Lactic Acid Industrial Production

J. VIJAYAKUMAR et al., Recent Trends in the Production, Purification and …, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q.
22 (2) 245–264 (2008) 245
Recent Trends in the Production, Purification and Application of Lactic Acid

J. Vijayakumar,a R. Aravindan,b,* and T. Viruthagiric
a M. Tech Industrial Biotechnology,
b Lecturer in Chemical Engineering,
c
Professor and Head, Department of Chemical Engineering, Review
Biochemical Engineering Laboratory, Annamalai University, Received: March 12, 2007
Annamalai nagar – 608002, Tamil nadu, India Accepted: September 15, 2007
Lactic acid, a naturally occurring multifunctional organic acid, is a valuable in-

dustrial chemical used as an acidulant, preservative in the food industry, pharma-
ceutical, leather, and textile industries, as well as a chemical feedstock. One of
the most promising applications of lactic acid is its use for biodegradable and
biocompatible lactate polymers, such as polylactic acid. Lactic acid can be produced
either by fermentation or by chemical synthesis but the biotechnological fermentation
process has received significant importance due to environmental concerns, use of
renewable resources instead of petrochemicals, low production temperature, low energy
requirements and high purity. There are numerous investigations on the development
of biotechnological methods for lactic acid production, with an ultimate objective to
enable the process to be more efficient and economical. This review discusses the vari-
ous recent fermentation technologies to produce lactic acid, different microorganisms in-
volved in the production of lactic acid, purification and wide industrial applications of
lactic acid.
Key words:
Lactic acid, lactic acid bacteria, fermentation, purification, applications
Introduction COOH COOH

| |
Lactic acid has a long history of uses for fer- HO–C*–H H–C*–OH
mentation and preservation of human foodstuffs. It | |
was first discovered in sour milk by Scheele in CH3 CH3
1780, who initially considered it a milk component.
In 1789, Lavoisier named this milk component L(+) lactic acid D(–) lactic acid
“acide lactique”, which became the possible origin C* – asymmetric carbon atom
of the current terminology for lactic acid. In 1857,

however, Pasteur discovered that it was not a milk The L(+) form of lactic acid is used for food
component, but a fermentation metabolite generated and drug industry, because the human body is only
by certain microorganisms. In 1839, Fremy, pro- adapted to assimilate this form. Lactic acid is a
duced lactic acid by fermentation of carbohydrates valuable industrial chemical used in the food indus-
such as sucrose, lactose, mannitol, starch and try and in numerous other applications in the phar-
dextrin. The first commercial production of lactic maceutical, leather and textile industries, and also
acid started in the United States by a microbial pro- for the production of biodegradable and
cess in 1881. biocompatible polylactate polymers, such as
Lactic acid is produced by humans, animals, polylactic acid (PLA), an environmentally friendly
plants and microorganisms. Lactic acid is the alternative to biodegradable plastics.3–5 Polylactide
simplest hydroxyl carboxylic acid with an is used for the preparation of scaffolds for
asymmetrical carbon atom. Lactic acid occurs biocompatible artificial organs, self-dissolving su-
naturally in two optical isomers, D(–) and L(+)-lactic tures and as a means for sustained drug release.3
acids. Since elevated levels of the D-isomer Owning to the unique property of PLA, lactic acid
are harmful to humans, L(+)-lactic acid is the pre- has the potential to be a substitute for biodegrad-
ferred isomer in food and pharmaceutical indus- able plastics manufacture and becomes a very
tries.1,2 large-volume commodity chemical intermediate.3–5
Lactic acid can be produced commercially by
* Correspondence:E-mail: donaravind@yahoo.com either chemical or biochemical methods as shown
Phone: 91-4144-239737 in Fig. 1. The most commonly used synthetic
246 J. VIJAYAKUMAR et al., Recent Trends in the Production, Purification and …, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. 22 (2) 245–264 (2008)
F i g . 1 – Overview of the two manufacturing methods of lactic acid; chemical synthesis (a)
and microbial fermentation (b) SSF represents simultaneous saccharification and
fermentation
method for chemical production of lactic acid is Musashino in Japan (7,000 tons per year).15 Cargill
based on the hydrolysis of lactonitrile, derived from Dow LLC, the primary US manufacturer of PLA,
acetaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide.1–5 The biotech- has reported that the global PLA market might ex-
nological process may yield either form [D(+) or pand to 5,000,000 tons per year by 2010. Therefore,
L(+)] alone, or a mixture in different proportions of considerable increase in the worldwide demand for
two isomers, depending on the microorganism, sub- lactic acid is definitely expected in the coming
strate and growth conditions used, whereas the years.
chemical production only results in a mixture of the
two isomers.1,6,7 Another significant advantage over
the chemical synthesis is that biological production Characteristics of lactic acid bacteria
can use cheap raw materials, such as whey, molas-
ses, starch waste, beet and cane-sugar and other car- Lactic acid bacteria are usually gram-positive,
bohydrate-rich materials.7–11 In commercial pro- non-motile, non-spore-forming rods and cocci.
cesses, sugars and starches have been widely used They lack the ability to synthesize cytochromes and
as substrates for biological production of lactic porphyrins (components of respiratory chains) and
acid. The most effective way for L-lactic acid syn- therefore cannot generate ATP by creation of a pro-
thesis is through biosynthesis rather than chemical ton gradient. Since they do not use oxygen in their
process. energy production, lactic acid bacteria grow under
Lactic acid has been classified by the US FDA anaerobic conditions, but they can also grow in the
(Food and Drug Administration) as GRAS (Gener- presence of oxygen. They are protected from oxy-
ally Recognized as Safe)3 for use as a food additive, gen byproducts (e.g. H2O2) because they have
and it has been utilized in a broad range of applica- peroxidases and these organisms are aero tolerant
tions in the food and pharmaceutical indus- anaerobes. They are differentiated from other or-
tries.3,12,13 At present, 90 % of the world production ganisms by their ability to ferment hexoses to lactic
of lactic acid is by bacterial fermentation and the acid. Lactic acid bacteria can be divided into homo
rest is produced synthetically. The worldwide mar- fermentative and hetero fermentative based upon
ket growth is increasing every year and the produc- the products produced from the fermentation of glu-
tion in 2006 was about 68,000 tons per year. The cose. Homo fermentative organisms ferment glu-
worldwide market growth is expected to be be- cose to two moles of lactic acid, generating a net of
tween 10 % and 15 % per year14 The Dutch Com- 2 ATP per mole of glucose metabolized. Lactic acid
pany CCA, together with its holding in Spain and is the major product of this fermentation. Hetero
Brazil produces 20,000 – 25,000 tons per year. fermentative lactic acid bacteria ferment 1 mole of
Croda, United Kingdom produces about 25,000 glucose to 1 mole of lactic acid, 1 mole of ethanol,
tons per year. Synthetic lactic acid is produced by and 1 mole of CO2. One mole of ATP is generated
sterling in United States (5,000 tons per year) and per mole of glucose, resulting in less growth per
J. VIJAYAKUMAR et al., Recent Trends in the Production, Purification and …, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. 22 (2) 245–264 (2008) 247
mole of glucose metabolized. Because of the low they catalyze but also for the undesirable activities
energy yields, lactic acid bacteria often grow more which they promote.
slowly than microbes capable of respiration, and Bacteria and fungi are the two groups of micro-
produce smaller colonies of 2 – 3 mm. Table 1 organisms that can produce lactic acid.12 Although
shows the list of homo and hetero fermentative lac- most investigations of lactic acid production were
tic acid bacteria and configuration of lactic acid.16 carried out with lactic acid bacteria (LAB), filamen-
It is easy to determine whether a lactic acid tous fungi such as Rhizopus, utilize glucose aerobi-
bacterium has a homo or heterofermentative meta- cally to produce lactic acid.17–19 Rhizopus species
bolism by the hot-loop test. A major end-product of such as R. oryzae and R. arrhizus have amylolytic
heterofermentation is CO2. In a medium containing enzyme activity, which enables them to convert
glucose this gas is highly soluble at high pH and starch directly to L(+)-lactic acid, but it also requires
will stay in solution. If the temperature of the solu- vigorous aeration because R. oryzae is an obligate
tion is increased; CO2 will become insoluble and aerobe.18 In fungal fermentation, the low production
will be released in the gaseous form. The hot-loop rate, below P = 3 g L–1 h–1 is probably due to the
test consists of growing a test isolates to saturation low reaction rate caused by mass transfer limita-
in a medium containing glucose. After incubation, a tion.20 The lower product yield from fungal fermen-
wire loop (inoculating loop) is heated to redness tation is attributed partially to the formation of by-
and plunged into the broth culture. This causes the products, such as fumaric acid and ethanol.18
liquid around the loop to heat up. If a test micro-
organism is heterofermentative, CO2 bubbles will Several attempts have been made to achieve
evolve close to the loop. The homofermentative lac- higher cell density, lactic acid yield, and productiv-
tic acid bacteria usually metabolize glucose via the ity in fungal fermentation. Haung et al.21 produced
Embden-Meyerhof pathway (i.e., glycolysis). The lactic acid from potato starch wastewater using R.
two major pathways for better assimilation of oryzae and R. arrhizus. Park et al.22 produced lactic
glucose and xylose in lactic acid are the acid from waste paper by using R. oryzae. Tay and
Embden-Mayerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway and the Yang18 immobilized R. oryzae cells in a fibrous bed
pentose phosphoketolase (PK) pathway shown in to produce lactic acid from glucose and starch.
Fig. 2. The lactic acid bacteria have limited bio- Kosakai et al.19 cultured R. oryzae cells with the use
synthetic ability, requiring amino acids, B vitamins, of mycelial floc formed by the addition of mineral
purines, pyrimidines and typically a sugar as carbon support and poly ethylene oxide. The microorgan-
and energy source. isms selected for recent investigations of the bio-
technological production of lactic acid are listed in
Table 2.
Garde et al.23 obtained lactic acid from wheat
straw hemicellulose by using mixed culture of
Lactobacillus pentosus and Lactobacillus brevis.
Yun et al.24 investigated the production of lactic
acid from single and mixed sugars using
Enterococcus faecalis RKY1. The volumetric pro-
ductivity, cell growth and concentration of lactic
acid were highest in glucose/fructose (mixed sugar)
than single sugar. Rivas et al.25 produced lactic acid
from corn cobs by simultaneous saccharification
and fermentation using Lactobacillus rhamnosus.
Wee et al.26 reported the economical L(+)-lactic
F i g . 2 – Simplified illustration of EMP pathway and PK acid production from sugar molasses by batch fer-
pathway in the left and right side respectively23 mentation of Enterococcus faecalis. Kourkoutas et
al.27 used immobilized Lactobacillus casei cell on
fruit pieces to produce lactic acid. Narita et al.28 re-
Microorganisms for the lactic acid ported the efficient production of L(+)-lactic acid
production from raw starch by Streptococcus bovis 148.
Chauhan et al.29 used the statistical screening of
There are large number of species of bacteria medium components by Placket-Burman design for
and some species of molds that possess the ability lactic acid production by Lactobacillus sp. KCP01
to form relatively significant quantities of lactic using date juice. Patil et al.30 produced lactic acid
acid from carbohydrates. Lactic acid bacteria are from cane sugar using mutant of Lactobacillus
important not only for the desirable reactions which delbrueckii NCIM 2365. John et al.31 reported the
T a b l e 1 – Homo and heterofermentative lactic acid bacte- Nancib et al.37 explained the joint effect of ni-
ria and configuration of lactic acid trogen sources and B-vitamin supplementation of
Genera Homo- Hetero- Configuration date juice on lactic acid production by Lacto-
and species fermentative fermentative of lactic acid bacillus casei sub sp. rhamnosus. Oh et al.38 used
agricultural resources for the production of lactic
Lactobacillus acid by Enterococcus faecalis.
L. delbrueckii + – D(–) Schepers et al.39 reported the continuous lactic
acid production in whey permeate with immobi-
L. lactis + – D(–)
lized Lactobacillus helveticus. Ohkouchi and
L. bulgaricus + – D(–) Inoue40 studied the direct production of L(+)-lactic
L. casei + – L(+)
acid from starch and food wastes using Lacto-
bacillus manihotivorans LMG 18011. Vasala et al.41
L. plantarum + – DL used high salt containing dairy products to produce
L. curvatus + – DL lactic acid by using Lactobacillus Salivarius ssp.
Salicinius.
L. brevis – + DL
Xu et al.42 reported the development of a con-
L. fermentum – + DL tinuous cell-recycle fermentation system for pro-
duction of lactic acid by Lactobacillus paracasei.
Sporolactobacillus Xu et al.43 used mixed culture of Lactobacillus sake
S. inulinus + – D(–) and Lactobacillus casei for the production of lactic
acid from soybean stalk hydrolysate. Sakai et al.44
Streptococcus reported the production of lactic acid in pH-swing
open fermentation of kitchen refuse by selective
S. faecalis + – L(+)
proliferation of Lactobacillus plantarum.
S. cremoris + – L(+) Berry et al.55 produced lactic acid by batch cul-
S. lactis + – L(+)
ture of Lactobacillus rhamnosus in a defined me-
dium. Burgos-Rubio et al.53 reported the kinetic in-
Leuconostoc vestigation of the conversion of different substrates
into lactic acid with the use of Lactobacillus
L. mesenteroides – + D(–)
bulgaricus. Hujanen and Linko52 investigated the
L. dextranicum – + D(–) effects of culture temperature and nitrogen sources
on lactic acid production by Lactobacillus casei.
Pediococcus Bustos et al.51 used Lactobacillus pentosus for the
P. damnosus + – DL
production of lactic acid from vine-trimming
wastes. The strains of amylase-producing Lacto-
Bifidobacterium bacillus amylophilus were used often for the direct
conversion of starch into lactic acid.13,50,61 However,
B. bifidum – + L(+)
among the genus Lactobacillus, Lactobacillus
delbrueckii has appeared commonly in many inves-
tigation for the production of lactic acid, Kutzan-
solid state fermentation for L-lactic acid production manidis et al.45 used Lactobacillus delbrueckii
from agro wastes using Lactobacillus delbrueckii. NC1MB 8130 for lactic acid production from beet
Amrane and Prigent32 designed a two-stage contin- molasses. Monteagudo et al.62 and Goksungur et
uous reactor to produce lactic acid from lactose by al.46 also attempted to produce lactic acid from beet
using Lactobacillus helveticus and obtained high molasses with Lactobacillus delbrueckii. Several
product concentration of lactic acid at very low di- amylolytic lactic acid bacteria, such as Lactobacillus
lution rate. Senthuran et al.33 explained lactic acid amylophilus,63,64 Lactobacillus amylovorus65 and
production by immobilized Lactobacillus casei in Lactobacillus plantarum A666 can convert starch di-
recycle batch reactor. Fu and Mathews34 reported rectly to lactic acid. The most common bacterium
the lactic acid production from lactose by Lacto- for the industrial production of lactic acid is Lacto-
bacillus plantarum. Nolasco-Hipolito et al.35 ex- bacillus delbrueckii, which is employed in fermen-
plained the continuous production of L(+)-lactic acid tations utilizing corn dextrose media. Other bacteria
from hydrolyzed sago starch using Lactobacillus of industrial importance include Lactobacillus
lactis. Amrane36 reported the unstructured models bulgaricus, which utilizes lactose as a carbon
for biomass formation, substrate consumption and source and finds use in lactic acid production from
lactic acid production from whey using Lacto- whey media, and Lactobacillus pentosus, which is
bacillus helveticus. able to utilize the pentoses of sulfite waste liquor
T a b l e 2 – Microorganisms used in recent investigations of the biotechnological production of lactic acid
Lactic acid Yield Productivity

