First C Program

Before starting the abcd of C language, you need to learn how to write, compile and run the first c program.

To write the first c program, open the C console and write the following code:

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. printf("Hello C Language");
4. return 0;
5. }

#include <stdio.h> includes the standard input output library functions. The printf() function is defined in stdio.h .

int main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in c language.

printf() The printf() function is used to print data on the console.

return 0 The return 0 statement, returns execution status to the OS. The 0 value is used for successful execution and 1 for
unsuccessful execution.

How to compile and run the c program

There are 2 ways to compile and run the c program, by menu and by shortcut.

By menu

Now click on the compile menu then compile sub menu to compile the c program.

Then click on the run menu then run sub menu to run the c program.

By shortcut

Or, press ctrl+f9 keys compile and run the program directly.

You will see the following output on user screen.

You can view the user screen any time by pressing the alt+f5 keys.

Now press Esc to return to the turbo c++ console.

Flow of C Program

The C program follows many steps in execution. To understand the flow of C program well, let us see a simple program first.

File: simple.c

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. printf("Hello C Language");
4. return 0;
5. }

Page 1
Execution Flow

Let's try to understand the flow of above program by the figure given below.

1) C program (source code) is sent to preprocessor first. The preprocessor is responsible to convert preprocessor directives
into their respective values. The preprocessor generates an expanded source code.

2) Expanded source code is sent to compiler which compiles the code and converts it into assembly code.

3) The assembly code is sent to assembler which assembles the code and converts it into object code. Now a simple.obj file is
generated.

4) The object code is sent to linker which links it to the library such as header files. Then it is converted into executable code.
A simple.exe file is generated.

5) The executable code is sent to loader which loads it into memory and then it is executed. After execution, output is sent to
console.

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 printf() and scanf() in C

The printf() and scanf() functions are used for input and output in C language. Both functions are inbuilt library functions,
defined in stdio.h (header file).

printf() function

The printf() function is used for output. It prints the given statement to the console.

The syntax of printf() function is given below:

1. printf("format string",argument_list);

The format string can be %d (integer), %c (character), %s (string), %f (float) etc.

scanf() function

The scanf() function is used for input. It reads the input data from the console.

1. scanf("format string",argument_list);

Program to print cube of given number

Let's see a simple example of c language that gets input from the user and prints the cube of the given number.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number;
4. printf("enter a number:");
5. scanf("%d",&number);
6. printf("cube of number is:%d ",number*number*number);
7. return 0;
8. }

Output

enter a number:5
cube of number is:125

The scanf("%d",&number) statement reads integer number from the console and stores the given value in number
variable.

The printf("cube of number is:%d ",number*number*number) statement prints the cube of number on the console.

Program to print sum of 2 numbers

Let's see a simple example of input and output in C language that prints addition of 2 numbers.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int x=0,y=0,result=0;
4.
5. printf("enter first number:");

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6. scanf("%d",&x);
7. printf("enter second number:");
8. scanf("%d",&y);
9.
10. result=x+y;
11. printf("sum of 2 numbers:%d ",result);
12.
13. return 0;
14. }

Output

enter first number:9

enter second number:9
sum of 2 numbers:18

Variables in C

A variable is a name of the memory location. It is used to store data. Its value can be changed, and it can be reused many
times.

It is a way to represent memory location through symbol so that it can be easily identified.

Let's see the syntax to declare a variable:

1. type variable_list;

The example of declaring the variable is given below:

1. int a;
2. float b;
3. char c;

Here, a, b, c are variables. The int, float, char are the data types.

We can also provide values while declaring the variables as given below:

1. int a=10,b=20;//declaring 2 variable of integer type

2. float f=20.8;
3. char c='A';

Rules for defining variables

o A variable can have alphabets, digits, and underscore.

o A variable name can start with the alphabet, and underscore only. It can't start with a digit.
o No whitespace is allowed within the variable name.
o A variable name must not be any reserved word or keyword, e.g. int, float, etc.

Valid variable names:

1. int a;
2. int _ab;
3. int a30;

Invalid variable names:

1. int 2;

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2. int a b;
3. int long;

Types of Variables in C

There are many types of variables in c:

1. local variable
2. global variable
3. static variable
4. automatic variable
5. external variable

Local Variable

A variable that is declared inside the function or block is called a local variable.

It must be declared at the start of the block.

1. void function1(){
2. int x=10;//local variable
3. }

You must have to initialize the local variable before it is used.

Global Variable

A variable that is declared outside the function or block is called a global variable. Any function can change the value of the
global variable. It is available to all the functions.

It must be declared at the start of the block.

1. int value=20;//global variable

2. void function1(){
3. int x=10;//local variable
4. }

Static Variable

A variable that is declared with the static keyword is called static variable.

It retains its value between multiple function calls.

1. void function1(){
2. int x=10;//local variable
3. static int y=10;//static variable
4. x=x+1;
5. y=y+1;
6. printf("%d,%d",x,y);
7. }

If you call this function many times, the local variable will print the same value for each function call, e.g, 11,11,11 and
so on. But the static variable will print the incremented value in each function call, e.g. 11, 12, 13 and so on.

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 Automatic Variable

All variables in C that are declared inside the block, are automatic variables by default. We can explicitly declare an automatic
variable using auto keyword.

1. void main(){
2. int x=10;//local variable (also automatic)
3. auto int y=20;//automatic variable
4. }

External Variable

We can share a variable in multiple C source files by using an external variable. To declare an external variable, you need to
use extern keyword.

myfile.h
1. extern int x=10;//external variable (also global)
program1.c
1. #include "myfile.h"
2. #include <stdio.h>
3. void printValue(){
4. printf("Global variable: %d", global_variable);
5. }

1.6. Data Types in C

2.7. A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating, character, etc.

3.8.
4.9. There are the following data types in C language.

Types Data Types

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double

Derived Data Type array, pointer, structure, union

Enumeration Data Type enum

Void Data Type void

10. Basic Data Types

11. The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language supports both signed and unsigned
literals.
12. The memory size of the basic data types may change according to 32 or 64-bit operating system.
13. Let's see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32-bit architecture.

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Data Types Memory Size Range

char 1 byte −128 to 127

signed char 1 byte −128 to 127

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255

short 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed short 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short 2 byte 0 to 65,535

int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned int 2 byte 0 to 65,535

short int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

signed short int 2 byte −32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short int 2 byte 0 to 65,535

long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

signed long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned long int 4 byte 0 to 4,294,967,295

float 4 byte

double 8 byte

long double 10 byte

Keywords in C

A keyword is a reserved word. You cannot use it as a variable name, constant name, etc. There are only 32 reserved words
(keywords) in the C language.

A list of 32 keywords in the c language is given below:

auto break case char const continue default do

double else enum extern float for goto if

int long register return short signed sizeof static

struct switch typedef union unsigned void volatile while

We will learn about all the C language keywords later.

C Operators

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 An operator is simply a symbol that is used to perform operations. There can be many types of operations like arithmetic,
logical, bitwise, etc.

There are following types of operators to perform different types of operations in C language.

o Arithmetic Operators
o Relational Operators
o Shift Operators
o Logical Operators
o Bitwise Operators
o Ternary or Conditional Operators
o Assignment Operator
o Misc Operator

Precedence of Operators in C

The precedence of operator species that which operator will be evaluated first and next. The associativity specifies the
operator direction to be evaluated; it may be left to right or right to left.

Let's understand the precedence by the example given below:

1. int value=10+20*10;

The value variable will contain 210 because * (multiplicative operator) is evaluated before + (additive operator).

The precedence and associativity of C operators is given below:

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right

Shift << >> Left to right

Relational < <= > >= Left to right

Equality == != Left to right

Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Left to right

Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

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 Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Comma , Left to right

Comments in C

Comments in C language are used to provide information about lines of code. It is widely used for documenting code. There
are 2 types of comments in the C language.

1. Single Line Comments

2. Multi-Line Comments

Single Line Comments

Single line comments are represented by double slash \\. Let's see an example of a single line comment in C.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. //printing information
4. printf("Hello C");
5. return 0;
6. }

Output:

Hello C

Even you can place the comment after the statement. For example:

1. printf("Hello C");//printing information

Mult Line Comments

Multi-Line comments are represented by slash asterisk \* ... *\. It can occupy many lines of code, but it can't be nested.
Syntax:

1. /*
2. code
3. to be commented
4. */

Let's see an example of a multi-Line comment in C.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. /*printing information
4. Multi-Line Comment*/
5. printf("Hello C");
6. return 0;
7. }

Output:

Hello C

Escape Sequence in C

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 An escape sequence in C language is a sequence of characters that doesn't represent itself when used inside string literal or
character.

It is composed of two or more characters starting with backslash \. For example: \n represents new line.

List of Escape Sequences in C

Escape Sequence Meaning

\a Alarm or Beep

\b Backspace

\f Form Feed

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

\t Tab (Horizontal)

\v Vertical Tab

\\ Backslash

\' Single Quote

\" Double Quote

\? Question Mark

\nnn octal number

\xhh hexadecimal number

\0 Null

Escape Sequence Example

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=50;
4. printf("You\nare\nlearning\n\'c\' language\n\"Do you know C language\"");
5. return 0;
6. }

Output:

You
are
learning
'c' language
"Do you know C language"

Constants in C

A constant is a value or variable that can't be changed in the program, for example: 10, 20, 'a', 3.4, "c programming" etc.

There are different types of constants in C programming.

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 List of Constants in C

Constant Example

Decimal Constant 10, 20, 450 etc.

Real or Floating-point Constant 10.3, 20.2, 450.6 etc.

Octal Constant 021, 033, 046 etc.

Hexadecimal Constant 0x2a, 0x7b, 0xaa etc.

Character Constant 'a', 'b', 'x' etc.

String Constant "c", "c program", "c in javatpoint" etc.

2 ways to define constant in C

There are two ways to define constant in C programming.

1. const keyword
2. #define preprocessor

1) C const keyword

The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming.

1. const float PI=3.14;

Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. const float PI=3.14;
4. printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);
5. return 0;
6. }

Output:

The value of PI is: 3.140000

If you try to change the the value of PI, it will render compile time error.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. const float PI=3.14;
4. PI=4.5;
5. printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);
6. return 0;
7. }

Output:

Compile Time Error: Cannot modify a const object

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 2) C #define preprocessor

The #define preprocessor is also used to define constant. We will learn about #define preprocessor directive later.

Visit here for: #define preprocessor directive.

C if else Statement

The if-else statement in C is used to perform the operations based on some specific condition. The operations specified in if
block are executed if and only if the given condition is true.

There are the following variants of if statement in C language.

o If statement
o If-else statement
o If else-if ladder
o Nested if

If Statement

The if statement is used to check some given condition and perform some operations depending upon the correctness of that
condition. It is mostly used in the scenario where we need to perform the different operations for the different conditions. The
syntax of the if statement is given below.

1. if(expression){
2. //code to be executed
3. }

Flowchart of if statement in C

Let's see a simple example of C language if statement.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=0;
4. printf("Enter a number:");
5. scanf("%d",&number);
6. if(number%2==0){
7. printf("%d is even number",number);

Page 12
8. }
9. return 0;
10. }

Output

Enter a number:4
4 is even number
enter a number:5

Program to find the largest number of the three.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int a, b, c;
5. printf("Enter three numbers?");
6. scanf("%d %d %d",&a,&b,&c);
7. if(a>b && a>c)
8. {
9. printf("%d is largest",a);
10. }
11. if(b>a && b > c)
12. {
13. printf("%d is largest",b);
14. }
15. if(c>a && c>b)
16. {
17. printf("%d is largest",c);
18. }
19. if(a == b && a == c)
20. {
21. printf("All are equal");
22. }
23. }

Output

Enter three numbers?

