-side of the diode is connected
to the negative terminal of the battery and
N-side of the diode is connected to the
(a)
positive terminal of the battery, diode is
said to be reverse biased or we can say that
diode will act as an open switch (it will be
turned ‘off’). In a reverse biased condition,
diode will not pass the current through it.
Diode can be connected in forward bias
(b)
and reverse bias as shown in Figure1.11(a)
and (b). Fig. 1.11: (a) Diode connected in forward bias,
(b) Diode connected in reverse bias
There are various types of diodes such
as avalanche diode, crystal diode, light emitting diode
(LED), photodiode, varactor diode, and zener diode.

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 Transistor
It is an active semiconductor device that has two P-N
junctions which amplify electric current and voltage. It
is a three layer semiconducting device. These three
layers have three terminals — emitter, base, and collector
respectively. It has two junctions and where the two
layers touch each other is called a junction. Junction
where emitter and base layer touch each other is known
as an emitter base (EB) junction. Whereas junction
where collector and base layer touch each other is
known as a collector base (CB) junction.
To understand the
functioning of a transistor,
we can relate it with the water
supply system in our home.
Storage tank which is kept
at the roof of the building
is similar to an emitter in a
transistor which acts as a
source of charge carrier, that
is, electrons and holes in a
semiconductor. The tap at
the ground is similar to the
base of the transistor, this
tap controls the flow of the
water like base controls the
Fig. 1.12: Analogy showing a tap as the base of the transistor
flow of the charge carrier.
Like the bucket at the ground collects the water
coming from the storage tank, similarly the collector
of the transistor collects the charge carriers coming
from emitter.
Identifying BJT Terminals
Keep the transistor such that the flat surface faces you,
as shown in the below Figure 1.13(a).
The bipolar junction transistor has three terminals
namely —
1. Emitter (E)
2. Base (B)
3. Collector (C)

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 The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and its symbol
are shown in Figure 1.13(a) and (b).
Figure 1.14 shows the details junctions of BJT.
C E Emitter-base Collector-base
junction junction
B B

Terminal 1 Terminal 3
Emitter Base Collector
E C
NPN PNP
(a) (b) Terminal 2
Fig. 1.13: (a) Bipoloar Junction Fig. 1.14: EB and CB junction of bipolar junction transistor
Transistor (b) Symbol of BJT

Passive Components
Resistor
It is the basic component in an electronic circuit, which
is used to calculate voltage and current in the circuit. It
opposes movement of electrons or it controls the amount
of current flow in the circuit. This opposition is known
as resistance. Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
Colour bands on a resistor are used to represent
the resistance values. There are 4-band, 5-band, and
6-band resistors.
In a 4-band resistor as shown in Figure 1.15, the first
and the second band represent the numerical value of
the resistor, the third band is a multiplier to the power
of ten, and the fourth band is the tolerance level. In a Fig. 1.15: 4-band and 5-band
colour coded resistor
5-band resistor, first three bands represent significant
digit, fourth band represents multiplier, and fifth band
Table 1.1 Colour code
represents tolerance.
Each colour on the colour coded resistor has the specific Code Number
value as per the colour scheme shown in Table 1.1. Black 0
The tolerance gives an upper and lower value of Brown 1
resistor. Take the following example for a 100Ω resistor Red 2
as shown in Table 1.2. Orange 3
The resistance of the resistor in Table 1.2 is calculated Yellow 4
as: resistance of resistor is the value of the first band, Green 5
succeeded by value of the second band, succeeded Blue 6
by number of zeros as per the value of colour code Violet 7
mentioned Table 1.1 and the fourth band represents Grey 8
the tolerance value to be taken from Table 1.2. White 9

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 Table 1.2 Tolerance value

Stated Allowed Allowed

Tolerance Colour Resistor Upper Lower
Value Value Value
+/- 1% Brown 100 Ω 101 Ω 99 Ω
+/- 2% Red 100 Ω 102 Ω 98 Ω
+/- 5% Gold 100 Ω 105 Ω 95 Ω
+/- 10% Silver 100 Ω 110 Ω 90 Ω

For example, resistance of the four band resister with

colours yellow, violet, orange, and gold is calculated as:
yellow = 4, violet = 7, orange = 3 number of zeros, gold
= 5% tolerance, resistance = 47000 Ω (or 47 kΩ), 5%
tolerance.
According to Ohm’s law, power is calculated as the
product of voltage and resistance.

Assignment: Calculate the value of resistors by

using the color code.