Microorganism –1)
Ref.
g (g L Y (g g–1) P (g L–1 h–1)
Enterococcus faecalis 95.7 0.94 4.0 26
Lactobacillus delbrueckii NC1MB8130 90.0 0.97 3.8 45
Lactobacillus delbrueckii IFO 3202 60.3 0.95 3.4 46
Streptococcus bovis 148 0.88 14.7a 28
Rhizopus oryzae 93.8 0.77 1.38 47
Latobacillus paracasei 88 – 106 0.91 – 0.95 3.31 – 3.67 48
Lactobacillus lactis 109 0.93 1.09 49
Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 102 0.97 4.87 38
Lactobacillus amylophilus GV6 76.2 0.7 0.8 50
L. pentosus ATCC 8041 21.8 0.77 0.8 51
L. plantarum ATCC 21028 41.0 0.97 1.0 34
L. casei NRRL B-441 82.0 0.91 5.6 52
L. bulgaricus NRRL B-548 38.7 0.9 3.5 53
L. helveticus ATTC 15009 65.5 0.66 2.7 54
L. rhamnosus ATCC 10863 67.0 0.84 2.5 55
R. oryzae NRRL 395 104.6 0.87 1.8 20
R. oryzae ATCC 52311 83.0 0.88 2.6 17
L. salivarius sp. salivarius ATCC 11742 28.0 0.92 11 56
L. amylovorus ATCC 33622 93.0 0.52 2.0 57
L. plantarum ATCC14917 2.0 58
L. acidophilus R 8.60 0.17 59
S. thermophilus 18.0 0.50 5.9 60