12 23 34
34 is largest

If-else Statement

The if-else statement is used to perform two operations for a single condition. The if-else statement is an extension to the if
statement using which, we can perform two different operations, i.e., one is for the correctness of that condition, and the
other is for the incorrectness of the condition. Here, we must notice that if and else block cannot be executed simiulteneously.
Using if-else statement is always preferable since it always invokes an otherwise case with every if condition. The syntax of
the if-else statement is given below.

1. if(expression){
2. //code to be executed if condition is true
3. }else{
4. //code to be executed if condition is false
5. }

Flowchart of the if-else statement in C

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 Let's see the simple example to check whether a number is even or odd using if-else statement in C language.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=0;
4. printf("enter a number:");
5. scanf("%d",&number);
6. if(number%2==0){
7. printf("%d is even number",number);
8. }
9. else{
10. printf("%d is odd number",number);
11. }
12. return 0;
13. }

Output

enter a number:4
4 is even number
enter a number:5
5 is odd number

Program to check whether a person is eligible to vote or not.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int age;
5. printf("Enter your age?");
6. scanf("%d",&age);
7. if(age>=18)
8. {
9. printf("You are eligible to vote...");
10. }
11. else
12. {
13. printf("Sorry ... you can't vote");
14. }
15. }

Output

Page 14
 Enter your age?18
You are eligible to vote...
Enter your age?13
Sorry ... you can't vote

If else-if ladder Statement

The if-else-if ladder statement is an extension to the if-else statement. It is used in the scenario where there are multiple
cases to be performed for different conditions. In if-else-if ladder statement, if a condition is true then the statements defined
in the if block will be executed, otherwise if some other condition is true then the statements defined in the else-if block will
be executed, at the last if none of the condition is true then the statements defined in the else block will be executed. There
are multiple else-if blocks possible. It is similar to the switch case statement where the default is executed instead of else
block if none of the cases is matched.

1. if(condition1){
2. //code to be executed if condition1 is true
3. }else if(condition2){
4. //code to be executed if condition2 is true
5. }
6. else if(condition3){
7. //code to be executed if condition3 is true
8. }
9. ...
10. else{
11. //code to be executed if all the conditions are false
12. }

Flowchart of else-if ladder statement in C

The example of an if-else-if statement in C language is given below.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=0;
4. printf("enter a number:");
5. scanf("%d",&number);
6. if(number==10){
7. printf("number is equals to 10");
8. }

Page 15
9. else if(number==50){
10. printf("number is equal to 50");
11. }
12. else if(number==100){
13. printf("number is equal to 100");
14. }
15. else{
16. printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
17. }
18. return 0;
19. }

Output

enter a number:4
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50

Program to calculate the grade of the student according to the specified marks.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int marks;
5. printf("Enter your marks?");
6. scanf("%d",&marks);
7. if(marks > 85 && marks <= 100)
8. {
9. printf("Congrats ! you scored grade A ...");
10. }
11. else if (marks > 60 && marks <= 85)
12. {
13. printf("You scored grade B + ...");
14. }
15. else if (marks > 40 && marks <= 60)
16. {
17. printf("You scored grade B ...");
18. }
19. else if (marks > 30 && marks <= 40)
20. {
21. printf("You scored grade C ...");
22. }
23. else
24. {
25. printf("Sorry you are fail ...");
26. }
27. }

Output

Enter your marks?10

Sorry you are fail ...
Enter your marks?40
You scored grade C ...
Enter your marks?90
Congrats ! you scored grade A ...

C Switch Statement

Page 16
 The switch statement in C is an alternate to if-else-if ladder statement which allows us to execute multiple operations for the
different possibles values of a single variable called switch variable. Here, We can define various statements in the multiple
cases for the different values of a single variable.

The syntax of switch statement in c language is given below:

1. switch(expression){
2. case value1:
3. //code to be executed;
4. break; //optional
5. case value2:
6. //code to be executed;
7. break; //optional
8. ......
9.
10. default:
11. code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
12. }

Rules for switch statement in C language

1) The switch expression must be of an integer or character type.

2) The case value must be an integer or character constant.

3) The case value can be used only inside the switch statement.

4) The break statement in switch case is not must. It is optional. If there is no break statement found in the case, all the
cases will be executed present after the matched case. It is known as fall through the state of C switch statement.

Let's try to understand it by the examples. We are assuming that there are following variables.

1. int x,y,z;
2. char a,b;
3. float f;

Valid Switch Invalid Switch Valid Case Invalid Case

switch(x) switch(f) case 3; case 2.5;

switch(x>y) switch(x+2.5) case 'a'; case x;

switch(a+b-2) case 1+2; case x+2;

switch(func(x,y)) case 'x'>'y'; case 1,2,3;

Flowchart of switch statement in C

Page 17
 Functioning of switch case statement

First, the integer expression specified in the switch statement is evaluated. This value is then matched one by one with the
constant values given in the different cases. If a match is found, then all the statements specified in that case are executed
along with the all the cases present after that case including the default statement. No two cases can have similar values. If
the matched case contains a break statement, then all the cases present after that will be skipped, and the control comes out
of the switch. Otherwise, all the cases following the matched case will be executed.

Let's see a simple example of c language switch statement.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=0;
4. printf("enter a number:");
5. scanf("%d",&number);
6. switch(number){
7. case 10:
8. printf("number is equals to 10");
9. break;
10. case 50:
11. printf("number is equal to 50");
12. break;
13. case 100:
14. printf("number is equal to 100");
15. break;
16. default:
17. printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
18. }
19. return 0;
20. }

Page 18
 Output

enter a number:4
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50

Switch case example 2

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int x = 10, y = 5;
5. switch(x>y && x+y>0)
6. {
7. case 1:
8. printf("hi");
9. break;
10. case 0:
11. printf("bye");
12. break;
13. default:
14. printf(" Hello bye ");
15. }
16.
17. }

Output

hi

C Switch statement is fall-through

In C language, the switch statement is fall through; it means if you don't use a break statement in the switch case, all the
cases after the matching case will be executed.

Let's try to understand the fall through state of switch statement by the example given below.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=0;
4.
5. printf("enter a number:");
6. scanf("%d",&number);
7.
8. switch(number){
9. case 10:
10. printf("number is equal to 10\n");
11. case 50:
12. printf("number is equal to 50\n");
13. case 100:
14. printf("number is equal to 100\n");
15. default:
16. printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
17. }
18. return 0;
19. }

Output

Page 19
 enter a number:10
number is equal to 10
number is equal to 50
number is equal to 100
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50
number is equal to 100
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100

Nested switch case statement

We can use as many switch statement as we want inside a switch statement. Such type of statements is called nested switch
case statements. Consider the following example.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main () {
3.
4. int i = 10;
5. int j = 20;
6.
7. switch(i) {
8.
9. case 10:
10. printf("the value of i evaluated in outer switch: %d\n",i);
11. case 20:
12. switch(j) {
13. case 20:
14. printf("The value of j evaluated in nested switch: %d\n",j);
15. }
16. }
17.
18. printf("Exact value of i is : %d\n", i );
19. printf("Exact value of j is : %d\n", j );
20.
21. return 0;
22. }

Output

the value of i evaluated in outer switch: 10

The value of j evaluated in nested switch: 20
Exact value of i is : 10
Exact value of j is : 20

C Loops

The looping can be defined as repeating the same process multiple times until a specific condition satisfies. There are three
types of loops used in the C language. In this part of the tutorial, we are going to learn all the aspects of C loops.

Why use loops in C language?

The looping simplifies the complex problems into the easy ones. It enables us to alter the flow of the program so that instead
of writing the same code again and again, we can repeat the same code for a finite number of times. For example, if we need
to print the first 10 natural numbers then, instead of using the printf statement 10 times, we can print inside a loop which
runs up to 10 iterations.

Advantage of loops in C

1) It provides code reusability.

2) Using loops, we do not need to write the same code again and again.

Page 20
 2) Using loops, we can traverse over the elements of data structures (array or linked lists).

Types of C Loops

There are three types of loops in C language that is given below:

1. do while
2. while
3. for

do-while loop in C

The do-while loop continues until a given condition satisfies. It is also called post tested loop. It is used when it is necessary
to execute the loop at least once (mostly menu driven programs).

The syntax of do-while loop in c language is given below:

1. do{
2. //code to be executed
3. }while(condition);
Flowchart and Example of do-while loop

while loop in C

The while loop in c is to be used in the scenario where we don't know the number of iterations in advance. The block of
statements is executed in the while loop until the condition specified in the while loop is satisfied. It is also called a pre-tested
loop.

The syntax of while loop in c language is given below:

1. while(condition){
2. //code to be executed
3. }
Flowchart and Example of while loop

for loop in C

The for loop is used in the case where we need to execute some part of the code until the given condition is satisfied. The for
loop is also called as a per-tested loop. It is better to use for loop if the number of iteration is known in advance.

The syntax of for loop in c language is given below:

1. for(initialization;condition;incr/decr){
2. //code to be executed
3. }
Flowchart and Example of for loop

do while loop in C

The do while loop is a post tested loop. Using the do-while loop, we can repeat the execution of several parts of the
statements. The do-while loop is mainly used in the case where we need to execute the loop at least once. The do-while loop
is mostly used in menu-driven programs where the termination condition depends upon the end user.

Page 21
 do while loop syntax

The syntax of the C language do-while loop is given below:

1. do{
2. //code to be executed
3. }while(condition);

Example 1

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. void main ()
4. {
5. char c;
6. int choice,dummy;
7. do{
8. printf("\n1. Print Hello\n2. Print Javatpoint\n3. Exit\n");
9. scanf("%d",&choice);
10. switch(choice)
11. {
12. case 1 :
13. printf("Hello");
14. break;
15. case 2:
16. printf("Javatpoint");
17. break;
18. case 3:
19. exit(0);
20. break;
21. default:
22. printf("please enter valid choice");
23. }
24. printf("do you want to enter more?");
25. scanf("%d",&dummy);
26. scanf("%c",&c);
27. }while(c=='y');
28. }

Output

1. Print Hello
2. Print Javatpoint
3. Exit
1
Hello
do you want to enter more?
y

1. Print Hello
2. Print Javatpoint
3. Exit
2
Javatpoint
do you want to enter more?
n

Flowchart of do while loop

Page 22
 do while example

There is given the simple program of c language do while loop where we are printing the table of 1.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=1;
4. do{
5. printf("%d \n",i);
6. i++;
7. }while(i<=10);
8. return 0;
9. }

Output

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Program to print table for the given number using do while loop

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=1,number=0;
4. printf("Enter a number: ");
5. scanf("%d",&number);
6. do{
7. printf("%d \n",(number*i));
8. i++;
9. }while(i<=10);
10. return 0;
11. }

Output

Enter a number: 5
5
10
15
20

Page 23
 25
30
35
40
45
50
Enter a number: 10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

Infinitive do while loop

The do-while loop will run infinite times if we pass any non-zero value as the conditional expression.

1. do{
2. //statement
3. }while(1);

while loop in C

While loop is also known as a pre-tested loop. In general, a while loop allows a part of the code to be executed multiple times
depending upon a given boolean condition. It can be viewed as a repeating if statement. The while loop is mostly used in the
case where the number of iterations is not known in advance.

Syntax of while loop in C language

The syntax of while loop in c language is given below:

1. while(condition){
2. //code to be executed
3. }

Flowchart of while loop in C

Example of the while loop in C language

Let's see the simple program of while loop that prints table of 1.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){

Page 24
3. int i=1;
4. while(i<=10){
5. printf("%d \n",i);
6. i++;
7. }
8. return 0;
9. }

Output

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Program to print table for the given number using while loop in C

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=1,number=0,b=9;
4. printf("Enter a number: ");
5. scanf("%d",&number);
6. while(i<=10){
7. printf("%d \n",(number*i));
8. i++;
9. }
10. return 0;
11. }

Output

Enter a number: 50
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Enter a number: 100
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Properties of while loop

Page 25
 o A conditional expression is used to check the condition. The statements defined inside the while loop will repeatedly
execute until the given condition fails.
o The condition will be true if it returns 0. The condition will be false if it returns any non-zero number.
o In while loop, the condition expression is compulsory.
o Running a while loop without a body is possible.
o We can have more than one conditional expression in while loop.
o If the loop body contains only one statement, then the braces are optional.