(a) Brown-black-yellow-yellow
(b) Yellow-violet-red-yellow
(c) Red-red-brown-yellow

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 Alphanumerically coded (surface mounted) resistors
These are rectangular in shape as shown in Figure 1.16.
They have leads, which come out from the resistor, these
leads are used for mounting of resistor on the printed
circuit board (PCB). Some surface mount resistors use
plates on the bottom side of the resistor.
The first two or three numbers printed on the
surface mount resistor represent significant digits
and the last digit represents the number of zeros that Fig. 1.16: Surface mount
resistor
should follow. For example, as shown in Figure 1.16,
a resistor reading 1252 indicates a value of 12,500
ohms. For tolerance value, one must refer to the letter
at the end of the code. Compare this letter at the end
of the code with the tolerance. There are two types of
resistors — fixed resistor and variable resistor.
Fixed resistor
The resistors made up of ceramic body and cylindrical
in shape with definite or fixed resistance values are
fixed resistors. The resistive element could be either
carbon film, thick film, or a wound wire element. The
properties of fixed resistors depend upon the type of
fixed resistor used.
Based on the type of material used in constructing a
Fig. 1.17: (a) Fixed resistor
resistor, it is classified into  —  carbon composition, carbon
pile, carbon film, metal film, and metal oxide film.
(i) Carbon composition is made up of carbon clay
composition with plastic coating around it.
(ii) Carbon pile is made up of a stack of carbon
disks compressed between two metal contact.
(iii) Carbon film is deposited on an insulating
substrate and cut into thin resistive path.
(iv) Metal film is cylindrically shaped and coated
with nickel chromium.
(v) Metal oxide film is made up of tin oxide.
For example, a carbon film resistor has 5% tolerance,
power rating of 0.125W – 2W, temperature coefficient of
250 – 450 ppm/k.

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 A metal film resistor has 1% tolerance, power rating
of 0.1–5W and temperature coefficient of 10 – 250
ppm/K.
Variable Resistor
These are the resistors whose resistance value can be
changed. They have three terminals out of which two are
connected to the ends of the track and a third terminal
is connected to the wiper. The motion of the wiper allows
Fig. 1.17:(b) Variable resistor increase and decrease of resistance. Potentiometer,
rheostat, and trimpot are variable resistors.
Capacitor
It is a passive electronic component used to store
electric charge. The unit for measuring capacitance
is farad (F). In a capacitor, energy is stored in the
form of an electric field. It has two parallel plates
and between these plates, energy is stored. It is also
marked with colour bands to denote value. The first
Fig. 1.18: Capacitor showing
capacitance value 4700 micro
two bands are the first and second digits whereas the
farad and maximum voltage third band denotes the multiplier. The capacitor is
value of 10 V indicated by the symbol .
The capacitance of capacitor can vary from –20% to
+80% of actual capacitance.
The parameters of capacitor are maximum voltage,
capacitance, and tolerance. Maximum voltage defines
the maximum voltage value of a capacitor. The
Figure 1.18 shows the various parameters which are
mentioned on a capacitor.
The capacitor is marked with the value of capacitance
and voltage. You can calculate the amount of charge in
capacitor by using equation Q = C x V where, Q = charge
in coulomb, C = capacitance in farad, V = voltage in volt.
Types of capacitors
There are various types of capacitors based on the
type of material used between plates of capacitor.
They are ceramic capacitors, film power capacitors,
super capacitors, electrolytic capacitors, and variable
capacitors, etc.
Ceramic capacitors: They are made up of ceramic and
metal where metal acts as the electrode and ceramic

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 is the dielectric. This type of capacitor is used in
applications of high frequency and high current
pulse loads.
Film power capacitors: In these, the
dielectric films are drawn to a thin layer
surrounded by metallic electrodes on a
cylindrical wiring. Polypropylene is used as
the dielectric.
Super capacitors: These are electrochemical
capacitors with no specific dielectric in it.
The storage of charge is obtained by either Fig. 1.19: Different types of capacitors
separation of charge or redox reaction.
Electrolytic capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor is a type
of capacitor that uses an electrolyte to achieve a larger
capacitance than other capacitor types. An electrolyte is
a liquid or gel containing a high concentration of ions.
Variable capacitors: Above mentioned capacitors are
fixed capacitors which cannot vary their capacitance.
A variable capacitor can vary its capacitance through
mechanical motion.