a – 14.7 g L–1 of lactic acid from 20 g L–1 of raw starch
for lactic acid production. Other homofermentative acid bacteria. Occasionally the addition of extra thi-
species of potential industrial importance are Lacto- amin may be necessary or desirable for the growth
bacillus casei, Lactobacillus leichmanii, and Strep- of some species. They require some elements for
tococcus lactis. All of these bacteria are considered growth, such as carbon and nitrogen sources, in the
anaerobes, although they can withstand some oxy- form of carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins, and
gen. However, Streptococcus lactis is less sensitive minerals.67 Fatty acids also influence lactic acid
to oxygen and therefore may also be considered a bacteria growth, and phosphates are the most im-
facultative aerobe. portant salt in lactic acid fermentation. Ammonium
The nutritive requirements of the lactic acid ions cannot serve as the sole nitrogen source, but
bacteria, specifically members of the genera Lacto- they seem to have some influence on the metabo-
bacillus, Leuconostoc and Streptococcus, are rather lism of certain amino acids.
complex. Various vitamins of the B-complex and Traditionally, the most common nutrients for
certain amino acids are required for the growth of the preparation of fermentative media are yeast ex-
these microbes in addition to the usual elements. tract and peptone, which turn out to be very expen-
Yeast extract and malt sprouts may be used as sive being able to account for almost 30 % of the
sources of vitamins of the B-complex in media used total cost of the process. It is desired to find some
for the isolation, growth and maintenance of lactic new nutrients suitable for an industrial process and
to replace yeast extract. Generally, the proteins in of lactic acid from agricultural resources. Ohkouchi
nutrients are hydrolyzed into peptides and amino et al.40 reported the direct production of lactic acid
acids before used for lactic acid production. Some from starch and food wastes.
nutrients, such as casaminoacids,68 soybean hydro- Xu et al.43 used soybean stalk to produce lactic
lysate69,70 and ram horn protein hydrolyzate,71 have acid production and Ohkouchi et al.90 explained the
been used for lactic acid production after hydro- production of lactic acid from organic wastes. It is
lyzed with acids. Hydrolyzed whey protein has necessary to supplement the fermentation media
been shown to constitute a rich nutrient source for with sufficient nutrients for rapid lactic acid pro-
the lactic acid bacteria.72–75 As lactic acid bacteria duction. The most common nutrient for lactic acid
have a limited capacity to synthesize B-vitamins production is yeast extract, but this may contribute
and amino acids,2 yeast extract is often used to sup- significantly to an increase in production costs.54
ply all of these factors in bacterial cultures. Nancib et al.37 explained the supplementation of vi-
For the feasibility of biotechnological produc- tamin-B and effect of nitrogen sources during the
tion of lactic acid, cheap raw materials are neces- production of lactic acid. Commonly, lactic acid is
sary because polymer producers and other indus- prepared by using refined sugars and starch materi-
trial users usually require large quantities of lactic als.18,91 In recent years for the sake of decreasing
acid at a relatively low cost. Raw materials for lac- environmental pollution and expense of lactic acid
tic acid production should have the following char- production, various wastes like kitchen waste,92–94
acteristics; cheap, low levels of contaminants, rapid wastewater sludge,95,96 food processing waste,97 crop
production rate, high yield, little (or) no byproduct residue including corn cobs, wheat stalk and bran
formation, ability to be fermented with little or no have been used for lactic acid production.23,25,98
pretreated and year round availability.76 There have
been many attempts to screen for cheap raw materi-
als for the economical production of lactic acid. Lactic acid fermentation
Cheap raw materials, such as starchy and cellulose
materials, whey, and molasses have been used for Batch, fed-batch, repeated batch, and continu-
lactic acid production.2 Among these, starchy and ous fermentations were used for lactic acid produc-
cellulose materials are currently receiving a great tion. Higher lactic acid concentration was obtained
deal of attention, because they are cheap, abundant, in batch and fed-batch cultures than in continuous
and renewable.8,77,78 The starchy materials used for cultures, whereas higher productivity was achieved
lactic acid production include sweet sorghum,8,48 by the use of continuous cultures.2 Another advan-
wheat straw,23 corn,25 cassava,79 potato,21 rice80,81 tage of the continuous culture compared to the
and barley.82 These materials have to be hydrolyzed batch culture, is the possibility to continue the pro-
into fermentable sugars before fermentation, be- cess for a longer period of time. Kwon et al.84 at-
cause they consist mainly of a(1,4) and a(1,6) tempted to produce lactic acid by a two-stage
linked glucose. This hydrolysis can be carried out cell-recycle culture of L. rhamnosus. They connected
simultaneously with fermentation.82 Although a the membrane cell-recycle bioreactors in a series,
number of different substrates have been used for and obtained g = 92 g L–1of lactic acid with a pro-
the biotechnological production of lactic acid, most ductivity of P = 57 g L–1 h–1. Several materials, such
studies for lactic acid production have been focused as Ca-alginate gels, poly (ethyleneimine), and plas-
on the pure substrates, such as glucose,83,84 or lactic composite support, have been used for immobili-
tose,32,85 and the natural polysaccharides such as zation of LAB in order to produce lactic acid.99,100
starch,79,82 or cellulose.78,86 Patil et al.30 reported the Senthuran et al.33 reported the production of lactic
production of lactic acid from cane sugar. Wee et acid by continuous culture of Lactobacillus casei
al.26 used sugar cane molasses for the production of immobilized in poly (ethyleneimine). This system
lactic acid by batch fermentation of Enterococcus was coupled with a cell-recycle bioreactor, and the
faecalis. authors observed that the most important factor for
Whey is a major byproduct of the dairy indus- operational stability was the bead size of the matrix.
try, and it contains lactose, protein, fat, and mineral Amrane et al.32 designed a novel reactor, spe-
salts. Amrane et al.87 reported the production of lac- cialized function two-stage reactor (SFTS) to pro-
tic acid from whey and explained the influence of duce lactic acid. For such systems, volumetric pro-
peptidic nitrogen deficiency. There have been sev- ductivity was improved with the help of a novel
eral attempts to produce lactic acid from whey by two-stage reactor equipped with a separate feeding
batch culture of Lactobacillus casei.88,89 Schepers et line in the second stage. Ninetyseven percent of the
al.54 reported the lactic acid production during pH total amount of lactic acid was produced in the sec-
controlled batch cultures in whey permeate/yeast ond stage. The volumetric productivity obtained
extract medium. Oh et al.38 reported the production from this novel configuration was close to that of
batch in similar conditions. An efficient bioreactor, saccharification and fermentation (SSF) for lactic
termed a ‘synchronized fresh cell bioreactor’, was acid production by fungal species of Rhizopus
developed to produce lactic acid from hydrolyzed arrhizus 36017 and Rhizopus oryzae 2062 resulting
sago starch using Lactococcus lactis IO-1.35 Volu- in lactic acid yield of Y = 0.85–0.92 g g–1 associated
metric lactic acid productivities of P = 8.2 g L–1, with g = 1.5–3.5 g L–1 fungal biomass produced in
19.3 g L–1 and 33 g L–1 were obtained at dilution t = 36–48 h fermentation. John et al.31 produced
rates of D = 0.21 h–1, 0.50 h–1and 1.1 h–1 respec- lactic acid from two agro industrial wastes, cassava
tively. Lactic acid is produced from corncobs by baggasse and sugarcane baggasse, as a raw material
solid-state fermentation.25 Oh et al.38 produced lac- and inert solid support using solid-state fermenta-
tic acid from agricultural resources by SSF using tion (SSF). A maximum yield of Y = 0.249 g g–1
Enterococcus faecalis RKY1. Schepers et al.39 ob- L(+)-lactic acid was obtained after 5 days of fer-
tained high lactic acid productivity (P = 19–22 mentation under the optimized conditions with a
g L–1 h–1) and low residual sugar mass concentration conversion efficiency of about 99 % of the initial
(g < 1 g L–1) during continuous fermentation of reducing sugars. Ding et al.101 studied different fed
whey permeate/yeast extract medium with immobi- batch feeding strategies to produce lactic acid. The
lized Lactobacillus helveticus in a two stage process. pulse fed-batch, constant feed rate fed-batch and
In this two-stage immobilized cell/free-cell process, constant glucose concentration fed-batch methods
an overall lactic acid productivity of P = 13.5 g L–1 h–1 were not satisfactory for lactic acid production. The
was reached with g = 1 g L–1 residual sugar at an exponential fed-batch method had better results in
overall dilution rate of D = 0.27 h–1. Extrapolation L-lactic acid concentration, while the exponential
of experimental results in this study suggested that a feeding glucose and yeast extract had the best L-lac-
high lactic acid productivity of up to P = 23 g L–1 h–1 tic acid production. Compared with the batch cul-
with low residual sugar could be attainable in a ture, the exponential feeding glucose and yeast cul-
two-stage immobilized cell process. The effects of ture showed 56.5 % improvement in L-lactic acid
different culture parameters and operating strategies production, 68.6 % improvement in dry cell mass
were tested on lactic acid production from whey and 59.7 % improvement in productivity, respec-
permeate/yeast extract medium by immobilized tively. The maximum lactic acid mass concentration
Lactobacillus helveticus in a continuous two-stage (g = 210 g L–1) and L-lactic acid mass concentration
process. High lactic acid productivities of P = (g = 180 g L–1) in exponential feeding glucose solu-
19–22 g L–1 h–1 and low residual sugar was tion (g = 850 g L–1) and yeast extract (1 %) was ob-
achieved with an overall dilution rate of D = 0.5 h–1 tained, respectively. The yield, the maximal dry cell
and g = 10 g L–1 yeast extract. Lowering the yeast mass and productivity of lactic acid were up to Y =
extract mass concentration from g = 10 to 1 g L–1 90.3 %, g = 4.30 g L–1, and P = 2.14 g L–1 h–1 re-
resulted in a gradual loss of activity with time in spectively.
both reactors, leading to an overall lactic acid pro- Ohashi et al.102 studied a perfusion culture sys-
ductivity of P = 10.5 g L–1 h–1 with g = 24 g L–1 re- tem used for continuous production of lactic acid
sidual sugar after t = 47 h. Inversion of the first and by retaining cells at a high density of Lactococcus
second reactor in the two-stage process led to an lactis in a stirred ceramic membrane reactor
important drop in productivity which was only (SCMR). After the cell mass concentration in-
partly restored in the next 3 days of culture. creased to g = 248 g L–1, half of the culture broth
Xu et al.42 developed a novel reactor called volume was replaced with the fermentation me-
membrane cell-recycle bioreactor (MCRB) to pro- dium. Subsequently, a substrate solution containing
duce lactic acid by Lactobacillus paracasei. Using glucose or molasses was continuously supplied to
a MCRB system with a diaphragm pump and tan- the cells retained in the SCMR. Simultaneously, the
gential flow-rate controlling, a maximum value of culture supernatant was extracted using a ceramic
OD620 of 98.7 was obtained which was six times filter with a pore diameter of dp = 0.2 mm. The mass
greater than that of the fed-batch fermentation. concentration and productivity of lactic acid
Maximum productivity of P = 31.5 g L–1 h–1 was re- reached g = 40 g L–1 and P = 10.6 g L–1h–l, respec-
corded which was 10 times greater than the counter tively, by continuously replenishing the culture me-
part of fed-batch fermentation. Lactic acid produc- dium at a dilution rate of D = 0.26 h–l. These results
tion from sugar molasses by batch fermentation of demonstrated that the filtration capacity of the
Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 was investigated in or- SCMR was sufficient for a continuous and rapid re-
der to reduce the manufacturing cost of lactic plenishment of molasses solution from the dense
acid.26 The maximum lactic acid mass concentra- cell culture and, therefore, the perfusion culture
tion of g = 134.9 g L–1 and the maximum productiv- system was considered to provide a low-cost pro-
ity of P = 4.3 g L–1 h–1 were obtained. Huang et al.21 cess for continuous production of lactic acid from
studied the biochemical kinetics of simultaneous cheap resources. Kamoshita et al.103 developed the
improved SCMR system. Using the improved on dilution rate and lactate mass concentration, re-
SCMR system, a cell mass concentration of g = 178 actor volumetric productivities ranged from P = 2.6
g L–1 and viability of 98 % were obtained after t = g L–1 h–1 to 7 g L–1 h–1. The fibrous bed bioreactor
198 h of culture, while it took t = 238 h to obtain a greatly improved in its packing design to allow for
cell mass concentration of g = 141 g L–1 and 94 % more uniform structure and to minimize diffusion
viability without the use of the membrane cleaning limitations, thereby improving cell efficiency and
system. The perfusion culture system was applied reactor productivity. A much higher specific cell
to the rapid batch fermentation of lactic acid by re- productivity was attained in the fibrous bed when
taining cells at a high density in the SCMR. When diffusion limitations were eliminated, such as in the
the cell mass concentration reached g = 80 g L–1, cell-recycle membrane bioreactor systems.
the culture supernatant was extracted and replaced
with the fermentation medium. Batch fermentation
using the retained cells was repeated six times. The Factors affecting the lactic
mass concentration of lactic acid increased to more acid production
than g = 30 g L–1 within t = 2 h in each fermenta-
tion, while t = 1.2 h was necessary for replacing the Effect of temperature
culture supernatant to repeat the batch fermentation.
The production rate of lactic acid was increased in The effect of temperature on the production of
proportion to the cell concentration, and a high fer- lactic acid was studied for various microorganisms
mentation activity of the retained cells was main- (Table 3). The temperature giving the highest pro-
tained via the repeated batch fermentation. These ductivity was in some cases lower than the tempera-
results demonstrate that the improved permeability ture resulting in highest lactic acid mass concentra-
of the SCMR with the use of a membrane cleaning tion and yield,52,64 whereas in others the same tem-
system influenced a rapid increase in the concentra- perature gave the best results in all categories.1,52
tion and viability of cells, and accordingly, the in- For Lactobacillus amylophilus, which is known to
creased production rate of lactic acid in proportion grow at 15 °C but not at 45 °C,107 the optimal tem-
to the concentration of viable cells. peratures were 25 °C and 35 °C for maximum pro-
ductivity and yield, respectively.64 For Lacto-
Moueddeb et al.104 developed a new type of bacillus casei and Lactobacillus paracasei the opti-
membrane bioreactor for the transformation of lac- mal temperature was reported to be between 37 °C
tose into lactic acid by Lactobacillus rhamnosus. and 44 °C,48,52,82 which is contradictory to the in-
However, as for the majority of membrane systems, formation that the strains grow at 15 °C but not
the decrease of permeate flow by membrane fouling at 45 °C.107 In agreement with previous observa-
is observed. From an industrial point of view the tions,107,108 Lactobacillus lactis and Lactobacillus
problem of sterilization (always present in reactors rhamnosus exhibited the highest yields and
with supported microorganisms) and membrane productivities at 33 to 35 °C1 and 41 to 45 °C,52 re-
fouling was partially solved using the fact that inor- spectively. Huang et al.21 investigated the cultiva-
ganic membranes were easily cleaned and sterilized. tion temperature on the solid-state fermentation of
It was observed that large contact time and high mi- lactic acid production by controlling the growth
croorganism concentration were necessary in order temperatures at 22, 30, 35, and 40 °C. The results
to have good substrate conversions. This model was from measuring the residual starch and reducing
a useful tool to estimate the bacteria concentration sugar in 4 h and 8 h indicated that there was an in-
profiles into a porous media and to study biological crease in starch hydrolysis and reducing sugar accu-
transformations in a confined media like in soils. mulation as the temperature increased from 22 – 30
Mostafa et al.105 produced lactic acid from °C, and a further increase from 30 – 40 °C resulted
deproteinized whey using the efficient strain immo- in a slight improvement for the saccharification in
bilized in an agar gel and fermented in a continuous both Rhizopus oryzae 2062 and Rhizopus oryzae
fixed bed reactor. The optimal processing tempera- 36017 cultures. The lactic acid production and bio-
ture and dilution rate were found to be 40 °C and D mass growth were affected by the temperature. The
= 0.33 h–1. Maximum volumetric productivities of fermentation performance by the Rhizopus arrhizus
lactic acid from whey were P = 7.28 and 9.36 g L–1 h–1 36017 appeared to be relatively less sensitive than
without and with recycle, respectively. Silva et by the Rhizopus oryzae 2062 with respect to the
al.106 investigated the kinetics and long-term stabil- temperature. Consequently, 30 °C appeared to be an
ity of the fibrous-bed bioreactor for continuous lac- optimum cultivation temperature for both sacchari-
tic acid production from un-supplemented acid fication and fermentation by the Rhizopus species
whey containing w = 3.7 % lactose and w = 0.8 % in the SSF. Narita et al.28 examined the effect of
lactic acid, using immobilized cells of Lacto- temperature on the production of lactic acid from g
bacillus helveticus at pH 5.5 and 42 °C. Depending = 20 g L–1 raw starch by Streptococcus bovis 148.
T a b l e 3 – Effect of temperature on lactic acid production