Example 1

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int j = 1;
5. while(j+=2,j<=10)
6. {
7. printf("%d ",j);
8. }
9. printf("%d",j);
10. }

Output

3 5 7 9 11

Example 2

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. while()
5. {
6. printf("hello Javatpoint");
7. }
8. }

Output

compile time error: while loop can't be empty

Example 3

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int x = 10, y = 2;
5. while(x+y-1)
6. {
7. printf("%d %d",x--,y--);
8. }
9. }

Output

infinite loop

Infinitive while loop in C

Page 26
 If the expression passed in while loop results in any non-zero value then the loop will run the infinite number of times.

1. while(1){
2. //statement
3. }

for loop in C

The for loop in C language is used to iterate the statements or a part of the program several times. It is frequently used to
traverse the data structures like the array and linked list.

Syntax of for loop in C

The syntax of for loop in c language is given below:

1. for(Expression 1; Expression 2; Expression 3){

2. //code to be executed
3. }

Flowchart of for loop in C

C for loop Examples

Let's see the simple program of for loop that prints table of 1.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=0;
4. for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
5. printf("%d \n",i);
6. }
7. return 0;
8. }

Output

1
2
3
4
5

Page 27
 6
7
8
9
10

C Program: Print table for the given number using C for loop

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=1,number=0;
4. printf("Enter a number: ");
5. scanf("%d",&number);
6. for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
7. printf("%d \n",(number*i));
8. }
9. return 0;
10. }

Output

Enter a number: 2
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Enter a number: 1000
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000

Properties of Expression 1
o The expression represents the initialization of the loop variable.
o We can initialize more than one variable in Expression 1.
o Expression 1 is optional.
o In C, we can not declare the variables in Expression 1. However, It can be an exception in some compilers.

Example 1

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int a,b,c;
5. for(a=0,b=12,c=23;a<2;a++)
6. {
7. printf("%d ",a+b+c);
8. }
9. }

Page 28
 Output

35 36

Example 2

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int i=1;
5. for(;i<5;i++)
6. {
7. printf("%d ",i);
8. }
9. }

Output

1234

Properties of Expression 2
o Expression 2 is a conditional expression. It checks for a specific condition to be satisfied. If it is not, the loop is
terminated.
o Expression 2 can have more than one condition. However, the loop will iterate until the last condition becomes false.
Other conditions will be treated as statements.
o Expression 2 is optional.
o Expression 2 can perform the task of expression 1 and expression 3. That is, we can initialize the variable as well as
update the loop variable in expression 2 itself.
o We can pass zero or non-zero value in expression 2. However, in C, any non-zero value is true, and zero is false by
default.

Example 1

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int i;
5. for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
6. {
7. printf("%d ",i);
8. }
9. }

output

01234

Example 2

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int i,j,k;
5. for(i=0,j=0,k=0;i<4,k<8,j<10;i++)
6. {
7. printf("%d %d %d\n",i,j,k);
8. j+=2;

Page 29
9. k+=3;
10. }
11. }

Output

0 0 0
1 2 3
2 4 6
3 6 9
4 8 12

Example 3

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int i;
5. for(i=0;;i++)
6. {
7. printf("%d",i);
8. }
9. }

Output

infinite loop

Properties of Expression 3

o Expression 3 is used to update the loop variable.

o We can update more than one variable at the same time.
o Expression 3 is optional.

Example 1

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int i=0,j=2;
5. for(i = 0;i<5;i++,j=j+2)
6. {
7. printf("%d %d\n",i,j);
8. }
9. }

Output

0 2
1 4
2 6
3 8
4 10

Loop body

The braces {} are used to define the scope of the loop. However, if the loop contains only one statement, then we don't need
to use braces. A loop without a body is possible. The braces work as a block separator, i.e., the value variable declared inside
for loop is valid only for that block and not outside. Consider the following example.

Page 30
1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int i;
5. for(i=0;i<10;i++)
6. {
7. int i = 20;
8. printf("%d ",i);
9. }
10. }

Output

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Infinitive for loop in C

To make a for loop infinite, we need not give any expression in the syntax. Instead of that, we need to provide two
semicolons to validate the syntax of the for loop. This will work as an infinite for loop.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. for(;;)
5. {
6. printf("welcome to javatpoint");
7. }
8. }

If you run this program, you will see above statement infinite times.

C break statement

The break is a keyword in C which is used to bring the program control out of the loop. The break statement is used inside
loops or switch statement. The break statement breaks the loop one by one, i.e., in the case of nested loops, it breaks the
inner loop first and then proceeds to outer loops. The break statement in C can be used in the following two scenarios:

1. With switch case

2. With loop

Syntax:

1. //loop or switch case

2. break;

Flowchart of break in c

Page 31
 Example

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. void main ()
4. {
5. int i;
6. for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
7. {
8. printf("%d ",i);
9. if(i == 5)
10. break;
11. }
12. printf("came outside of loop i = %d",i);
13.
14. }

Output

0 1 2 3 4 5 came outside of loop i = 5

Example of C break statement with switch case

Click here to see the example of C break with the switch statement.

C break statement with the nested loop

In such case, it breaks only the inner loop, but not outer loop.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=1,j=1;//initializing a local variable
4. for(i=1;i<=3;i++){
5. for(j=1;j<=3;j++){
6. printf("%d &d\n",i,j);
7. if(i==2 && j==2){
8. break;//will break loop of j only
9. }
10. }//end of for loop
11. return 0;

Page 32
12. }

Output

1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 2
3 1
3 2
3 3

As you can see the output on the console, 2 3 is not printed because there is a break statement after printing i==2 and j==2.
But 3 1, 3 2 and 3 3 are printed because the break statement is used to break the inner loop only.

break statement with while loop

Consider the following example to use break statement inside while loop.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int i = 0;
5. while(1)
6. {
7. printf("%d ",i);
8. i++;
9. if(i == 10)
10. break;
11. }
12. printf("came out of while loop");
13. }

Output

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 came out of while loop

break statement with do-while loop

Consider the following example to use the break statement with a do-while loop.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int n=2,i,choice;
5. do
6. {
7. i=1;
8. while(i<=10)
9. {
10. printf("%d X %d = %d\n",n,i,n*i);
11. i++;
12. }
13. printf("do you want to continue with the table of %d , enter any non-zero value to continue.",n+1);
14. scanf("%d",&choice);
15. if(choice == 0)
16. {
17. break;

Page 33
18. }
19. n++;
20. }while(1);
21. }

Output

2X1=2
2X2=4
2X3=6
2X4=8
2 X 5 = 10
2 X 6 = 12
2 X 7 = 14
2 X 8 = 16
2 X 9 = 18
2 X 10 = 20
do you want to continue with the table of 3 , enter any non-zero value to continue.1
3X1=3
3X2=6
3X3=9
3 X 4 = 12
3 X 5 = 15
3 X 6 = 18
3 X 7 = 21
3 X 8 = 24
3 X 9 = 27
3 X 10 = 30
do you want to continue with the table of 4 , enter any non-zero value to continue.0

C continue statement

The continue statement in C language is used to bring the program control to the beginning of the loop. The continue
statement skips some lines of code inside the loop and continues with the next iteration. It is mainly used for a condition so
that we can skip some code for a particular condition.

Syntax:

1. //loop statements
2. continue;
3. //some lines of the code which is to be skipped

Continue statement example 1

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int i = 0;
5. while(i!=10)
6. {
7. printf("%d", i);
8. continue;
9. i++;
10. }
11. }

Output

infinite loop

Continue statement example 2

Page 34
1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=1;//initializing a local variable
4. //starting a loop from 1 to 10
5. for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
6. if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will continue the loop
7. continue;
8. }
9. printf("%d \n",i);
10. }//end of for loop
11. return 0;
12. }

Output

1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10

As you can see, 5 is not printed on the console because loop is continued at i==5.

C continue statement with inner loop

In such case, C continue statement continues only inner loop, but not outer loop.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=1,j=1;//initializing a local variable
4. for(i=1;i<=3;i++){
5. for(j=1;j<=3;j++){
6. if(i==2 && j==2){
7. continue;//will continue loop of j only
8. }
9. printf("%d %d\n",i,j);
10. }
11. }//end of for loop
12. return 0;
13. }

Output

1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 3
3 1
3 2
3 3

As you can see, 2 2 is not printed on the console because inner loop is continued at i==2 and j==2.

C goto statement

Page 35
 The goto statement is known as jump statement in C. As the name suggests, goto is used to transfer the program control to a
predefined label. The goto statment can be used to repeat some part of the code for a particular condition. It can also be used
to break the multiple loops which can't be done by using a single break statement. However, using goto is avoided these days
since it makes the program less readable and complecated.

Syntax:

1. label:
2. //some part of the code;
3. goto label;

goto example

Let's see a simple example to use goto statement in C language.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int num,i=1;
5. printf("Enter the number whose table you want to print?");
6. scanf("%d",&num);
7. table:
8. printf("%d x %d = %d\n",num,i,num*i);
9. i++;
10. if(i<=10)
11. goto table;
12. }

Output:

Enter the number whose table you want to print?10

10 x 1 = 10
10 x 2 = 20
10 x 3 = 30
10 x 4 = 40
10 x 5 = 50
10 x 6 = 60
10 x 7 = 70
10 x 8 = 80
10 x 9 = 90
10 x 10 = 100

When should we use goto?

The only condition in which using goto is preferable is when we need to break the multiple loops using a single statement at
the same time. Consider the following example.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int i, j, k;
5. for(i=0;i<10;i++)
6. {
7. for(j=0;j<5;j++)
8. {
9. for(k=0;k<3;k++)
10. {
11. printf("%d %d %d\n",i,j,k);
12. if(j == 3)
13. {

Page 36
14. goto out;
15. }
16. }
17. }
18. }
19. out:
20. printf("came out of the loop");
21. }
000
001
002
010
011
012
020
021
022
030
came out of the loop

Type Casting in C

Typecasting allows us to convert one data type into other. In C language, we use cast operator for typecasting which is
denoted by (type).

Syntax:

1. (type)value;

Note: It is always recommended to convert the lower value to higher for avoiding data loss.

Without Type Casting:

1. int f= 9/4;
2. printf("f : %d\n", f );//Output: 2

With Type Casting:

1. float f=(float) 9/4;

2. printf("f : %f\n", f );//Output: 2.250000

Type Casting example

Let's see a simple example to cast int value into the float.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. float f= (float)9/4;
4. printf("f : %f\n", f );
5. return 0;
6. }

Output:

f : 2.250000

C Functions

Page 37
 In c, we can divide a large program into the basic building blocks known as function. The function contains the set of
programming statements enclosed by {}. A function can be called multiple times to provide reusability and modularity to the
C program. In other words, we can say that the collection of functions creates a program. The function is also known
as procedure or subroutine in other programming languages.

Advantage of functions in C

There are the following advantages of C functions.

o By using functions, we can avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in a program.
o We can call C functions any number of times in a program and from any place in a program.
o We can track a large C program easily when it is divided into multiple functions.
o Reusability is the main achievement of C functions.
o However, Function calling is always a overhead in a C program.

Function Aspects

There are three aspects of a C function.

o Function declaration A function must be declared globally in a c program to tell the compiler about the function
name, function parameters, and return type.

o Function call Function can be called from anywhere in the program. The parameter list must not differ in function
calling and function declaration. We must pass the same number of functions as it is declared in the function
declaration.

o Function definition It contains the actual statements which are to be executed. It is the most important aspect to
which the control comes when the function is called. Here, we must notice that only one value can be returned from
the function.