Inductor
It is a two terminal electrical component which resists
changes in electric current. The value of inductance is
measured in henry. Inductive tolerance is usually in the
range of -5% to +20%.
In an inductor, copper wire is used which is wound on
a plastic or ferromagnetic material in the form of a coil. The
inductor is shown in Figure 1.20 and it is indicated by the
symbol .
When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field
Fig. 1.20: Inductor
is set. This field restricts the flow of current. Once the
field is created, then current passes normally through it
thus resisting any change in the flow of current.
The types of inductors are  —  air core inductor,
ferromagnetic core inductor, and variable inductor.
Air core inductor
It has its coil wound on non-magnetic material like
plastic or ceramic and there is only air present in
between the windings.

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 Ferromagnetic inductor
It has its coil wound on a magnetic core made up of
ferromagnetic material.
Variable inductor
It is made up of ferrite magnetic core which can be slid
or screwed to change inductance.

Assignment: Identify the components used in electrical and electronics.

Write down the name of the components

Pictorial representation of the component and identify which category they belong
to — active or passive.

Name of the
components: ___________________
Category:
Active
Passive

Name of the
components: ___________________
Category:
Active
Passive

Name of the
components: ___________________
Category:
Active
Passive

Name of the
components: ___________________
Category:
Active
Passive

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 Transformer
It is an electric unit that Oil tank
transfers energy between two
circuits using electromagnetic
induction. It is a static unit
that simply transforms the
voltage level of an AC signal.
Transformer tank
It either steps-up or steps- Breather
down the AC voltage. It does
not change the frequency of
applied AC signal.
It consists of a core
made up of ferromagnetic or
ceramic material and a coil
made up of some insulating
Cooling fins
magnetic material or copper Control panel
wires. Transformer oil is used
for cooling of transformer. Fig. 1.21: Transformer parts
Based on the purpose,
there are different types of transformers such as
power transformers, instrument transformers, RF
transformers, and audio transformers. However, in
computers the step‑down, center tap, and high frequency
transformers are used. A center tapped transformer is
shown in Figure 1.22.

Integrated Circuit (IC) Fig. 1.22: Center tapped

transformer
Digital ICs are used in computers and computer
networks. An integrated circuit is a combination of
electronic components on a single piece (or ‘chip’) of
semiconductor material as shown in Figure 1.23. It has
a large number of tiny transistors on a small chip and
Fig. 1.23: Integrated circuit
results in circuits that are smaller, cheaper, and faster.
It also has a number of pins.

Semiconductor Memory
It is an electronic data storage device, which is fabricated
on integrated circuits (IC). As we have discussed,
semiconductors have conductivity which is in
between that of conductors and insulators. Electronic
devices are made up of semiconductor material. In

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 semiconductor industry, silicon and germanium
are widely used. Computer memory is a physical
electronic device. Semiconductor memories are
Fig. 1.24: RAM used to store applications and data. This storage
can be temporary or permanent, as required by
a computer and/or its user. There are two types
of memory  — primary and secondary. Primary
memory includes RAM, ROM, and secondary
memory is — hard disk drive, CD/DVD, magnetic
tape, pen drive, etc. Primary memory is classified
into two types — read‑only memory (ROM) and
random access memory (RAM).
Fig. 1.25: ROM
Power Supply
It is an electrical device which provides operating
voltage to the computer. It is used to provide power to a
personal computer. It requires a minimum load of 7A at
5V and 2.5A at 12V. Modern PC requires power in the
range of 60W – 250W. The electronic components inside
the computer require very low DC voltage.
The various types of power supply used in computing
are DC power supply, AC power supply, linear regulated
power supply, batteries, uninterrupted power supply,
and switched mode power supply (SMPS).

Rectifier
AC power supply takes voltage from the mains and
converts it to DC before transmitting it to any device.
To convert AC into DC, a rectifier circuit is used which
A ensures that the current does not reverse its direction.
D2 D1 Rectifier circuits can be classified as single phase and
RL
three phase circuits. Again, every phase has half wave
AC
Input
C D rectifiers and full wave rectifiers.

D4
Full wave bridge rectifier
D3
B A bridge rectifier is a type of full wave rectifier which uses
four or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration.