Temp. Lactic acid mass concentration yield Productivity
Microorganism Substrate Ref.
q/°C g/g L–1 Y/g g –1
P/g L–1 h–1
L. amylophilus ATCC 49845 starch 25 26 0.52 0.54 64
starch 28 29 0.58 0.44
starch 35 30 0.60 0.33
L. casei NRRL B-441 glucose 30 80 0.89 3.2 52

glucose 37 80 0.89 5.6
glucose 41 82 0.91 5.6
glucose 45 42 0.47 1.2
L. paracasei No.8 sweet sorghum 30 1.5 48

sweet sorghum 36 1.9
sweet sorghum 44 2.2
L. rhamnosus ATCC 10863 glucose 30 67 0.74 3.3 48

glucose 37 70 0.78 3.3
glucose 41 68 0.78 3.5
glucose 45 75 0.83 3.3
S. bovis 148 raw starch 30 10.6 28

raw starch 37 14.73
raw starch 45 10.77
L. lactis sp. lactis ATCC 19435 glucose 30 60 1.3 2.2 1

glucose 34 65 1.5 2.8
glucose 37 60 1.5 2.3
glucose 40 50 1.2 1.5
L. delbrueckii pineapple waste 37 28.73 0.917 109
The maximum lactic acid mass concentrations at 5.0–9.0 using g = 200 g L–1of molasses. Although
30, 37, and 45 °C were g = 10.60, 14.73 and 10.77 the optimum pH for cell growth of Enterococcus
g L–1, respectively. The highest yield (Y = 0.88 faecalis RKY1 was seen to be 8.0, the lactic acid fer-
g g–1) and lactic acid mass concentration (g = 14.73 mentation at pH 7.0 was completed faster than that at
g L–1) was obtained at 37 °C. pH 8.0. The cell growth at pH 5.0 almost ceased
even after 10 h of fermentation. The highest lactic
Effect of pH acid mass concentration (g = 4.0 g L–1) was obtained
The fermentation pH is either set at the begin- at pH 7.0 with a comparable yield with pH 6.0.
ning and then left to decrease due to acid production Huang et al.21 determined the impact of pH on the
or it is controlled by base titration, or by extraction, starch saccharification and fermentation of lactic
adsorption, or electrodialysis of lactic acid. The op- acid by the Rhizopus arrhizus 36017 and Rhizopus
timal pH for lactic acid production varies between oryzae 2062, the pH was controlled at 4.0, 5.0, 6.0
5.0 and 7.0. A pH below 5.7 was optimal for and 7.0 by adding c = 4 mol L–1 NaOH solution at t
Lactobacillus strains, which are known to tolerate = 4 h intervals during the course of cultivation. It
lower pH than lactococci. Wee et al.26 investigated was interesting to note that the volumetric concentra-
the influence of culture pH on lactic acid fermentation of lactic acid and biomass in the Rhizopus
tion from molasses where lactic acid fermentations arrhizus 36017 cultures increased with the increase
were performed on a jar fermentor at 38 °C and pH in pH. A growth condition with starch mass concen-
tration approximately g = 20 g L–1 at pH 6.0 and was tion costs. However, this is economically unfavor-
favorable for both starch saccharification and lactic able, because pure sugars are expensive and lactic
acid fermentation, resulting in lactic acid yield of Y = acid is a cheap product. Instead, waste products from
0.85–0.92 g g–1 associated with g = 1.5–3.5 g L–1 agriculture and forestry were utilized as shown in
fungal biomass produced in t = 36–48 h fermentation. Table 4. The study on lactic acid production by
Senthuran et al.33 investigated the lactic acid produc- Senthuran et al.33 with free cell cultivations in a me-
tion by Lactobacillus casei at different pH values dium containing different sugars revealed that
showed that reactor productivity was highest at pH Lactobacillus casei preferred lactose as a carbon
6.0 with free cells and at pH 6.5 with immobilized source for its growth and lactic acid production, fol-
cells. Productivity as well as free cell density de- lowed by glucose and maltose, while sucrose was
creased at both lower and higher pH values. The pro- poorly utilized. This was in contrast to the report by
ductivity was seen to decrease for successive batches Ohleyer et al.110 where glucose was the preferred
in immobilized cell reactor at pH 5.5. Fu et al.34 pro- substrate by Lactobacillus delbrueckii. Lactose
duced lactic acid in batch fermentations with syn- used at the mass concentration of g = 50 g L–1 in
thetic lactose media by using Lactobacillus plan- synthetic medium was completely utilized by the
tarum at various pH values ranging from 4 to 7. The cells giving a productivity of P = 2.0 g L–1 h–1 and
optimal pH range of 5 – 6 yielded the highest values final cell mass of g = 5.1 g L–1, while delayed
of biomass (g = 11.0 g L–1) and lactic acid mass con- growth and incomplete substrate utilization was ob-
centration (g = 41 g L–1). Ohkouchi et al.40 produced served in the medium containing only glucose at
lactic acid economically by direct bioconversion the same concentration. The preliminary experi-
from starchy substrates by using Lactobacillus mani- ment of Yun et al.24 with vial cultivation in a me-
hotivorans LMG18011. The optimum initial pH was dium containing the different sugars revealed that
found to occur between 5.0 and 5.5. Above pH 6.0 Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 utilized glucose, fruc-
or below pH 4.5, this strain could not convert all of tose, and maltose as carbon sources for growth and
the starch to lactic acid. lactic acid production, while galactose and sucrose
John et al.31 studied the influence of initial pH were metabolized to formic acid and acetic acid as
of the fermented medium for lactic acid production main products, and xylose, glycerol, whey, and
using Lactobacillus delbrueckii. The effect of pH starch were poorly utilized. When Enterococcus
was tested at various pH values from 4–10, with faecalis RKY1 was cultivated on these three carbon
and without buffering. The pH of the moistening sources, cell growth and lactic acid formation pat-
medium was adjusted with c = 1 mol L–1 Ca(OH)2 terns were similar. The highest volumetric produc-
and c = 1 mol L–1 HCl. In the absence of buffering, tivity was found to be with cells grown in a me-
the pH decreased to less than 3.5 within three days dium containing fructose, which was completely
of fermentation and at low pH resulted in low lactic utilized within t = 35 h. The average volumetric
acid production. The pH 6.5 was proved the opti- productivity and yield of lactic acid was P = 4.12
mum for the lactic acid production (Y = 0.237 g g–1). g L–1 h–1 and Y = 0.96 g-lactic acid (g-fructose)–1 re-
From pH 7–9 the yield was quite stable between spectively. In many lactic acid bacteria (LAB),
Y = 0.1923 and 0.1992 g g–1. Idris et al.109 reported fructose metabolism generally differs from glucose
the effect of various initial pH on the lactic acid metabolism in that fructose acts both as a growth
production of the immobilized Lactobacillus substrate and electron acceptor. When Enterococcus
delbrueckii during the batch fermentation of liquid faecalis RKY1 was grown on a mixture of glucose
pineapple waste. At initial pH 6.5, cell started to (g = 75 g L–1) and fructose (g = 75 g L–1) the cell
utilize glucose earlier and at a faster rate than at growth and volumetric productivity were higher
other initial pH. Maximum lactic acid concentration than growth on each sugar alone. Furthermore, for
was attained at initial pH 6.5 with a yield of g = the lactic acid fermentations with glucose/fructose,
29.02 g L–1 or Y = 92.7 %. Further increase in ini- glucose/maltose, and fructose/maltose mixtures as
tial pH beyond 6.5 does not improve the lactic acid carbon sources, Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 grown
production. It is possible that the higher initial pH on a mixture of glucose/fructose simultaneously
brought too much stress on the microorganism met- consumed these sugars, and the cell growth and av-
abolic abilities.46 erage volumetric productivity were higher than
when grown on the individual sugars. Ohkouchi et
Effect of carbon sources al.40 selected glucose, soluble starch, and starch
from rice or potato as carbon sources. At initial pH
A number of different substrates have been 6.5 the saccharification of starch was inhibited.
used for the fermentative production of lactic acid Therefore, Lactobacillus manihotivorans LMG18011
by LAB. The purest product is obtained when a was unable to take up carbohydrate or produce lac-
pure sugar is fermented, resulting in lower purifica- tic acid under this condition.
T a b l e 4 – Effect of carbon sources on lactic acid production

Lactic acid mass concentration Yield Productivity
Microorganism Substrate Ref.
g/g L–1 Y/g g –1
P/g L–1 h–1
L. amylophilus ATCC 49845 glucose 21 0.95 1.6 111
corn starch 33 0.73 0.88
L. amylovorus cassava starch 4.8 0.48 0.69 79

corn starch 10 1.0 1.2
potato starch 4.2 0.42 0.14
rice starch 7.9 0.79 0.86
wheat starch 7.8 0.78 1.2
L. delbrueckii sp. bulgaricus CBS 743.84 glucose 35 0.85 112

lactose 37 0.82
L. delbrueckii sp. bulgaricus CNRZ359 glucose 56 2.8 113

cellobiose 32 1.6
L. paracasei No. 8 glucose 95 0.95 5.6 48

sweet sorghum 91 0.91 10
L. pentosus glucose 46 0.92 2.4 114

xylose 27 0.54 0.59
glucose+xylose 90 1.8 4.0
L. rhamnosus ATCC 10863 glucose 17 0.86 115

fructose 14 0.71
glucose + fructose 16 0.81
sucrose 15 0.73
L. plantarum hydrolyzed soluble starch 15 0.30 116

hydrolyzed tapioca starch 15 0.30
hydrolyzed tapioca flour 17 0.35
L. plantarum NRRL B-531 glucose 5.4 0.54 117

galactose 3.7 0.37
mannose 5.7 0.57
However, at initial pH 5.5, lactic acid produc- Effect of nitrogen sources