SN C function aspects Syntax

1 Function declaration return_type function_name (argument list);

2 Function call function_name (argument_list)

3 Function definition return_type function_name (argument list) {function body;}

The syntax of creating function in c language is given below:

1. return_type function_name(data_type parameter...){

2. //code to be executed
3. }

Types of Functions

There are two types of functions in C programming:

Page 38
 1. Library Functions: are the functions which are declared in the C header files such as scanf(), printf(), gets(),
puts(), ceil(), floor() etc.
2. User-defined functions: are the functions which are created by the C programmer, so that he/she can use it many
times. It reduces the complexity of a big program and optimizes the code.

Return Value

A C function may or may not return a value from the function. If you don't have to return any value from the function, use
void for the return type.

Let's see a simple example of C function that doesn't return any value from the function.

Example without return value:

1. void hello(){
2. printf("hello c");
3. }

If you want to return any value from the function, you need to use any data type such as int, long, char, etc. The return type
depends on the value to be returned from the function.

Let's see a simple example of C function that returns int value from the function.

Example with return value:

1. int get(){
2. return 10;
3. }

In the above example, we have to return 10 as a value, so the return type is int. If you want to return floating-point value
(e.g., 10.2, 3.1, 54.5, etc), you need to use float as the return type of the method.

1. float get(){
2. return 10.2;
3. }

Now, you need to call the function, to get the value of the function.

Different aspects of function calling

A function may or may not accept any argument. It may or may not return any value. Based on these facts, There are four
different aspects of function calls.

o function without arguments and without return value

o function without arguments and with return value

Page 39
 o function with arguments and without return value
o function with arguments and with return value

Example for Function without argument and return value

Example 1

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void printName();
3. void main ()
4. {
5. printf("Hello ");
6. printName();
7. }
8. void printName()
9. {
10. printf("Javatpoint");
11. }

Output

Hello Javatpoint

Example 2

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void sum();
3. void main()
4. {
5. printf("\nGoing to calculate the sum of two numbers:");
6. sum();
7. }
8. void sum()
9. {
10. int a,b;
11. printf("\nEnter two numbers");
12. scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
13. printf("The sum is %d",a+b);
14. }

Output

Going to calculate the sum of two numbers:

Enter two numbers 10

24

The sum is 34

Example for Function without argument and with return value

Example 1

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int sum();
3. void main()
4. {
5. int result;
6. printf("\nGoing to calculate the sum of two numbers:");

Page 40
7. result = sum();
8. printf("%d",result);
9. }
10. int sum()
11. {
12. int a,b;
13. printf("\nEnter two numbers");
14. scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
15. return a+b;
16. }

Output

Going to calculate the sum of two numbers:

Enter two numbers 10

24

The sum is 34

Example 2: program to calculate the area of the square

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int sum();
3. void main()
4. {
5. printf("Going to calculate the area of the square\n");
6. float area = square();
7. printf("The area of the square: %f\n",area);
8. }
9. int square()
10. {
11. float side;
12. printf("Enter the length of the side in meters: ");
13. scanf("%f",&side);
14. return side * side;
15. }

Output

Going to calculate the area of the square

Enter the length of the side in meters: 10
The area of the square: 100.000000

Example for Function with argument and without return value

Example 1

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void sum(int, int);
3. void main()
4. {
5. int a,b,result;
6. printf("\nGoing to calculate the sum of two numbers:");
7. printf("\nEnter two numbers:");
8. scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
9. sum(a,b);
10. }
11. void sum(int a, int b)
12. {

Page 41
13. printf("\nThe sum is %d",a+b);
14. }

Output

Going to calculate the sum of two numbers:

Enter two numbers 10

24

The sum is 34

Example 2: program to calculate the average of five numbers.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void average(int, int, int, int, int);
3. void main()
4. {
5. int a,b,c,d,e;
6. printf("\nGoing to calculate the average of five numbers:");
7. printf("\nEnter five numbers:");
8. scanf("%d %d %d %d %d",&a,&b,&c,&d,&e);
9. average(a,b,c,d,e);
10. }
11. void average(int a, int b, int c, int d, int e)
12. {
13. float avg;
14. avg = (a+b+c+d+e)/5;
15. printf("The average of given five numbers : %f",avg);
16. }

Output

Going to calculate the average of five numbers:

Enter five numbers:10
20
30
40
50
The average of given five numbers : 30.000000

Example for Function with argument and with return value

Example 1

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int sum(int, int);
3. void main()
4. {
5. int a,b,result;
6. printf("\nGoing to calculate the sum of two numbers:");
7. printf("\nEnter two numbers:");
8. scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
9. result = sum(a,b);
10. printf("\nThe sum is : %d",result);
11. }
12. int sum(int a, int b)
13. {
14. return a+b;
15. }

Page 42
 Output

Going to calculate the sum of two numbers:

Enter two numbers:10
20
The sum is : 30

Example 2: Program to check whether a number is even or odd

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int even_odd(int);
3. void main()
4. {
5. int n,flag=0;
6. printf("\nGoing to check whether a number is even or odd");
7. printf("\nEnter the number: ");
8. scanf("%d",&n);
9. flag = even_odd(n);
10. if(flag == 0)
11. {
12. printf("\nThe number is odd");
13. }
14. else
15. {
16. printf("\nThe number is even");
17. }
18. }
19. int even_odd(int n)
20. {
21. if(n%2 == 0)
22. {
23. return 1;
24. }
25. else
26. {
27. return 0;
28. }
29. }

Output

Going to check whether a number is even or odd

Enter the number: 100
The number is even

C Library Functions

Library functions are the inbuilt function in C that are grouped and placed at a common place called the library. Such
functions are used to perform some specific operations. For example, printf is a library function used to print on the console.
The library functions are created by the designers of compilers. All C standard library functions are defined inside the different
header files saved with the extension .h. We need to include these header files in our program to make use of the library
functions defined in such header files. For example, To use the library functions such as printf/scanf we need to include
stdio.h in our program which is a header file that contains all the library functions regarding standard input/output.

The list of mostly used header files is given in the following table.

SN Header Description
file

Page 43
 1 stdio.h This is a standard input/output header file. It contains all the library functions regarding
standard input/output.

2 conio.h This is a console input/output header file.

3 string.h It contains all string related library functions like gets(), puts(),etc.

4 stdlib.h This header file contains all the general library functions like malloc(), calloc(), exit(), etc.

5 math.h This header file contains all the math operations related functions like sqrt(), pow(), etc.

6 time.h This header file contains all the time-related functions.

7 ctype.h This header file contains all character handling functions.

8 stdarg.h Variable argument functions are defined in this header file.

9 signal.h All the signal handling functions are defined in this header file.

10 setjmp.h This file contains all the jump functions.

11 locale.h This file contains locale functions.

12 errno.h This file contains error handling functions.

13 assert.h This file contains diagnostics functions.

Call by value and Call by reference in C

There are two methods to pass the data into the function in C language, i.e., call by value and call by reference.

Let's understand call by value and call by reference in c language one by one.

Page 44
 Call by value in C

o In call by value method, the value of the actual parameters is copied into the formal parameters. In other words, we
can say that the value of the variable is used in the function call in the call by value method.
o In call by value method, we can not modify the value of the actual parameter by the formal parameter.
o In call by value, different memory is allocated for actual and formal parameters since the value of the actual
parameter is copied into the formal parameter.
o The actual parameter is the argument which is used in the function call whereas formal parameter is the argument
which is used in the function definition.

Let's try to understand the concept of call by value in c language by the example given below:

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void change(int num) {
3. printf("Before adding value inside function num=%d \n",num);
4. num=num+100;
5. printf("After adding value inside function num=%d \n", num);
6. }
7. int main() {
8. int x=100;
9. printf("Before function call x=%d \n", x);
10. change(x);//passing value in function
11. printf("After function call x=%d \n", x);
12. return 0;
13. }

Output

Before function call x=100

Before adding value inside function num=100
After adding value inside function num=200
After function call x=100

Call by Value Example: Swapping the values of the two variables

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. void swap(int , int); //prototype of the function
3. int main()
4. {
5. int a = 10;
6. int b = 20;
7. printf("Before swapping the values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // printing the value of a and b in main
8. swap(a,b);
9. printf("After swapping values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // The value of actual parameters do not change by changi
ng the formal parameters in call by value, a = 10, b = 20
10. }
11. void swap (int a, int b)
12. {
13. int temp;
14. temp = a;
15. a=b;
16. b=temp;
17. printf("After swapping values in function a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // Formal parameters, a = 20, b = 10
18. }

Output

Page 45
 Before swapping the values in main a = 10, b = 20
After swapping values in function a = 20, b = 10
After swapping values in main a = 10, b = 20

Call by reference in C

o In call by reference, the address of the variable is passed into the function call as the actual parameter.
o The value of the actual parameters can be modified by changing the formal parameters since the address of the
actual parameters is passed.
o In call by reference, the memory allocation is similar for both formal parameters and actual parameters. All the
operations in the function are performed on the value stored at the address of the actual parameters, and the
modified value gets stored at the same address.

Consider the following example for the call by reference.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void change(int *num) {
3. printf("Before adding value inside function num=%d \n",*num);
4. (*num) += 100;
5. printf("After adding value inside function num=%d \n", *num);
6. }
7. int main() {
8. int x=100;
9. printf("Before function call x=%d \n", x);
10. change(&x);//passing reference in function
11. printf("After function call x=%d \n", x);
12. return 0;
13. }

Output

Before function call x=100

Before adding value inside function num=100
After adding value inside function num=200
After function call x=200

Call by reference Example: Swapping the values of the two variables

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. void swap(int *, int *); //prototype of the function
3. int main()
4. {
5. int a = 10;
6. int b = 20;
7. printf("Before swapping the values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // printing the value of a and b in main
8. swap(&a,&b);
9. printf("After swapping values in main a = %d, b = %d\n",a,b); // The values of actual parameters do change in call by refe
rence, a = 10, b = 20
10. }
11. void swap (int *a, int *b)
12. {
13. int temp;
14. temp = *a;
15. *a=*b;
16. *b=temp;
17. printf("After swapping values in function a = %d, b = %d\n",*a,*b); // Formal parameters, a = 20, b = 10
18. }

Output

Page 46
 Before swapping the values in main a = 10, b = 20
After swapping values in function a = 20, b = 10
After swapping values in main a = 20, b = 10

Difference between call by value and call by reference in c

No. Call by value Call by reference

1 A copy of the value is passed into the function An address of value is passed into the function

2 Changes made inside the function is limited to the Changes made inside the function validate outside of
function only. The values of the actual parameters the function also. The values of the actual
do not change by changing the formal parameters. parameters do change by changing the formal
parameters.

3 Actual and formal arguments are created at the Actual and formal arguments are created at the
different memory location same memory location

Recursion in C

Recursion is the process which comes into existence when a function calls a copy of itself to work on a smaller problem. Any
function which calls itself is called recursive function, and such function calls are called recursive calls. Recursion involves
several numbers of recursive calls. However, it is important to impose a termination condition of recursion. Recursion code is
shorter than iterative code however it is difficult to understand.

Recursion cannot be applied to all the problem, but it is more useful for the tasks that can be defined in terms of similar
subtasks. For Example, recursion may be applied to sorting, searching, and traversal problems.

Generally, iterative solutions are more efficient than recursion since function call is always overhead. Any problem that can be
solved recursively, can also be solved iteratively. However, some problems are best suited to be solved by the recursion, for
example, tower of Hanoi, Fibonacci series, factorial finding, etc.

In the following example, recursion is used to calculate the factorial of a number.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int fact (int);
3. int main()
4. {
5. int n,f;
6. printf("Enter the number whose factorial you want to calculate?");
7. scanf("%d",&n);
8. f = fact(n);
9. printf("factorial = %d",f);
10. }
11. int fact(int n)
12. {
13. if (n==0)
14. {
15. return 0;
16. }
17. else if ( n == 1)
18. {
19. return 1;
20. }
21. else
22. {
23. return n*fact(n-1);
24. }

Page 47
25. }

Output

Enter the number whose factorial you want to calculate?5

factorial = 120

We can understand the above program of the recursive method call by the figure given below:

Recursive Function

A recursive function performs the tasks by dividing it into the subtasks. There is a termination condition defined in the
function which is satisfied by some specific subtask. After this, the recursion stops and the final result is returned from the
function.