DC Output Bridge rectifier construction

Fig. 1.26: Construction of bridge The bridge rectifier is made up of four diodes namely
rectifier circuit
D1, D2, D3, D4, and load resistor RL. The input AC
signal is applied across two terminals A and B and

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 the output DC signal is obtained across the load Current flow direction

resistor RL, which is connected between the terminals + A

C and D. D2 D1
During the positive half cycle, the terminal A becomes RL
positive while the terminal B becomes negative. This AC
C D
causes the diodes D1 and D3 to become forward biased Input
D3 D4
and at the same time, it causes the diodes D2 and D4
to become reverse biased. The current flow direction –
B

during the positive half cycle is shown in the Figure

1.27 (that is A to D to C to B). DC Output

During the negative half cycle, the terminal B becomes Fig. 1.27: Bridge rectifier
circuit during positive half of
positive while the terminal A becomes negative. This the input cycle
causes the diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased Current flow direction
and at the same time, it causes the diodes D1 and +
A
D3 reverse biased. The current flow direction during
D2 D1
negative half cycle is shown in the Figure 1.28 (that is
RL
B to D to C to A). C D
AC
From the Figure 1.27 and Figure 1.28, we can Input
observe that the direction of current flow across load D3 D4
resistor RL is same during the positive half cycle B
–
and negative half cycle. Therefore, the polarity of the
output DC signal is same for both positive and negative DC Output
half cycles. Fig. 1.28: Bridge rectifier circuit
during negative half of the
Battery input cycle

This is a device that converts chemical energy directly

to electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic
cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte
containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the anode or negative electrode; the
other half-cell includes electrolyte and the cathode or
positive electrode.
Batteries are convenient sources of electricity that
can be easily stored and utilised. (a)
Battery is shown in the Figure 1.29(a). The positive
terminal is cathode and negative is anode. It is
important to show the correct flow of electrons in the
(b)
circuit diagrams by indicating the positive and negative
Fig. 1.29: (a) Battery used in
terminal as shown in Figure 1.29(b). UPS (b) Battery symbol in a
Batteries can be broadly classified into two circuit diagram
types — primary and secondary.

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 Primary batteries
They are non-rechargeable. They convert chemical
energy to electrical energy irreversibly.

Secondary batteries
They are rechargeable. Their chemical reactions can be
reversed by supplying electric energy to the cell.

Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

It is used to achieve voltage regulation and conversion
of power. SMPS functions in three stages  — input
rectifier, where AC is converted to DC;
inverter phase, where again the DC is
converted into inverted AC; and output
rectifier stage, where the inverted AC is
given to the high winding transformer.
SMPS is the board on which
electronic components are assembled
for the regulation of electric power.
In it, input AC voltage is converted
into low DC voltage. It is used in PCs
Fig. 1.30: SMPS
so that every part of the PC gets proper
power supply separately. It helps split
the power to motherboard, hard disk, floppy drive, CD
drive, etc.
It contains several wires of multiple colour. Each
wire carries different amount of voltage value, which will
pass to different hardware parts of the computer. The
Table 1.3 shows the different colour cables and amount
of voltage they carry.
Table 1.3

Yellow 12 V
Blue 12 V
Black Common [0]
Red 5V
White 5V
Green Power supply ON
Orange 3.3 V
Purple +5 SB (Standby)

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 Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) Notes
It is an electronic device which supplies power to a load
when the mains supply or input power source fails. Any
UPS has a power storage element which stores energy
in the form of chemical energy, for example, the energy
is stored in batteries. A UPS uses double conversion
method of accepting AC input, rectifying to DC, passing
this through a string of batteries, and inverting it to
AC again.
UPS
Battery
Charger
AC Input Battery Inverter
AC Output

Fig. 1.31: Block representation of an UPS

Classification of UPS
It plays a vital role in maintaining the regularity of
electric power. There are a variety of UPS used in power
system. Some of them are discussed below —
Online UPS
In an online UPS, the batteries are always connected
to the inverter, so that, no power transfer switches
are necessary. In case of a power cut, there will be no
momentary power breaks.
Standby or offline UPS
A system where normally AC input (utility power) is
output, as it is to connected devices and when a power
outage or abnormal voltage is detected, inverter starts
feeding using power from the batteries. In the event of
a power outage, a few milliseconds of momentary break
occurs in the AC output.

Printed Circuit Board

This is used to electrically connect various components
using tracks, pads, etc. Internally, all the components
are connected, which reduces the complexity of the
circuit. It can be found in many electronics devices

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Unit 1.indd 19 09-Oct-19 2:17:21 PM

 like — TV, mobile, digital camera, computers parts
like — graphic cards, motherboard, etc.

Types of PCB
There are several types of PCBs available. Out of these
types of PCB, we have to choose the appropriate type of
PCB according to our application —
Single-layer PCB
Single sided consisting of one layer of copper on a rigid
base material.
Double-layer PCB
Double sided consisting of two layers of copper on a
rigid base material.
Multi-layer PCB
They are boards with more than three copper layers on
double‑sided boards which are stuck to each other with
a particular glue.
Flexible PCB
It consists of a single conductor layer on a dielectric film.