tion occurred with all carbon sources. Kadam et The medium composition has been investigated
al.118 used different carbohydrate sources to pro- from many aspects, including the addition of vari-
duce lactic acid. When the medium containing glu- ous mass concentrations of nutrients in the form of
cose, fructose, lactose or galactose was used as car- yeast extract, peptone or corn steep liquor. The ad-
bon source, mutant Uc-3 could produce lactic acid dition of nutrients and higher nutrient mass concen-
more efficiently than the parent strain. The maltose, trations generally had a positive effect on the lactic
xylose and sucrose were utilized very poorly for acid production. MRS medium, which contains
growth by both the mutant and parent strains result- yeast extract, peptone and meat extract, was supe-
ing in no lactic acid production. The optimal carbon rior to yeast extract, which in turn was better than
sources for lactic acid production were found to be malt extract. Senthuran et al.33 used a synthetic me-
glucose, fructose, lactose or galactose. dium which contains g = 10 g L–1 yeast extract as a
nitrogen source. Higher concentration or a better the confidence level of 95 % on the basis of their
nitrogen source may improve the reactor perfor- effects. The components KH2PO4, MgSO4 · 7 H2O,
mance. Yeast extract is considered an essential nu- NaCl, tri-sodium citrate and sodium succinate were
trient for lactobacilli for an efficient lactic acid pro- found to be less significant on lactic acid products.
duction.119 The performance of lactic acid fermenta- The components, peptone, beef extract, yeast ex-
tion with hydrolyzed whey protein and yeast extract tract, K2HPO4, sodium acetate, sodium sulfate,
was compared. Whey can be directly subjected to FeSO4 · 7 H2O, and MnSO4 · 4 H2O were found to
enzymatic treatment.75 Replacing the yeast extract be significant. Nitrogen source was found to be
containing synthetic medium with whey protein significant at g = 1.0 g L–1 concentration during
based medium (maintaining the same level of ele- solid-state fermentation using wheat bran and dur-
mental nitrogen) containing lactose and glucose at ing selection of media components for lactic acid
the same mass ratio (z = 1:19) resulted in a higher production by Lactobacillus plantarum NCIM 2084
lactate production rate by the free cells giving a at 1.0 g L–1.98,123 Sodium acetate was also found sig-
productivity of 2.8 and P = 1.7 g L–1 h–1. A variety nificant at 99.43 % confidence level. It enhanced
of nitrogen sources have been tested for lactic acid the cell growth and thus influenced the production
production, but they did not give the product con- indirectly.124 Tween-80 has also been reported to be
centrations as high as those obtained with yeast ex- significant component for lactic acid production us-
tract.120 Ohkouchi et al.90 reported that lactic acid ing wheat bran under solid-state fermentation98 and
productivities were improved by the supplemen- for production of enzymes. Among the phosphate
tation of nitrogen sources with tryptone, beef ex- sources used, only K2HPO4 was significant and
tract, and MRS-complex. In particular, supplemen- there was considerable difference in lactic acid pro-
tation with tryptone or MRS-complex, the total ni- duction among the two phosphate sources.
trogen contents were improved to 0.58 % and Vasala et al.41 produced lactic acid from Lacto-
0.72 %, respectively, and both the acceleration of bacillus ssp. salicinius. It grew slowly in the ab-
the bioconversion rate and a doubling of lactic acid sence of peptides even in the presence of high
production, from g = 35 g L–1 up to g = 70 g L–1, amount of whey proteins. In order to reach a high
were observed. There was a little improvement of concentration of lactic acid, reasonable high num-
the bioconversion only by nitrogen supplemen- ber of bacteria should be achieved before product
tation with beef extract (the total nitrogen content; inhibition stops the growth.125 Fast growth and cor-
w = 0.48 %). Zhou et al.121 attempted nitrogen sup- respondingly, significantly higher lactic acid accu-
plements for the bioconversion of municipal solid mulation was achieved by supplementing the me-
waste to lactic acid by Lactobacillus pentosus dium with either yeast extract or by treating the me-
B-227. dium with proteolytic enzymes.
Nancib et al.37 reported the effects of supple-
menting date juice with different nitrogen sources
such as yeast extract, ammonium sulfate, tryptic soy, Purification of lactic acid
urea, peptone and casein hydrolysate on the lactic
acid product performance of Lactobacillus casei Lactic acid is sold in various commercial
subsp. rhamnosus. None of the non-yeast-extract ni- grades, and the better grades require that well-puri-
trogen sources gave lactic acid concentrations as fied substrates be utilized in the fermentation me-
high as that of yeast extract. On the other hand, am- dium in order to reduce the levels of impurities
monium sulfate seems to be a good alternative to present during recovery which, without great diffi-
yeast extract. Among the nitrogen sources tested, culty, cannot be separated from the lactic acid.
urea gave the lowest mass concentrations of lactic Also, in this regard, the sugar should be depleted
acid (g = 14.1 g L–1). Traditionally, the most com- from the medium by harvest of the fermentation.
mon nutrients for the preparation of fermentative One of the commercial grades of lactic acid,
media are yeast extract and peptone, which turn out “crude” or “technical” grade is a colored product
to be very expensive being able to account for al- prepared for commercial usage at mass fraction in
most 30 % of the total cost of the process. Because water of w = 22, 44, 50, 66 and 80 %. It is prepared
of this, the search for alternative, financially compet- by employing sulfuric acid to remove the calcium
itive nutrient sources is particularly interesting. from the calcium lactate derived from the heated
and filtered fermentation broth, followed by filtra-
Effect of mineral salts tion, concentration, and refiltration to remove addi-
tional calcium sulfate. Thus, this grade of lactic acid
Mineral salts play a vital role in the lactic acid contains many of the impurities from the fermenta-
fermentation. Chauhan et al.122 screened various tion medium, and it finds many industrial uses
medium components by Plackett-Burman design at where purity of the product is not essential as, for
example, in the deliming of hides in the leather in- then extracted from aqueous solution with organic
dustry. The ‘edible’ grade of lactic acid is snow col- solvents; the solvent is removed by evaporation,
ored and is marketed 50–80 % strengths. Thus, it and the salt then is decomposed to yield the free
receives additional refining over that of technical acid. An older procedure, not utilized commercially
lactic acid. Colorless, high purity lactic acids are to any extent today, involves direct high-vacuum
the plastic grade, marketed at 50–80 % strength, steam distillation of the lactic acid from the fermen-
and “U.S.P”. Lactic acid marketed at 50–80 % tation broth, but decomposition of some of the lac-
strengths. Other commercial preparations of lactic tic acid occurs.
acid are calcium lactate, sodium lactate, and copper The fermentation broth is generally heated to
lactate (a salt used in electroplating). The final re- 70 °C to kill the bacteria and then acidified with
covered yields of technical and edible-grade lactic sulfuric acid to pH 1.8. The clarified lactic liquor is
acids, based on the original carbohydrate of the me- then ion exchanged and concentrated to 80 %.
dium, are approximately 85–90 % and 80 %, re- Smell and taste can be improved further by oxida-
spectively. Plastic and U.S.P grades are prepared by tive treatment with hydrogen peroxide. The lactic
further refining of technical grade lactic acid and acid obtained at this stage is suitable for some food
therefore, slight to moderate yield losses are in- industries. The lactic acid produced from biological
curred during this refining. Lactic acid is commer- fermentation requires extensive purification opera-
cially available at different grades (qualities). They tions. It is of particular importance that the recovery
are technical grade lactic acid (20–80 %), food processing equipment be resistant to the corrosive
grade lactic acid (80 %), pharmacopoeia grade lac- action of the high concentrations of lactic acid that
tic acid (90 %), and plastic grade lactic acid. Phar- accumulate. Therefore, special stainless steel equip-
maceutical and food grade lactic acids are consider- ment is most often employed for this purpose.
able to be of most important. Sun et al.126 used two reactors with a rectifying
For the recovery of lactic acid, additional cal- column carried out recovery of lactic acid from the
cium carbonate is added to the medium, the pH is fermentation broth. Ammonium lactate obtained by
adjusted to approximately 10, and the fermentation fermentation was used directly to produce butyl lac-
broth is heated and then filtered. This procedure tate by reacting with butanol for 6 h, and the
converts all of the lactic acid to calcium lactate, esterification yield of ammonium lactate was Y =
kills bacteria, coagulates protein of the medium, re- 87.7 %. In this procedure, a cation exchange resin
moves excess calcium carbonate and helps to de- which was modified by SnCl2 replaced sulphuric
compose any residual sugar in the medium. Various acid as a catalyst, and neutral ammonium lactate re-
processes are employed for the recovery and purifi- placed former lactic acid as a starting material,
cation of the lactic acid. In one procedure, the which not only eliminated corrosion of a reactor,
heated and filtered fermentation broth is concen- but also avoid generating calcium salts as a byprod-
trated to allow crystallization of calcium lactate, uct. Then butyl lactate was rectified, and the puri-
followed by addition of sulfuric acid to remove the fied butyl lactate was sequentially hydrolyzed into
calcium as calcium sulfate. The lactic acid is then lactic acid in presence of the cation exchange resin
re-crystallized as calcium lactate, and activated car- in the H+ form as a catalyst for 4 h, and the hydro-
bon is used to remove colored impurities. As an al- lysis yield was 89.7 % and the purity of recovered
ternative to the latter step, the zinc salts of lactic lactic acid was 90 %.
acid are sometimes prepared because of the rela- Bouchoux et al.127 investigated nanofiltration
tively lower solubility of zinc lactate. In other pro- for usability in a specific lactic acid production pro-
cedure, the free lactic acid is solvent extracted with cess based on conventional and bipolar electro-
isopropyl ether directly from the heated and filtered dialysis operations. Industrial fluids, corresponding
fermentation broth. This is a counter current contin- to two potential integration levels and coming from
uous extraction, and the lactic acid is recovered an existing installation, were investigated. Nano-
from the isopropyl ether by further counter-current filtration was able to efficiently remove magnesium
washing of the solvent with water. In a third proce- and calcium ions from a sodium lactate fermenta-
dure, the methyl ester of the free lactic acid is pre- tion broth before its concentration and conversion
pared, and this is separated from the fermentation by electrodialysis (first potential integration level).
broth by distillation followed by hydrolysis of the Maximum impurities rejections and lactate re-
ester by boiling in dilute water solution (the methyl covery were obtained at maximum transmembrane
ester decomposes in water). The lactic acid is then pressures. Mg2+ and Ca2+ rejections were 64 ± 7 and
obtained from the aqueous solution by evaporation 72 ± 7 %, respectively and lactate recovery flux
of the water, and the methanol is recovered by dis- reached 25 ± 2 mol m–2 h–1 for pressure p = 20 bar.
tillation. In a fourth procedure, secondary or ter- Sulfate and phosphate ions were also partially re-
tiary alkyl amine salts of lactic acid are formed and moved from the broth (40 % rejection). At the in-
vert, chloride ions were negatively retained by the maceutical industries. Acetic acid impurity re-
membrane and were consequently more concen- mained at around g = 1 g L–1. Significant reduction
trated in the permeate. Nanofiltration also led to a in colour and minerals in the product streams was
nearly total decolouration of the fermentation broth. observed during electrodialysis purification.
On the other hand, sulfate and phosphate rejections The physico-chemical and operating effects of
obtained from the filtration of a converted broth lactic acid, sodium lactate and ammonium lactate
containing the lactic acid under its neutral form on the RO process have been investigated using a
(second potential integration level) were also satis- polyamide composite membrane by Liew et al.130
factory, i.e. 47 ± 5 and 51 ± 5 %, respectively. High This particular type of membrane was found to
recovery fluxes were observed in that case, i.e. J = swell at pH 2.2 but had no detectable solute-mem-
48 ± 2 mol m–2 h–1 at p = 20 bar. brane affinity. The flux and permeate concentration
Tong et al.128 reported the purification results were found to be an inverse function, whereas the
of lactic acid from the fermentation broth with pa- solute reduction factor was a direct function of the
per sludge as a cellulosic feedstock using weak an- pH value of feed. This was attributed to the greater
ion exchanger Amberlite IRA-92. Some factors concentration of ions dissociated into the solution
such as flow rate, sample volume loaded, pH, and as the pH was increased, and the fact that hydrated
column were systematically examined to improve ions possess larger sizes than molecules by merit of
the purity, yield and productivity in lactic acid puri- their charge densities is believed to help enhance
fication. Adsorption isotherm of standard lactic acid rejection by their lower rates of diffusion. At this
and lactic acid in the fermentation broth by anion stage, ammonium hydroxide is considered to be the
exchanger IRA-92 were also investigated. Results optimum pH-controlling agent for lactic acid pro-
indicate that in purification process the increase of duction by virtue of its reasonably high flux and
pH of the fermentation broth ranging from 5.0 to solute rejection as well as its capability to augment
6.0 can significantly enhance the recovery yield, cell growth by acting as a nitrogen source. In terms
purity and productivity. The decrease of flow rate of operating conditions, an increase in pressure
and sample volume loaded can also improve the re- from p = 1 MPa to 7 MPa has contributed to a
covery yield and purity but apparently reduce the higher flux, which outweighs the effect of the in-
productivity. In addition, the scale-up of purifica- creasing total solute loss and consequently leads to
tion process in laboratory size had little influence an increase in solute rejection. On the contrary, an
on the recovery yield and purity. After optimiza- increase in feed mass fraction, especially to w ³
tion, the yield, purity and productivity were found 3.80 %, has incurred pronounced effects on concen-
to be about 82.6 %, 96.2 % and 1.16 g LA / (g-resin tration polarization, leading to a reduced solute re-
day), respectively. jection and concentration efficiency.
Madzingaidzo et al.129 studied purification of
cell free sodium lactate solutions by mono- and
bi-polar electro dialysis. Lactate was concentrated Applications of lactic acid
by mono-polar electrodialysis to a maximum of g = Food industry
150 g L–1. At high feed mass lactate flux reached G
= 300 g m–2 h–1 with correspondingly high current Lactic acid is widely used in almost every seg-
efficiency in the 90 % range. Relatively low water ment of the food industry, where it serves in a wide
transport rates were observed during processing range of functions. The major use of lactic acid is in
with mono-polar electrodialysis. A low incidence food and food-related applications, which, in the
of impurities was observed in the concentrate solu- U.S., accounts for approximately 85 % of the
tions with less than g = 2 g L–1 glucose and g = 1.5 demand. The rest (~ 15 %) of the uses are for
g L–1 acetate detected respectively. Subsequent pu- non-food industrial applications. Lactic acid occurs
rification with bi-polar electrodialysis yielded good naturally in many food products. It has been in use
performance parameters with water transport rates as an acidulant, preservative and pH regulator for
as low as m = 70 g H2O per mol L–1 lactate and lac- quite some time. There are many properties of lac-
tate flux reaching a high of G = 300 g m–2 h–1. Cur- tic acid which make it a very versatile ingredient in
rent efficiency for bi-polar electrodialysis was in the food industry. It has a pronounced preservative
excess of h = 90 %. Free lactic acid mass concen- action, and it regulates the microflora. It has been
tration reached a moderate of 160 g L–1 while col- found to be very effective against certain type of
our and other chemical impurities were signifi- microorganisms. Some times a combination of lac-
cantly reduced. Additional bleaching and de-ionis- tic acid and acetic acid is used as it has a greater
ation process steps should however be integrated to bactericidal activity. The calcium salt of lactic acid,
polish the free lactic acid for high-grade applica- calcium lactate, has greater solubility than the cor-
tions in the biodegradable thermoplastic and phar- responding salt of citric acid. In such products
where turbidity caused by calcium salts is a prob- the brine and flavor. A mixture of acetic acid and lac-
lem, the use of lactic acid gives products that are tic acid in pickled products such as gherkins, silver
clear. L(+)-lactic acid is the natural acid found in bi- skin onion etc. imparts a milder taste and flavor, and
ological systems and hence its use as an acidulant improves microbial stability. Calcium lactate is re-
and does not introduce a foreign element into the ported to be used as firming salt, which have been
body. Moreover, lactic acid is used commercially in used for canned fruits and vegetables.
the processed meat and poultry industries, to pro-
vide products with an increased shelf life, enhanced Dairy products
flavor, and better control of food-born pathogens.
Direct acidification with lactic acid, in dairy
Another potential application of lactic acid in the
products such as cottage cheese, is preferred to fer-
food industry is the mineral fortification of food
mentation as the risks of failure and contamination
products.
can be avoided. The processing time also can be re-
duced. Lactic acid and calcium lactate are used ex-
Confectionery
tensively in the production of Channa and Panneer
Lactic acid finds use as an acidulant in the con- by direct acidification. Lactic acid is also used as an
fectionery industry. It is a better acidulant than cit- acidulant in dairy products like cheese, margarine
ric acid since the sugar inversion is less when used and yogurt powder. In dairy products such as cot-
for hardboiled candies. It does not have the initial tage cheese, addition of lactic acid is preferred to
burst of flavor and tanginess of citric acid. Lactic fermentation.
acid imparts a mellower and lasting sourness and
enhances the flavor much more. The use of buf- Bakery products
fered lactic acid in continuous production lines for For direct acidification of certain breads, lactic
high boiled sweets is a more recent application. acid is the natural sour dough acid. The general ap-
Liquid buffered lactic acid may be converted easily pearance of a loaf of bread is greatly improved by
to the molten syrups, even at the high temperatures the use of bacterial lactic acid, a larger loaf results
used in depositing lines. In sugar confectionery it is per weight of bread with improved bloom, and
used in continuous production lines for high boiled color of crust. Lactic acid is directly added to cer-
sweets (like bonbons) to make perfectly clear tain types of fermented dough crispy biscuits. Lac-
sweets, with minimum sugar inversion and with no tic acid added to dough increases the shelf life due
air trapped. Lactic acid is used in confectionery, not to its retarding action on molds and rope. The so-
only for flavor, but also to bring the pH of the dium and calcium stearoyl lactylates find use as
cooked mix to the correct point for setting. emulsifiers in the baking industry as they provide
substantial quality improvement of baked products
Beer and wine besides reducing shortening levels. In bakery prod-
Lactic acid is a natural beer acid and hence it is ucts it is used for direct acidification of rye or
used for pH adjustments during the mashing pro- rye-wheat breads. It increases butter stability and
cess and in wort cooking. Lactic acid improves the volume. Part of the egg albumen can be replaced by
microbial stability and also enhances the flavor of less expensive calcium lactate. A large fraction (w >
beer during the manufacturing process. 50 %) of the lactic acid for food-related uses goes
to produce emulsifying agents used in foods, partic-
Beverages ularly for bakery goods. These emulsifying agents
are esters of lactate salts with longer chain fatty ac-
Lactic acid is used as an acidulant in delicately ids, and the four important products are calcium
flavored soft drinks and fruit juices. It does not and sodium, stearoyl-2-1actylate, glyceryl lacto-
mask or over power the natural flavor. Its flavor en- stearate, and glyceryl lactopalmirate. Of the stearoyl
hancing property makes the beverage more palat- lactylates, the calcium salt is a very good dough
able and leaves a lingering taste. Lactic acid is pre- conditioner, and the sodium salt is both a condi-
ferred over citric acid for these reasons. Use of buf- tioner and an emulsifier for yeast leavened bakery
fered lactic acid improves the taste and flavor of products. The glycerates and palmitates are used in
many beverages, such as soft drinks, mineral water, prepared cake mixes and other bakery products and
carbonated fruit juices etc. in liquid shortenings.
Olives, pickles, cabbage, gherkins Meat and meat products