The case at which the function doesn't recur is called the base case whereas the instances where the function keeps calling
itself to perform a subtask, is called the recursive case. All the recursive functions can be written using this format.

Pseudocode for writing any recursive function is given below.

1. if (test_for_base)
2. {
3. return some_value;
4. }
5. else if (test_for_another_base)
6. {
7. return some_another_value;
8. }
9. else
10. {
11. // Statements;
12. recursive call;
13. }

Example of recursion in C

Let's see an example to find the nth term of the Fibonacci series.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int fibonacci(int);
3. void main ()
4. {
5. int n,f;
6. printf("Enter the value of n?");
7. scanf("%d",&n);
8. f = fibonacci(n);

Page 48
9. printf("%d",f);
10. }
11. int fibonacci (int n)
12. {
13. if (n==0)
14. {
15. return 0;
16. }
17. else if (n == 1)
18. {
19. return 1;
20. }
21. else
22. {
23. return fibonacci(n-1)+fibonacci(n-2);
24. }
25. }

Output

Enter the value of n?12

144

Memory allocation of Recursive method

Each recursive call creates a new copy of that method in the memory. Once some data is returned by the method, the copy is
removed from the memory. Since all the variables and other stuff declared inside function get stored in the stack, therefore a
separate stack is maintained at each recursive call. Once the value is returned from the corresponding function, the stack gets
destroyed. Recursion involves so much complexity in resolving and tracking the values at each recursive call. Therefore we
need to maintain the stack and track the values of the variables defined in the stack.

Let us consider the following example to understand the memory allocation of the recursive functions.

1. int display (int n)

2. {
3. if(n == 0)
4. return 0; // terminating condition
5. else
6. {
7. printf("%d",n);
8. return display(n-1); // recursive call
9. }
10. }

Explanation

Let us examine this recursive function for n = 4. First, all the stacks are maintained which prints the corresponding value of n
until n becomes 0, Once the termination condition is reached, the stacks get destroyed one by one by returning 0 to its calling
stack. Consider the following image for more information regarding the stack trace for the recursive functions.

Page 49
 Storage Classes in C

Storage classes in C are used to determine the lifetime, visibility, memory location, and initial value of a variable. There are
four types of storage classes in C

o Automatic
o External
o Static
o Register

Storage Storage Default Scope Lifetime

Classes Place Value

auto RAM Garbage Local Within function

Value

extern RAM Zero Global Till the end of the main program Maybe declared
anywhere in the program

static RAM Zero Local Till the end of the main program, Retains value
between multiple functions call

register Register Garbage Local Within the function

Value

Automatic

o Automatic variables are allocated memory automatically at runtime.

o The visibility of the automatic variables is limited to the block in which they are defined.

The scope of the automatic variables is limited to the block in which they are defined.
o The automatic variables are initialized to garbage by default.
o The memory assigned to automatic variables gets freed upon exiting from the block.
o The keyword used for defining automatic variables is auto.
o Every local variable is automatic in C by default.

Example 1

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()

Page 50
3. {
4. int a; //auto
5. char b;
6. float c;
7. printf("%d %c %f",a,b,c); // printing initial default value of automatic variables a, b, and c.
8. return 0;
9. }

Output:

garbage garbage garbage

Example 2

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int a = 10,i;
5. printf("%d ",++a);
6. {
7. int a = 20;
8. for (i=0;i<3;i++)
9. {
10. printf("%d ",a); // 20 will be printed 3 times since it is the local value of a
11. }
12. }
13. printf("%d ",a); // 11 will be printed since the scope of a = 20 is ended.
14. }

Output:

11 20 20 20 11

Static

o The variables defined as static specifier can hold their value between the multiple function calls.
o Static local variables are visible only to the function or the block in which they are defined.
o A same static variable can be declared many times but can be assigned at only one time.
o Default initial value of the static integral variable is 0 otherwise null.
o The visibility of the static global variable is limited to the file in which it has declared.
o The keyword used to define static variable is static.

Example 1

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. static char c;
3. static int i;
4. static float f;
5. static char s[100];
6. void main ()
7. {
8. printf("%d %d %f %s",c,i,f); // the initial default value of c, i, and f will be printed.
9. }

Output:

0 0 0.000000 (null)

Page 51
 Example 2

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void sum()
3. {
4. static int a = 10;
5. static int b = 24;
6. printf("%d %d \n",a,b);
7. a++;
8. b++;
9. }
10. void main()
11. {
12. int i;
13. for(i = 0; i< 3; i++)
14. {
15. sum(); // The static variables holds their value between multiple function calls.
16. }
17. }

Output:

10 24
11 25
12 26

Register

o The variables defined as the register is allocated the memory into the CPU registers depending upon the size of the
memory remaining in the CPU.
o We can not dereference the register variables, i.e., we can not use &operator for the register variable.
o The access time of the register variables is faster than the automatic variables.
o The initial default value of the register local variables is 0.
o The register keyword is used for the variable which should be stored in the CPU register. However, it is compiler?s
choice whether or not; the variables can be stored in the register.
o We can store pointers into the register, i.e., a register can store the address of a variable.
o Static variables can not be stored into the register since we can not use more than one storage specifier for the same
variable.

Example 1

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. register int a; // variable a is allocated memory in the CPU register. The initial default value of a is 0.
5. printf("%d",a);
6. }

Output:

Example 2

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {

Page 52
4. register int a = 0;
5. printf("%u",&a); // This will give a compile time error since we can not access the address of a register variable.
6. }

Output:

main.c:5:5: error: address of register variable ?a? requested

printf("%u",&a);
^~~~~~

External

o The external storage class is used to tell the compiler that the variable defined as extern is declared with an external
linkage elsewhere in the program.
o The variables declared as extern are not allocated any memory. It is only declaration and intended to specify that the
variable is declared elsewhere in the program.
o The default initial value of external integral type is 0 otherwise null.
o We can only initialize the extern variable globally, i.e., we can not initialize the external variable within any block or
method.
o An external variable can be declared many times but can be initialized at only once.
o If a variable is declared as external then the compiler searches for that variable to be initialized somewhere in the
program which may be extern or static. If it is not, then the compiler will show an error.

Example 1

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. extern int a;
5. printf("%d",a);
6. }

Output

main.c:(.text+0x6): undefined reference to `a'

collect2: error: ld returned 1 exit status

Example 2

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int a;
3. int main()
4. {
5. extern int a; // variable a is defined globally, the memory will not be allocated to a
6. printf("%d",a);
7. }

Output

Example 3

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int a;
3. int main()
4. {

Page 53
5. extern int a = 0; // this will show a compiler error since we can not use extern and initializer at same time
6. printf("%d",a);
7. }

Output

compile time error

main.c: In function ?main?:
main.c:5:16: error: ?a? has both ?extern? and initializer
extern int a = 0;

Example 4

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. extern int a; // Compiler will search here for a variable a defined and initialized somewhere in the pogram or not.
5. printf("%d",a);
6. }
7. int a = 20;

Output

20

Example 5

1. extern int a;
2. int a = 10;
3. #include <stdio.h>
4. int main()
5. {
6. printf("%d",a);
7. }
8. int a = 20; // compiler will show an error at this line

Output

compile time error

C Array

An array is defined as the collection of similar type of data items stored at contiguous memory locations. Arrays are the
derived data type in C programming language which can store the primitive type of data such as int, char, double, float, etc.
It also has the capability to store the collection of derived data types, such as pointers, structure, etc. The array is the
simplest data structure where each data element can be randomly accessed by using its index number.

C array is beneficial if you have to store similar elements. For example, if we want to store the marks of a student in 6
subjects, then we don't need to define different variables for the marks in the different subject. Instead of that, we can define
an array which can store the marks in each subject at the contiguous memory locations.

By using the array, we can access the elements easily. Only a few lines of code are required to access the elements of the
array.

Properties of Array

The array contains the following properties.

o Each element of an array is of same data type and carries the same size, i.e., int = 4 bytes.

Page 54
 o Elements of the array are stored at contiguous memory locations where the first element is stored at the smallest
memory location.
o Elements of the array can be randomly accessed since we can calculate the address of each element of the array
with the given base address and the size of the data element.

Advantage of C Array

1) Code Optimization: Less code to the access the data.

2) Ease of traversing: By using the for loop, we can retrieve the elements of an array easily.

3) Ease of sorting: To sort the elements of the array, we need a few lines of code only.

4) Random Access: We can access any element randomly using the array.

Disadvantage of C Array

1) Fixed Size: Whatever size, we define at the time of declaration of the array, we can't exceed the limit. So, it doesn't grow
the size dynamically like LinkedList which we will learn later.

Declaration of C Array

We can declare an array in the c language in the following way.

1. data_type array_name[array_size];

Now, let us see the example to declare the array.

1. int marks[5];

Here, int is the data_type, marks are the array_name, and 5 is the array_size.

Initialization of C Array

The simplest way to initialize an array is by using the index of each element. We can initialize each element of the array by
using the index. Consider the following example.

1. marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
2. marks[1]=60;
3. marks[2]=70;
4. marks[3]=85;
5. marks[4]=75;

Page 55
 C array example

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=0;
4. int marks[5];//declaration of array
5. marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
6. marks[1]=60;
7. marks[2]=70;
8. marks[3]=85;
9. marks[4]=75;
10. //traversal of array
11. for(i=0;i<5;i++){
12. printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
13. }//end of for loop
14. return 0;
15. }

Output

80
60
70
85
75

C Array: Declaration with Initialization

We can initialize the c array at the time of declaration. Let's see the code.

1. int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};

In such case, there is no requirement to define the size. So it may also be written as the following code.

1. int marks[]={20,30,40,50,60};

Let's see the C program to declare and initialize the array in C.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=0;
4. int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};//declaration and initialization of array
5. //traversal of array
6. for(i=0;i<5;i++){
7. printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
8. }
9. return 0;
10. }

Output

20
30
40
50
60

Page 56
 C Array Example: Sorting an array

In the following program, we are using bubble sort method to sort the array in ascending order.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int i, j,temp;
5. int a[10] = { 10, 9, 7, 101, 23, 44, 12, 78, 34, 23};
6. for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
7. {
8. for(j = i+1; j<10; j++)
9. {
10. if(a[j] > a[i])
11. {
12. temp = a[i];
13. a[i] = a[j];
14. a[j] = temp;
15. }
16. }
17. }
18. printf("Printing Sorted Element List ...\n");
19. for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
20. {
21. printf("%d\n",a[i]);
22. }
23. }

Program to print the largest and second largest element of the array.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int arr[100],i,n,largest,sec_largest;
5. printf("Enter the size of the array?");
6. scanf("%d",&n);
7. printf("Enter the elements of the array?");
8. for(i = 0; i<n; i++)
9. {
10. scanf("%d",&arr[i]);
11. }
12. largest = arr[0];
13. sec_largest = arr[1];
14. for(i=0;i<n;i++)
15. {
16. if(arr[i]>largest)
17. {
18. sec_largest = largest;
19. largest = arr[i];
20. }
21. else if (arr[i]>sec_largest && arr[i]!=largest)
22. {
23. sec_largest=arr[i];
24. }
25. }
26. printf("largest = %d, second largest = %d",largest,sec_largest);

Page 57
27.
28. }

Two Dimensional Array in C

The two-dimensional array can be defined as an array of arrays. The 2D array is organized as matrices which can be
represented as the collection of rows and columns. However, 2D arrays are created to implement a relational database
lookalike data structure. It provides ease of holding the bulk of data at once which can be passed to any number of functions
wherever required.