Soldering
It is the process of melting a metal onto other metal
components in order to bind them. It differs from
Handle welding. In welding, the component
pieces are melted together; in soldering,
a softer metal with a lower melting
point is used to connect them. Because
soldering does not melt components, it
Soldering
iron tip is useful for delicate applications, such
Soldering as electronics works. The purpose
wire
of soldering is to bind two other
components. Solder can be thought of
as a sort of ‘metal glue’. It can be used
to fill in gaps or hold pieces in place, but
does not serve any more complicated
Soldering paste
purpose. Since solder is metallic, it
conducts electricity, which is another
Soldering stand reason for it being widely used for
Fig. 1.32: Soldering kit connecting electronic components.

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 The soldering process is classified into soft soldering, Notes
silver soldering, and brazing.

Soldering techniques
There are various types of soldering techniques.
The following are the most commonly used soldering
techniques in PCB:
Conduction soldering
It is basically the traditional hand soldering technique.
Induction soldering
Uses induction heat to melt the solder.
Laser
This method is used at a power of 30–50W for electrical
connection joints.
Desoldering
It is the process of removing the solder and components
from PCB for troubleshooting, repair, or replacement.

Check Your Progress

A. Multiple choice questions
1. Which of the following components is used to provide
resistance?
(a) Heat (b) Energy
(c) Product (d) Resistor
2. A diode ________.
(a) is the simplest of semiconductor devices
(b) has characteristics that closely match those of a
simple switch
(c) is a two-terminal device
(d) All of the above
3. Which of the following is a semiconductor material?
(a) Silicon
(b) Germanium
(c) Both A and B
(d) None of these
4. Transformer works on ____________________.
(a) AC
(b) DC
(c) Both AC and DC
(d) None of these

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 Notes 5. Transistor has __________layers and _________ junctions.
(a) two, three (b) three, two
(c) three, three (d) two, two
6. Diode is reverse biased when ___________.
(a) cathode is connected to the positive and anode is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery
(b) cathode is connected to the negative and anode is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery
(c) no specific polarity is required
(d) None of these
7. What is the ohmic value for the colour code of orange,
orange, orange?
(a) 22 k Ω
(b) 33 k Ω
(c) 3300 Ω
(d) 44000 Ω
8. Which of the following will be the correct value of
resistance for the colour code of brown, brown, red, gold
and for what ohmic value?
(a) 1.2k Ω 5%
(b) 1.1k Ω 5%
(c) 1.3k Ω 5%
(d) 1.5k Ω 5%
9. Which of the following will be the correct value of
resistance for the colour code of black, brown, green,
gold, and for what ohmic value?
(a) 1x105 Ω 5%
(b) 1x104 Ω 5%
(c) 1x105 Ω 10%
(d) 1x104 Ω 10%

B. Fill in the blanks

1. Electrons have ________ charge.
2. The SI unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric
charge is ________.
3. Transformers work on ________ voltage.
4. Extrinsic semiconductor is _______ form of semiconductor.
5. Intrinsic semiconductor is ______ form of semiconductor.
6. Capacitor stores energy in the form of ___________ field.
7. Inductor stores energy in the form of ________ field.
8. Diode has ________ terminals.
9. Silicon is ________ material.
10. Transistor has ___________ terminals.
11. A three terminals semiconducting device is ________.

C. State whether the statements given below are True or False

1. Transformer is used to step up the voltage.
2. Transistor is used as an amplifier and switch.

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 3. The electromagnetism in a transformer is the energy Notes
source for the transformer.
4. Transformer changes the frequency of the applied signal.
5. The junction where emitter layer and base layer touch
each other is named as emitter base junction.
6. Amplification is the process of increasing the level of
voltage and current.
7. The base unit of capacitance is farad.
8. Green, orange, orange, violet colour coded resistor is
62kΩ 5%.
9. Violet, green, orange, silver colour coded resistor is 75kΩ
10%.
10. Blue, red, orange, gold colour coded resistor is 62kΩ 5%.
11. Orange, orange, yellow, gold colour coded resistor is
330kΩ 5%.

D. Short answer questions

1. Describe the relationship between the electrical current,
voltage, and resistance in a circuit.
2. Explain the difference between a conductor and insulator.
3. List the name of conductors and insulators which are
used in our day‑to‑day life.
4. What does 10 A define?
5. Write short notes on—
(a) Diode
(b) Transistor
(c) LED, capacitor
(d) Inductor
6. Explain the types of semiconductors.
7. What are the applications of a transistor?
8. Write down the specifications of a capacitor.
9. Describe the functions and identify the major components
of a battery.
10. What is the role of active and passive components in an
electric circuit?

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