Green olives, gherkins and others are often packed Lactic acid is widely used in meat products as
in a solution of salt, lactic acid and water. The lactic an antimicrobial agent. Decontamination of beef,
acid acts as a preservative and improves the clarity of poultry and pork carcasses in slaughterhouse opera-
tions is practiced to reduce Salmonella infection. In Chemical industry

sausages, sodium lactate is used to reduce water ac-
tivity and achieve higher shelf life. Recent research Currently, lactic acid is considered the most
publication indicates the use of hot lactic acid spray potential feedstock monomer for chemical conver-
on carcasses where reduction of over 99 % of E. sions, because it contains two reactive functional
coli has been observed. Lactic acid is also used in groups, a carboxylic group and a hydroxyl group.
the improvement of shelf-life of buffalo meat.131 An Lactic acid can undergo a variety of chemical con-
emerging new use for lactic acid or its salts is in the versions into potentially useful chemicals, such as
disinfection and packaging of carcasses, particu- propylene oxide (via hydrogenation), acetaldehyde
larly those of poultry and fish, where the addition (via decarboxylation), acrylic acid (via dehydra-
tion), propanoic acid (via reduction), 2,3-pentane-
of aqueous solutions of lactic acid and its salts dur-
dione (via condensation), and dilactide (via
ing the processing increased shelf life and reduced
self-esterification) (Fig. 3). In the chemical indus-
the growth of anaerobic spoilage organisms such as
tries, lactic acid is used in the dyeing of silks and
Clostridium botulinum.
other textile goods, as a mordant in the printing of
woolens, in the bating and plumping of leathers, in
Cosmetic industry the deliming of hides, in vegetable tanning, and as a
flux for soft solders. The water-white grade is used
Lactic acid offers natural ingredients for cos- in plastic industry. Lactic acid functions as a
metic applications. Although primarily used as descaling agent, pH regulator, neutralizer, chiral in-
moisturizers and pH regulators, they possess multi- termediate, solvent, cleaning agent, slow acid-re-
ple other properties such as antimicrobial activity, lease agent, metal complexing agent, antimicrobial
skin lightening, and skin hydration. The moisturiz- agent, and humectant. Natural lactic acid has an
ing effect is related directly to lactate’s water retain- emerging use as an excellent and safe solvent,
ing capacity, and the skin-lightening action of lactic which is alternative in many fine mechanical clean-
acid is produced by the suppression of the forma- ing applications. Due to the high solvency power
tion of tyrosinase. Since they are natural ingredients and solubility of lactic acid, it is an excellent re-
of the human body, lactic acid and its salt fit per- mover of polymer and resins.
fectly into the modern trend towards natural and
safer formulations, and they produce such effects as Pharmaceutical industry
skin lightening and rejuvenation which makes them
very useful as active ingredients in cosmetics. Lac- Lactic acid is also used in the pharmaceutical
tic acid is popularly known as an alpha hydroxy industry as an electrolyte in many parenteral/I.V.
acid (AHA) in the cosmetics industry. It is widely (intravenous) solutions that are intended to replen-
used as a milder alternative to glycolic acid. It is ish the bodily fluids or electrolytes. Examples in-
primarily used as an anti-aging chemical claimed to clude Lactated Ringer’s or Hartmann’s solutions,
soften lines, reduce photo damage from the sun, im- CAPD (continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis)
prove skin texture and tone and improve overall ap- solution, and dialysis solution for conventional arti-
pearance. Precautions should be taken when using ficial kidney machines. Moreover, lactic acid is
lactic acid as a cosmetic agent because it can in- used in a wide variety of mineral preparations,
crease sensitivity to the sun's UV radiation. which includes tablets, prostheses, surgical sutures,
F i g . 3 – Lactic acid potential products and technologies3

and controlled drug delivery systems. Lactic acid The resultant polymer, PLA, has numerous uses in
has many pharmaceutical formulations, particularly a wide range of applications, such as protective
in topical ointments, lotions, anti acne solutions, clothing, food packaging, mulch film, trash bags,
humectants, parental solutions and dialysis applica- rigid containers, shrink wrap, and short shelf-life
tions, for anti carries agent. Its biodegradable poly- trays.
mer has medical applications as sutures, orthopedic
implants, controlled drug release etc. Poly L-lactic Other applications
acid is used in many medical products such as
stitches and screws used to repair broken bones. Technical grade lactic acid is used as an
The calcium salt is widely used for calcium-de- acidulant in vegetable and leather tanning indus-
ficiency therapy and as an effective anti-caries tries. Lactic acid is being used in many small scale
agent. applications like pH adjustment hardening baths for
cellophanes used in food packaging, terminating
They provide the energy and volume for blood agent for phenol formaldehyde resins, alkyl resin
besides regulation of pH. Calcium, sodium, ferrous modifier, solder flux, lithographic and textile print-
and other salts of lactic acid are used in the pharma- ing developers, adhesive formulations, electroplat-
ceutical industry in various formulations. Lactate ing and electro-polishing baths, detergent builders.
salts have better absorption, solubility and are eas- It is also used for the extraction of fish skin gela-
ily metabolized resulting in administration of some tin.132 In recent days it is used in the field of soft
very important drugs like ciprofloxacin as a lactate tissue augmentation and also used as adhesive in
salt. Lactic acid based formulations find use for lamination industries.133
their antitumor activity. The antimicrobial action
of lactic acid is taken advantage for use as sa- Lactic acid has better descaling properties than
nitizers. It is reported that lactic acid finds use in conventional organic descalers due to which reason
the treatment of dermatological problems like it is used in many decalcification applications such
warts. as cleaners for toilets, bathrooms etc. Lactate esters
like ethyl, methyl lactate etc. are used for de-
Polymer industry greasing since they have excellent action for oils,
oligomeric and polymeric stains. Lactic acid is used
Lactic acid has recently received a great deal of in Ni – plating process because of its unique
attention as a feedstock monomer for the produc- complexing constant for Ni. Lactic acid is used as a
tion of polylactic acid (PLA), which serves as a pH regulator and complexing agent in various
biodegradable commodity plastic. The optically binder systems for water–based coatings such as
pure lactic acid can be polymerized into a high mo- electro-deposition coatings. Lactates find use as
lecular mass PLA through the serial reactions neutralizers in the production of certain types of
of polycondensation, depolymerization, and ring surfactants, used in special detergents and personal
opening polymerization. Table 5 shows the uses of care products.
various potential polymer products of lactic acid.
T a b l e 5 – Potential products from lactic acid Conclusions