Declaration of two dimensional Array in C

The syntax to declare the 2D array is given below.

1. data_type array_name[rows][columns];

Consider the following example.

1. int twodimen[4][3];

Here, 4 is the number of rows, and 3 is the number of columns.

Initialization of 2D Array in C

In the 1D array, we don't need to specify the size of the array if the declaration and initialization are being done
simultaneously. However, this will not work with 2D arrays. We will have to define at least the second dimension of the array.
The two-dimensional array can be declared and defined in the following way.

1. int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};

Two-dimensional array example in C

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int i=0,j=0;
4. int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};
5. //traversing 2D array
6. for(i=0;i<4;i++){
7. for(j=0;j<3;j++){
8. printf("arr[%d] [%d] = %d \n",i,j,arr[i][j]);
9. }//end of j
10. }//end of i
11. return 0;
12. }

Output

arr[0][0] = 1
arr[0][1] = 2
arr[0][2] = 3
arr[1][0] = 2
arr[1][1] = 3
arr[1][2] = 4
arr[2][0] = 3
arr[2][1] = 4
arr[2][2] = 5
arr[3][0] = 4

Page 58
 arr[3][1] = 5
arr[3][2] = 6

C 2D array example: Storing elements in a matrix and printing it.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int arr[3][3],i,j;
5. for (i=0;i<3;i++)
6. {
7. for (j=0;j<3;j++)
8. {
9. printf("Enter a[%d][%d]: ",i,j);
10. scanf("%d",&arr[i][j]);
11. }
12. }
13. printf("\n printing the elements ....\n");
14. for(i=0;i<3;i++)
15. {
16. printf("\n");
17. for (j=0;j<3;j++)
18. {
19. printf("%d\t",arr[i][j]);
20. }
21. }
22. }

Output

Enter a[0][0]: 56
Enter a[0][1]: 10
Enter a[0][2]: 30
Enter a[1][0]: 34
Enter a[1][1]: 21
Enter a[1][2]: 34

Enter a[2][0]: 45
Enter a[2][1]: 56
Enter a[2][2]: 78

printing the elements ....

56 10 30
34 21 34
45 56 78

Passing Array to Function in C

In C, there are various general problems which requires passing more than one variable of the same type to a function. For
example, consider a function which sorts the 10 elements in ascending order. Such a function requires 10 numbers to be
passed as the actual parameters from the main function. Here, instead of declaring 10 different numbers and then passing
into the function, we can declare and initialize an array and pass that into the function. This will resolve all the complexity
since the function will now work for any number of values.

As we know that the array_name contains the address of the first element. Here, we must notice that we need to pass only
the name of the array in the function which is intended to accept an array. The array defined as the formal parameter will
automatically refer to the array specified by the array name defined as an actual parameter.

Consider the following syntax to pass an array to the function.

1. functionname(arrayname);//passing array

Page 59
 Methods to declare a function that receives an array as an argument

There are 3 ways to declare the function which is intended to receive an array as an argument.

First way:
1. return_type function(type arrayname[])

Declaring blank subscript notation [] is the widely used technique.

Second way:
1. return_type function(type arrayname[SIZE])

Optionally, we can define size in subscript notation [].

Third way:
1. return_type function(type *arrayname)

You can also use the concept of a pointer. In pointer chapter, we will learn about it.

C language passing an array to function example

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int minarray(int arr[],int size){
3. int min=arr[0];
4. int i=0;
5. for(i=1;i<size;i++){
6. if(min>arr[i]){
7. min=arr[i];
8. }
9. }//end of for
10. return min;
11. }//end of function
12.
13. int main(){
14. int i=0,min=0;
15. int numbers[]={4,5,7,3,8,9};//declaration of array
16.
17. min=minarray(numbers,6);//passing array with size
18. printf("minimum number is %d \n",min);
19. return 0;
20. }

Output

minimum number is 3

C function to sort the array

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void Bubble_Sort(int[]);
3. void main ()
4. {
5. int arr[10] = { 10, 9, 7, 101, 23, 44, 12, 78, 34, 23};
6. Bubble_Sort(arr);
7. }
8. void Bubble_Sort(int a[]) //array a[] points to arr.

Page 60
9. {
10. int i, j,temp;
11. for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
12. {
13. for(j = i+1; j<10; j++)
14. {
15. if(a[j] < a[i])
16. {
17. temp = a[i];
18. a[i] = a[j];
19. a[j] = temp;
20. }
21. }
22. }
23. printf("Printing Sorted Element List ...\n");
24. for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
25. {
26. printf("%d\n",a[i]);
27. }
28. }

Output

Printing Sorted Element List ...

7
9
10
12
23
23
34
44
78
101

Returning array from the function

As we know that, a function can not return more than one value. However, if we try to write the return statement as return a,
b, c; to return three values (a,b,c), the function will return the last mentioned value which is c in our case. In some problems,
we may need to return multiple values from a function. In such cases, an array is returned from the function.

Returning an array is similar to passing the array into the function. The name of the array is returned from the function. To
make a function returning an array, the following syntax is used.

1. int * Function_name() {
2. //some statements;
3. return array_type;
4. }

To store the array returned from the function, we can define a pointer which points to that array. We can traverse the array
by increasing that pointer since pointer initially points to the base address of the array. Consider the following example that
contains a function returning the sorted array.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int* Bubble_Sort(int[]);
3. void main ()
4. {
5. int arr[10] = { 10, 9, 7, 101, 23, 44, 12, 78, 34, 23};
6. int *p = Bubble_Sort(arr), i;
7. printf("printing sorted elements ...\n");
8. for(i=0;i<10;i++)

Page 61
9. {
10. printf("%d\n",*(p+i));
11. }
12. }
13. int* Bubble_Sort(int a[]) //array a[] points to arr.
14. {
15. int i, j,temp;
16. for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
17. {
18. for(j = i+1; j<10; j++)
19. {
20. if(a[j] < a[i])
21. {
22. temp = a[i];
23. a[i] = a[j];
24. a[j] = temp;
25. }
26. }
27. }
28. return a;
29. }

Output

Printing Sorted Element List ...

7
9
10
12
23
23
34
44
78
101

C Pointers

The pointer in C language is a variable which stores the address of another variable. This variable can be of type int, char,
array, function, or any other pointer. The size of the pointer depends on the architecture. However, in 32-bit architecture the
size of a pointer is 2 byte.

Consider the following example to define a pointer which stores the address of an integer.

1. int n = 10;
2. int* p = &n; // Variable p of type pointer is pointing to the address of the variable n of type integer.

Declaring a pointer

The pointer in c language can be declared using * (asterisk symbol). It is also known as indirection pointer used to
dereference a pointer.

1. int *a;//pointer to int

2. char *c;//pointer to char

Pointer Example

An example of using pointers to print the address and value is given below.

Page 62
 As you can see in the above figure, pointer variable stores the address of number variable, i.e., fff4. The value of number
variable is 50. But the address of pointer variable p is aaa3.

By the help of * (indirection operator), we can print the value of pointer variable p.

Let's see the pointer example as explained for the above figure.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=50;
4. int *p;
5. p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
6. printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p); // p contains the address of the number therefore printing p gives the address of n
umber.
7. printf("Value of p variable is %d \n",*p); // As we know that * is used to dereference a pointer therefore if we print *p, we wil
l get the value stored at the address contained by p.
8. return 0;
9. }

Output

Address of number variable is fff4

Address of p variable is fff4
Value of p variable is 50

Pointer to array
1. int arr[10];
2. int *p[10]=&arr; // Variable p of type pointer is pointing to the address of an integer array arr.

Pointer to a function
1. void show (int);
2. void(*p)(int) = &display; // Pointer p is pointing to the address of a function

Pointer to structure
1. struct st {
2. int i;
3. float f;
4. }ref;
5. struct st *p = &ref;

Advantage of pointer

Page 63
 1) Pointer reduces the code and improves the performance, it is used to retrieving strings, trees, etc. and used with
arrays, structures, and functions.

2) We can return multiple values from a function using the pointer.

3) It makes you able to access any memory location in the computer's memory.

Usage of pointer

There are many applications of pointers in c language.

1) Dynamic memory allocation

In c language, we can dynamically allocate memory using malloc() and calloc() functions where the pointer is used.

2) Arrays, Functions, and Structures

Pointers in c language are widely used in arrays, functions, and structures. It reduces the code and improves the
performance.

Address Of (&) Operator

The address of operator '&' returns the address of a variable. But, we need to use %u to display the address of a variable.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=50;
4. printf("value of number is %d, address of number is %u",number,&number);
5. return 0;
6. }

Output

value of number is 50, address of number is fff4

NULL Pointer

A pointer that is not assigned any value but NULL is known as the NULL pointer. If you don't have any address to be specified
in the pointer at the time of declaration, you can assign NULL value. It will provide a better approach.

int *p=NULL;

In the most libraries, the value of the pointer is 0 (zero).

Pointer Program to swap two numbers without using the 3rd variable.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int a=10,b=20,*p1=&a,*p2=&b;

Page 64
4.
5. printf("Before swap: *p1=%d *p2=%d",*p1,*p2);
6. *p1=*p1+*p2;
7. *p2=*p1-*p2;
8. *p1=*p1-*p2;
9. printf("\nAfter swap: *p1=%d *p2=%d",*p1,*p2);
10.
11. return 0;
12. }

Output

Before swap: *p1=10 *p2=20

After swap: *p1=20 *p2=10

Reading complex pointers

There are several things which must be taken into the consideration while reading the complex pointers in C. Lets see the
precedence and associativity of the operators which are used regarding pointers.

Operator Precedence Associativity

(), [] 1 Left to right

*, identifier 2 Right to left

Data type 3 -

Here,we must notice that,

o (): This operator is a bracket operator used to declare and define the function.
o []: This operator is an array subscript operator
o * : This operator is a pointer operator.
o Identifier: It is the name of the pointer. The priority will always be assigned to this.
o Data type: Data type is the type of the variable to which the pointer is intended to point. It also includes the modifier
like signed int, long, etc).

How to read the pointer: int (*p)[10].

To read the pointer, we must see that () and [] have the equal precedence. Therefore, their associativity must be considered
here. The associativity is left to right, so the priority goes to ().

Inside the bracket (), pointer operator * and pointer name (identifier) p have the same precedence. Therefore, their
associativity must be considered here which is right to left, so the priority goes to p, and the second priority goes to *.

Assign the 3rd priority to [] since the data type has the last precedence. Therefore the pointer will look like following.

o char -> 4
o * -> 2
o p -> 1
o [10] -> 3

The pointer will be read as p is a pointer to an array of integers of size 10.

Page 65
 Example

How to read the following pointer?

1. int (*p)(int (*)[2], int (*)void))

Explanation

This pointer will be read as p is a pointer to such function which accepts the first parameter as the pointer to a one-
dimensional array of integers of size two and the second parameter as the pointer to a function which parameter is void and
return type is the integer.

C Double Pointer (Pointer to Pointer)

As we know that, a pointer is used to store the address of a variable in C. Pointer reduces the access time of a variable.
However, In C, we can also define a pointer to store the address of another pointer. Such pointer is known as a double
pointer (pointer to pointer). The first pointer is used to store the address of a variable whereas the second pointer is used to
store the address of the first pointer. Let's understand it by the diagram given below.

The syntax of declaring a double pointer is given below.

1. int **p; // pointer to a pointer which is pointing to an integer.

Consider the following example.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int a = 10;
5. int *p;
6. int **pp;
7. p = &a; // pointer p is pointing to the address of a
8. pp = &p; // pointer pp is a double pointer pointing to the address of pointer p
9. printf("address of a: %x\n",p); // Address of a will be printed
10. printf("address of p: %x\n",pp); // Address of p will be printed
11. printf("value stored at p: %d\n",*p); // value stoted at the address contained by p i.e. 10 will be printed
12. printf("value stored at pp: %d\n",**pp); // value stored at the address contained by the pointer stoyred at pp
13. }

Output

address of a: d26a8734
address of p: d26a8738
value stored at p: 10
value stored at pp: 10

C double pointer example

Let's see an example where one pointer points to the address of another pointer.