Product Uses Lactic acid is one of the most important chemi-
degradable plastics packaging, films cal that can be derived from renewable resources
like refined sugars, molasses, whey, raw starchy
oxychemicals: materials and lignocellulose which is used to make
a wide variety of useful products. The current major
propylene glycol polymers, food deicers, humectants
markets for lactic acid are food related industries,
acrylates polymers, plastic films, coatings but the emerging markets for polylactic acid poly-
mer would cause a significant increase in growth of
propylene oxide polymers, plastics lactic acid consumption. Many investigations ex-
“green” chemicals/solvents: plasticizers, food processing plained the various factors such as plant size, raw
material cost, and various microorganisms involved
esters packaging in the production of lactic acid, and capital invest-
ester derivatives same as above
ment. However, there are still several researches
that need to be addressed in order to produce lactic
plant growth regulators: acid biotechnologically within the targeted cost, de-
velopment of high-performance lactic acid produc-
mulch film for vegetable and
poly-L-lactates
fruit crops
ing microorganisms and lowering the cost of the
raw materials.
List of symbols 25. Rivas, B., Moldes, A. B., Dominguez, J. M., Parajo, J. C.,
Enzyme Microb. Technol. 34 (2004) 627.
c – concentration, mol L–1 26. Wee, Y. J., Kim, J. N., Yun, J. S., Ryu, H. W., Enzyme
D – dilution rate, h–1 Microb. Technol. 35 (2004) 568.
G – mass flux, g m–2 h–1 27. Kourkoutas, Y., Xolias, V., Kallis, M., Bezirtzoglou, E.,
Kanellaki, M., Process Biochem. 40 (2005) 411.
J – molar flux, mol m–2 h–1
28. Narita, J., Nakahara, S., Fukuda, H., Kondo, A., J. Biosci.
m – mass, g Bioeng. 97 (2004) 423.
P – productivity, g L–1 h–1 29. Chauhan, K., Trivedi, U., Patel, K. C., Bioresour. Technol.
p – pressure, bar, MPa 98 (2007) 98.
t – time, h 30. Patil, S. S., Kadam, S. R., Patil, S. S., Bastawde, K. B.,
Khire, J. M., Gokhale, D. V., Lett. Appl. Microb. 43 (2006)
w – mass fraction, % 53.
Y – yield, % 31. John, R. P., Nampoothiri, K. M., Pandey, A., Process
g – mass concentration, g L–1 Biochem. 41 (2006) 759.
32. Amrane, A., Prigent, Y., J. Biotechnol. 45 (1996) 195.
q – temperature, °C
33. Senthuran, A., Senthuran, V., Hatti-Kaul, R., Mattiasson,
h – efficiency, % B., J. Biotechnol. 73 (1999) 61.
z – mass ratio 34. Fu, W., Mathews, A. P., Biochem. Eng. J. 3 (1999) 163.
35. Nolasco-Hipolito, C., Matsunaka, T., Kobayashi, G.,
Sonomoto, K., Ishizaki, A., J. Biosci. Bioeng. 93 (2002)
References 281.
36. Amrane, A., Enzyme Microb. Technol. 28 (2001) 827.
1. Akerberg, C., Hofvendahl, K., Zacchi, G., Hahn-Hagerdal,
37. Nancib, A., Nancib, N., Meziane-Cherif, D., Boubendir, A.,
B., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 49 (1998) 682.
Fick, M., Boudrant, J., Bioresour. Technol. 96 (2005) 63.
2. Hofvendahl, K., Hahn-Hagerdal, B., Enzyme Microb.
38. Oh, H., Wee, Y. J., Yun, J. S., Han, S. H., Jung, S., Ryu, H.
Technol. 26 (2000) 87.
W., Bioresour. Technol. 96 (2005) 1492.
3. Datta, R., Tsai, S. P., Bonsignore, P., Moon, S. H., Frank,
J. R., FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 16 (1995) 221. 39. Schepers, A. E., Thibault, J., Lacroix, C., Enzyme Microb.
Technol. 38 (2006) 324.
4. Hofvendahl, K., Akerberg, C., Zacchi, G., Appl.
Microbiol. Biotechnol. 52 (1999) 163. 40. Ohkouchi, Y., Inoue, Y., Bioresour. Technol. 97 (2006)
1554.
5. Khalaf, S. A., Egypt. J. Microbiol. 36 (1) (2001) 89.
41. Vasala, A., Panula, J., Neubauer, P., J. Biotechnol. 117
6. Yin, P., Nishiya, N., Kosakai, Y., Yahira, K., Park, Y. S.,
(2005) 421.
Okabe, M., J. Ferment. Bioeng. 84 (1997) 249.
7. Tsao, G. T., Cao, N. J., Du, J., Gong, C. S., Adv. Biochem. 42. Xu, G. Q., Chu, J., Wang, Y. H., Zhuang, Y. P., Zhang, S.
Eng. Biotechnol. 65 (1999) 245. L., Peng, H. Q., Process Biochem. 41 (2006) 2458.
8. Richter, K., Berthold, C., J. Agric. Eng. Res. 71 (1998) 43. Xu, Z., Wang, O., Wang, P., Cheng, G., Ji, Y., Jiang, Z.,
181. Process Biochem. 42 (2007) 89.
9. Anuradha, R., Suresh, A. K., Venkatesh, K. V., Process 44. Sakai, K., Fujii, N., Chukeatirote, E., J. Biosci. Bioeng.
Biochem. 35 (1999) 367. 102 (2006) 227.
10. Aristidous, A., Penttila, M., Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 11 45. Kutzanmanidis, C., Roukas, T., Skaracis, G., World J.
(2000) 187. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 18 (2002) 442.
11. Huang, L. P., Jin, B., Lant, P., Zhou, J. T., J. Chem. 46. Goksungur, Y., Guvenc, U., J. Chem. Eng. Biotechnol. 69
Technol. Biotechnol. 78 (2003) 889. (1997) 399.
12. Litchfield, J. H., Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 42 (1996) 45. 47. Soccol, C. R., Marin, B., Lebeault, J. M., Raimbault, M.,
13. Naveena, B. J., Altaf, M., Bhadrayya, K., Reddy, G., Food Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 41 (1994) 286.
Technol. Biotechnol. 42 (2004) 147. 48. Richter, K., Trager, A., Acta Biotechnol. 14 (1994) 367.
14. Wassewar, K. L., Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. 19 (2005) 159. 49. Hofvendahl, K., Hahn-Hagerdal, B., Enzyme Microb.
15. Gross, R. A., Kalra, B., Science 2 (2002) 803. Technol. 20 (1997) 301.
16. Gottschalk, G., Bacterial metabolism, second ed., 50. Vishnu, C., Seenayya, G., Reddy, G., Bioprocess Eng. 23
Springer-Verlag, New York 1986. (2000) 155.
17. Zhou, Y., Dominguez, J. M., Cao, N., Du, J., Tsao, G. T., 51. Bustos, G., Moldes, A. B., Cruz, J. M., Dominguez, J. M.,
Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 78 (1999) 401. J. Sci. Food Agric. 84 (2004) 2105.
18. Tay, A., Yang, S. T., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 80 (2002) 1. 52. Hujanen, M., Linko, Y. Y., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 45
19. Kosakai, Y., Park, Y. S., Okabe, M., Biotechnol. Bioeng. (1996) 307.
55 (1999) 461. 53. Burgos-Rubio, C. N., Okos, M. R., Wankat, P. C.,
20. Park, E. Y., Kosakai, Y., Okabe, M., Biotechnol. Progr. 14 Biotechnol. Prog. 16 (2000) 305.
(1998) 699. 54. Schepers, A. W., Thibault, J., Lacroix, C., Enzyme Microb.
21. Huang, L. P., Jin, B., Lant, P., Zhou, J., Biochem. Eng. J. Technol. 30 (2002) 176.
23 (2005) 265. 55. Berry, A. R., Franco, C. M. M., Zhang, W., Middelberg, A.
22. Park, E. Y., Anh, P. N., Okuda, N., Bioresour. Technol. 93 P. J., Biotechnol. Lett. 21 (1999) 163.
(2004) 773. 56. Siebold, M., von Frieling, P., Joppien, R., Rindfleisch, D.,
23. Garde, A., Jonsson, G., Schmidt, A. S., Ahring, B. K., Schugerl, K., Roper, H., Process Biochem. 30 (1995) 81.
Bioresour. Technol. 81 (2002) 217. 57. Javanainen, P., Linko, Y.-Y., Biotechnol. Tech. 9 (1995)
24. Yun, J. S., Ryu, H. W., Process Biochem. 37 (2001) 235. 543.
58. Samuel, W. A., Lee, Y. Y., Anthony, W. B., Biotechnol. 92. Wang, Q. H., Narita, J. Y., Xie, W. M., Ohsumi, Y.,
Bioeng. 22 (1980) 757. Kusano, K., Shirai, Y., Ogawa, H. I., Bioresour. Technol.
59. Gupta, R., Gandhi, D. N., Indian J. Dairy Sci. 48 (1995) 84 (2002) 13.
636. 93. Wang, Q. H., Narita, J. Y., Ren, N. Q., Ohsumi, Y.,
60. Audet, P., Paquin, C., Lacroix, C., Appl. Microbiol. Kusano, K., Shirai, Y., Ogawa, H. I., Water Air Soil
Biotechnol. 29 (1988) 11. Pollut. 144 (2003) 405.
61. Altaf, M., Naveena, B. J., Reddy, G., Food Technol. 94. Tong, W. Y., Fu, X. Y., Lee, S. M., Yu, J., Liu, J. Y., Wei,
Biotechnol. 43 (2005) 235. D. Z., Koo, Y. M., Biochem. Eng. J. 18 (2004) 89.
62. Monteagudo, J. M., Rodriguez, L., Rincon, J., Fuertes, J., 95. Zakasaki, K., Akakura, N., Adachi, T., Akiyama, T., Envi-
J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 68 (1997) 271. ron. Sci. Technol. 33 (1999) 198.
63. Nakamura, L. K., Crowell, C. D., Dev. Ind. Microbiol. 20 96. Oda, Y. J., Park, B. S., Moon, K. H., Bioresour. Technol.
(1979) 531. 60 (1997) 101.
64. Yumoto, I., Ikeda, K., Biotechnol. Lett. 17 (1995) 543. 97. Pintado, J., Guyot, J. P., Raimbault, M., Enzyme
65. Zhang, D. X., Cheryan, M., Biotechnol. Lett. 13 (1991) Microb. Technol. 24 (1999) 590.
733. 98. Naveena, B. J., Altaf, M. D., Bhadriah, K., Reddy, G.,
66. Giraud, E., Champailler, A., Raimbault, M., Appl. Envi- Bioresour. Technol. 96 (2005) 485.
ron. Microbiol. 60 (1994) 4319. 99. Goksungur, Y., Guvenç, U., J. Chem. Technol.
67. Amrane, A., World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 16 (2000) Biotechnol. 74 (1999) 131.
207. 100. Cotton, J. C., Pometto, A. L., Gvozdenovic-Jeremic, J.,
68. Yoo, I.-K., Chang, H. N., Lee, E. G., Chang, Y. K., Moon, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 57 (2001) 626.
S. H., J. Ferment. Bioeng. 84 (1997) 172.
101. Ding, S., Tan, T., Process Biochem. 41 (2006) 1451.
69. Hsieh, C. M., Yang, F.-C., Iannotti, E. L., Process
Biochem. 34 (1999) 173. 102. Ohashi, R., Yamamoto, T., Suzuki, T., J. Biosci. Bioeng.
87 (1999) 647.
70. Kwon, S., Lee, P.-C., Lee, E. G., Chang, Y.-K., Chang, N.,
Enzyme Microb. Technol. 26 (2000) 209. 103. Kamoshita, Y., Ohashi, R., Suzuki, T., J. Ferment.
Bioeng. 85 (1998) 422.
71. Kurbanoglu, E. B., Kurbanoglu, N. I., FEMS Microbiol.
Lett. 225 (2003) 29. 104. Moueddeb, H., Sanchez, J., Bardot, C., Fick, M., J.
72. Leh, M. B., Charles, M., J. Ind. Microbiol. 4 (1989) 77. Memb. Sci. 114 (1996) 59.
73. Krischke, W., Schroder, M., Trosch, W., Appl. Microbiol. 105. Mostafa, N. A., Energ. Convers. Manage. 37 (1996) 253.
Biotechnol. 34 (1991) 573. 106. Silva, E. M., Yang, S. T., J. Biotechnol. 41 (1995) 59.
74. Lund, B., Norddahl, B., Ahring, B., Biotechnol. Lett. 14 107. Hammes, W. P., Vogel, R. F., The genus Lactobacillus, In:
(1992) 851. Wood BJB, Holzapfel, W. H, (Ed.) The Genera of lactic
75. Senthuran, A., Senthuran, V., Mattiasson, B., Kaul, R., acid Bacteria. Blackie Academic and Professional, Glas-
Biotechnol. Bioeng. 55 (1997) 841. gow, UK, 1995, pp 19–54.
76. Vickroy, T. B., Lactic acid. In: Comprehensive Biotechnol- 108. Teuber, M., The genus Lactococcus. In: Wood BJB,
ogy, Moo-Young, M. (Ed.), Vol. 3, Pergamon Press., New Holzapfel, W. H., (Ed.), The Genera of lactic acid Bacte-
York, USA, 1985, pp 761–776. ria. Blackie Academic and Professional, Glasgow, UK
77. Akerberg, C., Zacchi, G., Bioresour. Technol. 75 (2000) 1995, pp. 173–234.
119. 109. Idris, A., Suzana, W., Process Biochem. 41 (2006) 1117.
78. Venkatesh, K. V., Bioresour. Technol. 62 (1997) 91. 110. Ohleyer, E., Wilke, C. R., Blanch, H. W., Appl. Biochem.
79. Xiaodong, W., Xuan, G., Rakshit, S. K., Biotechnol. Lett. Biotechnol. 11 (1985b) 457.
19 (1997) 841. 111. Mercier, P., Yerushalmi, L., Rouleau, D., Dochain, D., J.
80. Nguyen, T. T. T., Loiseau, G., Icard-Verniere, C., Rochette, Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 55 (1992) 111.
I., Treche, S., Guyot, J. P., Food Chem. 100 (2007) 623. 112. Veringa, H. A., US Patent 5 (1994) 781.
81. Yun, J. S., Wee, Y. J., Kim, J. N., Ryu, H. W., Biotechnol. 113. El Sabaeny, A. H., Microbiologia 12 (1996) 411.
Lett. 26 (2004) 1613.
114. Linko, P., Stenroos, S.-L., Linko, Y.-Y., Koistinen, T., Harju,
82. Linko, Y. Y., Javanainen, P., Enzyme Microb. Technol. 19 M., Heikonen, M., Ann NY Acad Sci. 434 (1984) 406.
(1996) 118.
115. Aksu, Z., Kutsal, T., Biotechnol. Lett. 8 (1986) 157.
83. Olmos-Dichara, A., Ampe, F., Uribelarrea, J. L.,
Pareilleux, A., Goma, G., Biotechnol. Lett. 19 (1997) 709. 116. Shamala, T. R., J. Ind. Microbiol. 3 (1988) 175.
84. Kwon, S., Yoo, I. K., Lee, W. G., Chang, H. N., Chang, Y. 117. McCaskey, T. A., Zhou, S. D., Britt, S. N., Strickland, R.,
K., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 73 (2001) 25. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 45 (1994) 555.
85. Venkatesh, K. V., Okos, M. R., Wankat, P. C., Process 118. Kadam, S. R., Patil, S. S., Bastawde, K. B., Khire, J. M.,
Biochem. 28 (1993) 231. Gokhale, D. V., Process Biochem. 41 (2006) 120.
86. Chen, R., Lee, Y. Y., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 63 (1997) 119. Aeschlimann, A., von Stockar, U., Appl. Microbiol.
435. Biotechnol. 32 (1990) 398.
87. Amrane, A., Prigent, Y., J. Biotechnol. 55 (1997) 1. 120. Nancib, N., Nancib, A., Boudjelal, A., Benslimane, C.,
88. Buyukkilci, A. O., Harsa, S., J. Chem. Technol. Blanchard, F., Boudrant, J., Bioresour. Technol. 78
Biotechnol. 79 (2004) 1036. (2001) 149.
89. Fitzpatrick, J. J., Ahrens, M., Smith, S., Process Biochem. 121. Zhou, S. D., MaCaskey, T. A., Broder, J., Appl. Biochem.
36 (2001) 671. Biotechnol. 57 (1996) 517.
90. Ohkouchi, Y., Inoue, Y., Bioresour. Technol. 98 (2007) 122. Chauhan, K., Trivedi, U., Patel, K. C., Bioresour.
546. Technol. 98 (2007) 98.
91. Gao, M. T., Hirata, M., Koide, M., Takanashi, H., Hano, 123. Krishnan, S., Prapulla, S. G., Rajalakshmi, D., Misra, M.
T., Process Biochem. 39 (2004) 1903. C., Karanth, N. G., Bioprocess Eng. 19 (1998) 61.
124. Peters, V. J., Snell, E. E., J. Bacteriol. 67 (1954) 69. 129. Madzingaidzo, L., Danner, H., Braun, R., J. Biotechnol.
125. Concalves, L. M. D., Xavier, A. M. R. B., Almeida, J. S., 96 (2002) 223.
Carrondo, M. J. T., Enzyme Microb. Technol. 13 (1991) 130. Liew, M. K. H., Tanaka, S., Morita, M., Desal. 101
314. (1995) 269.
126. Sun, X., Wang, Q., Zhao, W., Ma, H., Sakata, K., Sep. 131. Naveena, B. M., Muthukumaran, M., Sen, A. R., Babiji,
Purif. Technol. 49 (2006) 43. Y., Murthy, T. R. K., Meat sci. 74 (2006) 409.
127. Bouchoux, A., Balmann, H. R., Lutin, F., Sep. Purif. 132. Gimenez, B., Turnay, J., Lizarbe, M. A., Montero, P. V.,
Technol. 52 (2006) 266. Gomez-Guillen, M. C., Food hydrocolloids 19 (2005) 941.
128. Tong, W. Y., Fu, X. Y., Lee, S. M., Jie Yu., Liu, J. W., Wei, 133. Viljanmaa, M., Sodergard, A., Tormala, P., Int. J. Adhes.
D. Z., Koo, Y. M., Biochem. Eng. J. 18 (2004) 89. 23 (2003) 151.

Lactic Acid Industrial Production

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lactic Acid Industrial Production

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lactic Acid Industrial Production

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

J. VIJAYAKUMAR et al., Recent Trends in the Production, Purification and …, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q.

22 (2) 245–264 (2008) 245

Recent Trends in the Production, Purification and Application of Lactic Acid

Lactic acid, a naturally occurring multifunctional organic acid, is a valuable in-

Introduction COOH COOH

of the current terminology for lactic acid. In 1857,

T a b l e 2 – Microorganisms used in recent investigations of the biotechnological production of lactic acid

Lactic acid Yield Productivity

Enterococcus faecalis 95.7 0.94 4.0 26

Lactobacillus delbrueckii NC1MB8130 90.0 0.97 3.8 45

Lactobacillus delbrueckii IFO 3202 60.3 0.95 3.4 46

Streptococcus bovis 148 0.88 14.7a 28

Rhizopus oryzae 93.8 0.77 1.38 47

Latobacillus paracasei 88 – 106 0.91 – 0.95 3.31 – 3.67 48

Lactobacillus lactis 109 0.93 1.09 49

Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 102 0.97 4.87 38

Lactobacillus amylophilus GV6 76.2 0.7 0.8 50

L. pentosus ATCC 8041 21.8 0.77 0.8 51

L. plantarum ATCC 21028 41.0 0.97 1.0 34

L. casei NRRL B-441 82.0 0.91 5.6 52

L. bulgaricus NRRL B-548 38.7 0.9 3.5 53

L. helveticus ATTC 15009 65.5 0.66 2.7 54

L. rhamnosus ATCC 10863 67.0 0.84 2.5 55

R. oryzae NRRL 395 104.6 0.87 1.8 20

R. oryzae ATCC 52311 83.0 0.88 2.6 17

L. salivarius sp. salivarius ATCC 11742 28.0 0.92 11 56

L. amylovorus ATCC 33622 93.0 0.52 2.0 57

L. plantarum ATCC14917 2.0 58

L. acidophilus R 8.60 0.17 59

S. thermophilus 18.0 0.50 5.9 60

T a b l e 3 – Effect of temperature on lactic acid production

L. casei NRRL B-441 glucose 30 80 0.89 3.2 52

L. paracasei No.8 sweet sorghum 30 1.5 48

L. rhamnosus ATCC 10863 glucose 30 67 0.74 3.3 48

S. bovis 148 raw starch 30 10.6 28

L. lactis sp. lactis ATCC 19435 glucose 30 60 1.3 2.2 1

L. delbrueckii pineapple waste 37 28.73 0.917 109

T a b l e 4 – Effect of carbon sources on lactic acid production

L. amylovorus cassava starch 4.8 0.48 0.69 79

L. delbrueckii sp. bulgaricus CBS 743.84 glucose 35 0.85 112

L. delbrueckii sp. bulgaricus CNRZ359 glucose 56 2.8 113

L. paracasei No. 8 glucose 95 0.95 5.6 48

L. pentosus glucose 46 0.92 2.4 114

L. rhamnosus ATCC 10863 glucose 17 0.86 115

L. plantarum hydrolyzed soluble starch 15 0.30 116

L. plantarum NRRL B-531 glucose 5.4 0.54 117

However, at initial pH 5.5, lactic acid produc- Effect of nitrogen sources

Olives, pickles, cabbage, gherkins Meat and meat products

tions is practiced to reduce Salmonella infection. In Chemical industry

F i g . 3 – Lactic acid potential products and technologies3

T a b l e 5 – Potential products from lactic acid Conclusions

You might also like