Page 66
 As you can see in the above figure, p2 contains the address of p (fff2), and p contains the address of number variable (fff4).

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=50;
4. int *p;//pointer to int
5. int **p2;//pointer to pointer
6. p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
7. p2=&p;
8. printf("Address of number variable is %x \n",&number);
9. printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p);
10. printf("Value of *p variable is %d \n",*p);
11. printf("Address of p2 variable is %x \n",p2);
12. printf("Value of **p2 variable is %d \n",*p);
13. return 0;
14. }

Output

Address of number variable is fff4

Address of p variable is fff4
Value of *p variable is 50
Address of p2 variable is fff2
Value of **p variable is 50

Q. What will be the output of the following program?

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int a[10] = {100, 206, 300, 409, 509, 601}; //Line 1
5. int *p[] = {a, a+1, a+2, a+3, a+4, a+5}; //Line 2
6. int **pp = p; //Line 3
7. pp++; // Line 4
8. printf("%d %d %d\n",pp-p,*pp - a,**pp); // Line 5
9. *pp++; // Line 6
10. printf("%d %d %d\n",pp-p,*pp - a,**pp); // Line 7
11. ++*pp; // Line 8
12. printf("%d %d %d\n",pp-p,*pp - a,**pp); // Line 9
13. ++**pp; // Line 10
14. printf("%d %d %d\n",pp-p,*pp - a,**pp); // Line 11
15. }

Explanation

Page 67
In the above question, the pointer arithmetic is used with the double pointer. An array of 6 elements is defined which is
pointed by an array of pointer p. The pointer array p is pointed by a double pointer pp. However, the above image gives you a
brief idea about how the memory is being allocated to the array a and the pointer array p. The elements of p are the pointers
that are pointing to every element of the array a. Since we know that the array name contains the base address of the array
hence, it will work as a pointer and can the value can be traversed by using *(a), *(a+1), etc. As shown in the image, a[0]
can be accessed in the following ways.

o a[0]: it is the simplest way to access the first element of the array
o *(a): since a store the address of the first element of the array, we can access its value by using indirection pointer
on it.
o *p[0]: if a[0] is to be accessed by using a pointer p to it, then we can use indirection operator (*) on the first
element of the pointer array p, i.e., *p[0].
o **(pp): as pp stores the base address of the pointer array, *pp will give the value of the first element of the pointer
array that is the address of the first element of the integer array. **p will give the actual value of the first element of
the integer array.

Coming to the program, Line 1 and 2 declare the integer and pointer array relatively. Line 3 initializes the double pointer to
the pointer array p. As shown in the image, if the address of the array starts from 200 and the size of the integer is 2, then
the pointer array will contain the values as 200, 202, 204, 206, 208, 210. Let us consider that the base address of the pointer
array is 300; the double pointer pp contains the address of pointer array, i.e., 300. Line number 4 increases the value of pp
by 1, i.e., pp will now point to address 302.

Line number 5 contains an expression which prints three values, i.e., pp - p, *pp - a, **pp. Let's calculate them each one of
them.

o pp = 302, p = 300 => pp-p = (302-300)/2 => pp-p = 1, i.e., 1 will be printed.
o pp = 302, *pp = 202, a = 200 => *pp - a = 202 - 200 = 2/2 = 1, i.e., 1 will be printed.
o pp = 302, *pp = 202, *(*pp) = 206, i.e., 206 will be printed.

Therefore as the result of line 5, The output 1, 1, 206 will be printed on the console. On line 6, *pp++ is written. Here, we
must notice that two unary operators * and ++ will have the same precedence. Therefore, by the rule of associativity, it will
be evaluated from right to left. Therefore the expression *pp++ can be rewritten as (*(pp++)). Since, pp = 302 which will
now become, 304. *pp will give 204.

On line 7, again the expression is written which prints three values, i.e., pp-p, *pp-a, *pp. Let's calculate each one of them.

Page 68
 o pp = 304, p = 300 => pp - p = (304 - 300)/2 => pp-p = 2, i.e., 2 will be printed.
o pp = 304, *pp = 204, a = 200 => *pp-a = (204 - 200)/2 = 2, i.e., 2 will be printed.
o pp = 304, *pp = 204, *(*pp) = 300, i.e., 300 will be printed.

Therefore, as the result of line 7, The output 2, 2, 300 will be printed on the console. On line 8, ++*pp is written. According
to the rule of associativity, this can be rewritten as, (++(*(pp))). Since, pp = 304, *pp = 204, the value of *pp = *(p[2]) =
206 which will now point to a[3].

On line 9, again the expression is written which prints three values, i.e., pp-p, *pp-a, *pp. Let's calculate each one of them.

o pp = 304, p = 300 => pp - p = (304 - 300)/2 => pp-p = 2, i.e., 2 will be printed.
o pp = 304, *pp = 206, a = 200 => *pp-a = (206 - 200)/2 = 3, i.e., 3 will be printed.
o pp = 304, *pp = 206, *(*pp) = 409, i.e., 409 will be printed.

Therefore, as the result of line 9, the output 2, 3, 409 will be printed on the console. On line 10, ++**pp is writen. according
to the rule of associativity, this can be rewritten as, (++(*(*(pp)))). pp = 304, *pp = 206, **pp = 409, ++**pp => *pp =
*pp + 1 = 410. In other words, a[3] = 410.

On line 11, again the expression is written which prints three values, i.e., pp-p, *pp-a, *pp. Let's calculate each one of them.

o pp = 304, p = 300 => pp - p = (304 - 300)/2 => pp-p = 2, i.e., 2 will be printed.
o pp = 304, *pp = 206, a = 200 => *pp-a = (206 - 200)/2 = 3, i.e., 3 will be printed.
o On line 8, **pp = 410.

Therefore as the result of line 9, the output 2, 3, 410 will be printed on the console.

At last, the output of the complete program will be given as:

Output

1 1 206
2 2 300
2 3 409
2 3 410

Pointer Arithmetic in C

We can perform arithmetic operations on the pointers like addition, subtraction, etc. However, as we know that pointer
contains the address, the result of an arithmetic operation performed on the pointer will also be a pointer if the other operand
is of type integer. In pointer-from-pointer subtraction, the result will be an integer value. Following arithmetic operations are
possible on the pointer in C language:

o Increment
o Decrement
o Addition
o Subtraction
o Comparison

Incrementing Pointer in C

If we increment a pointer by 1, the pointer will start pointing to the immediate next location. This is somewhat different from
the general arithmetic since the value of the pointer will get increased by the size of the data type to which the pointer is
pointing.

We can traverse an array by using the increment operation on a pointer which will keep pointing to every element of the
array, perform some operation on that, and update itself in a loop.

Page 69
 The Rule to increment the pointer is given below:

1. new_address= current_address + i * size_of(data type)

Where i is the number by which the pointer get increased.

32-bit

For 32-bit int variable, it will be incremented by 2 bytes.

64-bit

For 64-bit int variable, it will be incremented by 4 bytes.

Let's see the example of incrementing pointer variable on 64-bit architecture.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=50;
4. int *p;//pointer to int
5. p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
6. printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
7. p=p+1;
8. printf("After increment: Address of p variable is %u \n",p); // in our case, p will get incremented by 4 bytes.
9. return 0;
10. }

Output

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After increment: Address of p variable is 3214864304

Traversing an array by using pointer

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
5. int *p = arr;
6. int i;
7. printf("printing array elements...\n");
8. for(i = 0; i< 5; i++)
9. {
10. printf("%d ",*(p+i));
11. }
12. }

Output

printing array elements...

1 2 3 4 5

Decrementing Pointer in C

Like increment, we can decrement a pointer variable. If we decrement a pointer, it will start pointing to the previous location.
The formula of decrementing the pointer is given below:

Page 70
1. new_address= current_address - i * size_of(data type)

32-bit

For 32-bit int variable, it will be decremented by 2 bytes.

64-bit

For 64-bit int variable, it will be decremented by 4 bytes.

Let's see the example of decrementing pointer variable on 64-bit OS.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. void main(){
3. int number=50;
4. int *p;//pointer to int
5. p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
6. printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
7. p=p-1;
8. printf("After decrement: Address of p variable is %u \n",p); // P will now point to the immidiate previous location.
9. }

Output

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After decrement: Address of p variable is 3214864296

C Pointer Addition

We can add a value to the pointer variable. The formula of adding value to pointer is given below:

1. new_address= current_address + (number * size_of(data type))

32-bit

For 32-bit int variable, it will add 2 * number.

64-bit

For 64-bit int variable, it will add 4 * number.

Let's see the example of adding value to pointer variable on 64-bit architecture.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=50;
4. int *p;//pointer to int
5. p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
6. printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
7. p=p+3; //adding 3 to pointer variable
8. printf("After adding 3: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
9. return 0;
10. }

Output

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After adding 3: Address of p variable is 3214864312

Page 71
 As you can see, the address of p is 3214864300. But after adding 3 with p variable, it is 3214864312, i.e., 4*3=12
increment. Since we are using 64-bit architecture, it increments 12. But if we were using 32-bit architecture, it was
incrementing to 6 only, i.e., 2*3=6. As integer value occupies 2-byte memory in 32-bit OS.

C Pointer Subtraction

Like pointer addition, we can subtract a value from the pointer variable. Subtracting any number from a pointer will give an
address. The formula of subtracting value from the pointer variable is given below:

1. new_address= current_address - (number * size_of(data type))

32-bit

For 32-bit int variable, it will subtract 2 * number.

64-bit

For 64-bit int variable, it will subtract 4 * number.

Let's see the example of subtracting value from the pointer variable on 64-bit architecture.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int number=50;
4. int *p;//pointer to int
5. p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
6. printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
7. p=p-3; //subtracting 3 from pointer variable
8. printf("After subtracting 3: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);
9. return 0;
10. }

Output

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After subtracting 3: Address of p variable is 3214864288

You can see after subtracting 3 from the pointer variable, it is 12 (4*3) less than the previous address value.

However, instead of subtracting a number, we can also subtract an address from another address (pointer). This will result in
a number. It will not be a simple arithmetic operation, but it will follow the following rule.

If two pointers are of the same type,

1. Address2 - Address1 = (Subtraction of two addresses)/size of data type which pointer points

Consider the following example to subtract one pointer from an another.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. int i = 100;
5. int *p = &i;
6. int *temp;
7. temp = p;
8. p = p + 3;
9. printf("Pointer Subtraction: %d - %d = %d",p, temp, p-temp);

Page 72
10. }

Output

Pointer Subtraction: 1030585080 - 1030585068 = 3

Illegal arithmetic with pointers

There are various operations which can not be performed on pointers. Since, pointer stores address hence we must ignore the
operations which may lead to an illegal address, for example, addition, and multiplication. A list of such operations is given
below.

o Address + Address = illegal

o Address * Address = illegal
o Address % Address = illegal
o Address / Address = illegal
o Address & Address = illegal
o Address ^ Address = illegal
o Address | Address = illegal
o ~Address = illegal

Pointer to function in C

As we discussed in the previous chapter, a pointer can point to a function in C. However, the declaration of the pointer
variable must be the same as the function. Consider the following example to make a pointer pointing to the function.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int addition ();
3. int main ()
4. {
5. int result;
6. int (*ptr)();
7. ptr = &addition;
8. result = (*ptr)();
9. printf("The sum is %d",result);
10. }
11. int addition()
12. {
13. int a, b;
14. printf("Enter two numbers?");
15. scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
16. return a+b;
17. }

Output

Enter two numbers?10 15

The sum is 25

Pointer to Array of functions in C

To understand the concept of an array of functions, we must understand the array of function. Basically, an array of the
function is an array which contains the addresses of functions. In other words, the pointer to an array of functions is a pointer
pointing to an array which contains the pointers to the functions. Consider the following example.

Page 73
1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int show();
3. int showadd(int);
4. int (*arr[3])();
5. int (*(*ptr)[3])();
6.
7. int main ()
8. {
9. int result1;
10. arr[0] = show;
11. arr[1] = showadd;
12. ptr = &arr;
13. result1 = (**ptr)();
14. printf("printing the value returned by show : %d",result1);
15. (*(*ptr+1))(result1);
16. }
17. int show()
18. {
19. int a = 65;
20. return a++;
21. }
22. int showadd(int b)
23. {
24. printf("\nAdding 90 to the value returned by show: %d",b+90);
25. }

Output

printing the value returned by show : 65

Adding 90 to the value returned by show: 155

Dynamic memory allocation in C

The concept of dynamic memory allocation in c language enables the C programmer to allocate memory at runtime.
Dynamic memory allocation in c language is possible by 4 functions of stdlib.h header file.

1. malloc()
2. calloc()
3. realloc()
4. free()

Before learning above functions, let's understand the difference between static memory allocation and dynamic memory
allocation.

static memory allocation dynamic memory allocation

memory is allocated at compile time. memory is allocated at run time.

memory can't be increased while executing program. memory can be increased while executing program.

used in array. used in linked list.

Now let's have a quick look at the methods used for dynamic memory allocation.

malloc() allocates single block of requested memory.

Page 74
 calloc() allocates multiple block of requested memory.

realloc() reallocates the memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions.

free() frees the dynamically allocated memory.

malloc() function in C

The malloc() function allocates single block of requested memory.

It doesn't initialize memory at execution time, so it has garbage value initially.

It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.

The syntax of malloc() function is given below:

1. ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size)

Let's see the example of malloc() function.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
5. printf("Enter number of elements: ");
6. scanf("%d",&n);
7. ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc
8. if(ptr==NULL)
9. {
10. printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
11. exit(0);
12. }
13. printf("Enter elements of array: ");
14. for(i=0;i<n;++i)
15. {
16. scanf("%d",ptr+i);
17. sum+=*(ptr+i);
18. }
19. printf("Sum=%d",sum);
20. free(ptr);
21. return 0;
22. }

Output:

Enter elements of array: 3

Enter elements of array: 10
10
10
Sum=30

calloc() function in C

The calloc() function allocates multiple block of requested memory.

It initially initialize all bytes to zero.

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 It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.

The syntax of calloc() function is given below:

1. ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(number, byte-size)

Let's see the example of calloc() function.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
5. printf("Enter number of elements: ");
6. scanf("%d",&n);
7. ptr=(int*)calloc(n,sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using calloc
8. if(ptr==NULL)
9. {
10. printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
11. exit(0);
12. }
13. printf("Enter elements of array: ");
14. for(i=0;i<n;++i)
15. {
16. scanf("%d",ptr+i);
17. sum+=*(ptr+i);
18. }
19. printf("Sum=%d",sum);
20. free(ptr);
21. return 0;
22. }

Output:

Enter elements of array: 3

Enter elements of array: 10
10
10
Sum=30

realloc() function in C

If memory is not sufficient for malloc() or calloc(), you can reallocate the memory by realloc() function. In short, it changes
the memory size.

Let's see the syntax of realloc() function.

1. ptr=realloc(ptr, new-size)

free() function in C

The memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions must be released by calling free() function. Otherwise, it will consume
memory until program exit.

Let's see the syntax of free() function.

1. free(ptr)

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 Why use structure?

In C, there are cases where we need to store multiple attributes of an entity. It is not necessary that an entity has all the
information of one type only. It can have different attributes of different data types. For example, an entity Student may
have its name (string), roll number (int), marks (float). To store such type of information regarding an entity student, we
have the following approaches:

o Construct individual arrays for storing names, roll numbers, and marks.
o Use a special data structure to store the collection of different data types.

Let's look at the first approach in detail.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main ()
3. {
4. char names[2][10],dummy; // 2-dimensioanal character array names is used to store the names of the students
5. int roll_numbers[2],i;
6. float marks[2];
7. for (i=0;i<3;i++)
8. {
9.
10. printf("Enter the name, roll number, and marks of the student %d",i+1);
11. scanf("%s %d %f",&names[i],&roll_numbers[i],&marks[i]);
12. scanf("%c",&dummy); // enter will be stored into dummy character at each iteration
13. }
14. printf("Printing the Student details ...\n");
15. for (i=0;i<3;i++)
16. {
17. printf("%s %d %f\n",names[i],roll_numbers[i],marks[i]);
18. }
19. }

Output

Enter the name, roll number, and marks of the student 1Arun 90 91
Enter the name, roll number, and marks of the student 2Varun 91 56
Enter the name, roll number, and marks of the student 3Sham 89 69

Printing the Student details...

Arun 90 91.000000
Varun 91 56.000000
Sham 89 69.000000

The above program may fulfill our requirement of storing the information of an entity student. However, the program is very
complex, and the complexity increase with the amount of the input. The elements of each of the array are stored
contiguously, but all the arrays may not be stored contiguously in the memory. C provides you with an additional and simpler
approach where you can use a special data structure, i.e., structure, in which, you can group all the information of different
data type regarding an entity.

What is Structure

Structure in c is a user-defined data type that enables us to store the collection of different data types. Each element of a
structure is called a member. Structures ca; simulate the use of classes and templates as it can store various information

The ,struct keyword is used to define the structure. Let's see the syntax to define the structure in c.

1. struct structure_name
2. {

Page 77
3. data_type member1;
4. data_type member2;
5. .
6. .
7. data_type memeberN;
8. };

Let's see the example to define a structure for an entity employee in c.

1. struct employee
2. { int id;
3. char name[20];
4. float salary;
5. };

The following image shows the memory allocation of the structure employee that is defined in the above example.

Here, struct is the keyword; employee is the name of the structure; id, name, and salary are the members or fields of the
structure. Let's understand it by the diagram given below:

Declaring structure variable

We can declare a variable for the structure so that we can access the member of the structure easily. There are two ways to
declare structure variable:

1. By struct keyword within main() function

2. By declaring a variable at the time of defining the structure.

1st way:

Let's see the example to declare the structure variable by struct keyword. It should be declared within the main function.

1. struct employee
2. { int id;
3. char name[50];
4. float salary;

Page 78
5. };

Now write given code inside the main() function.

1. struct employee e1, e2;

The variables e1 and e2 can be used to access the values stored in the structure. Here, e1 and e2 can be treated in the same
way as the objects in C++ and Java.

2nd way:

Let's see another way to declare variable at the time of defining the structure.

1. struct employee
2. { int id;
3. char name[50];
4. float salary;
5. }e1,e2;

Which approach is good

If number of variables are not fixed, use the 1st approach. It provides you the flexibility to declare the structure variable
many times.

If no. of variables are fixed, use 2nd approach. It saves your code to declare a variable in main() function.

Accessing members of the structure

There are two ways to access structure members:

1. By . (member or dot operator)

2. By -> (structure pointer operator)

Let's see the code to access the id member of p1 variable by . (member) operator.

1. p1.id

C Structure example

Let's see a simple example of structure in C language.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include <string.h>
3. struct employee
4. { int id;
5. char name[50];
6. }e1; //declaring e1 variable for structure
7. int main( )
8. {
9. //store first employee information
10. e1.id=101;
11. strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array
12. //printing first employee information
13. printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", e1.id);

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14. printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", e1.name);
15. return 0;
16. }

Output:

employee 1 id : 101
employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal

Let's see another example of the structure in C language to store many employees information.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include <string.h>
3. struct employee
4. { int id;
5. char name[50];
6. float salary;
7. }e1,e2; //declaring e1 and e2 variables for structure
8. int main( )
9. {
10. //store first employee information
11. e1.id=101;
12. strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array
13. e1.salary=56000;
14.
15. //store second employee information
16. e2.id=102;
17. strcpy(e2.name, "James Bond");
18. e2.salary=126000;
19.
20. //printing first employee information
21. printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", e1.id);
22. printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", e1.name);
23. printf( "employee 1 salary : %f\n", e1.salary);
24.
25. //printing second employee information
26. printf( "employee 2 id : %d\n", e2.id);
27. printf( "employee 2 name : %s\n", e2.name);
28. printf( "employee 2 salary : %f\n", e2.salary);
29. return 0;
30. }

Output:

employee 1 id : 101
employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal
employee 1 salary : 56000.000000
employee 2 id : 102
employee 2 name : James Bond
employee 2 salary : 126000.000000

C Array of Structures

Why use an array of structures?

Consider a case, where we need to store the data of 5 students. We can store it by using the structure as given below.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. struct student
3. {

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4. char name[20];
5. int id;
6. float marks;
7. };
8. void main()
9. {
10. struct student s1,s2,s3;
11. int dummy;
12. printf("Enter the name, id, and marks of student 1 ");
13. scanf("%s %d %f",s1.name,&s1.id,&s1.marks);
14. scanf("%c",&dummy);
15. printf("Enter the name, id, and marks of student 2 ");
16. scanf("%s %d %f",s2.name,&s2.id,&s2.marks);
17. scanf("%c",&dummy);
18. printf("Enter the name, id, and marks of student 3 ");
19. scanf("%s %d %f",s3.name,&s3.id,&s3.marks);
20. scanf("%c",&dummy);
21. printf("Printing the details....\n");
22. printf("%s %d %f\n",s1.name,s1.id,s1.marks);
23. printf("%s %d %f\n",s2.name,s2.id,s2.marks);
24. printf("%s %d %f\n",s3.name,s3.id,s3.marks);
25. }

Output

Enter the name, id, and marks of student 1 James 90 90

Enter the name, id, and marks of student 2 Adoms 90 90
Enter the name, id, and marks of student 3 Nick 90 90
Printing the details....
James 90 90.000000
Adoms 90 90.000000
Nick 90 90.000000

In the above program, we have stored data of 3 students in the structure. However, the complexity of the program will be
increased if there are 20 students. In that case, we will have to declare 20 different structure variables and store them one by
one. This will always be tough since we will have to declare a variable every time we add a student. Remembering the name
of all the variables is also a very tricky task. However, c enables us to declare an array of structures by using which, we can
avoid declaring the different structure variables; instead we can make a collection containing all the structures that store the
information of different entities.

Array of Structures in C

An array of structres in C can be defined as the collection of multiple structures variables where each variable contains
information about different entities. The array of structures in C are used to store information about multiple entities of
different data types. The array of structures is also known as the collection of structures.

Page 81
 Let's see an example of an array of structures that stores information of 5 students and prints it.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include <string.h>
3. struct student{
4. int rollno;
5. char name[10];
6. };
7. int main(){
8. int i;
9. struct student st[5];
10. printf("Enter Records of 5 students");
11. for(i=0;i<5;i++){
12. printf("\nEnter Rollno:");
13. scanf("%d",&st[i].rollno);
14. printf("\nEnter Name:");
15. scanf("%s",&st[i].name);
16. }
17. printf("\nStudent Information List:");
18. for(i=0;i<5;i++){
19. printf("\nRollno:%d, Name:%s",st[i].rollno,st[i].name);
20. }
21. return 0;
22. }

Output:

Enter Records of 5 students

Enter Rollno:1
Enter Name:Sonoo
Enter Rollno:2
Enter Name:Ratan
Enter Rollno:3
Enter Name:Vimal
Enter Rollno:4
Enter Name:James
Enter Rollno:5
Enter Name:Sarfraz

Student Information List:

Rollno:1, Name:Sonoo
Rollno:2, Name:Ratan
Rollno:3, Name:Vimal
Rollno:4, Name:James
Rollno:5, Name:Sarfraz

Nested Structure in C

Page 82
 C provides us the feature of nesting one structure within another structure by using which, complex data types are created.
For example, we may need to store the address of an entity employee in a structure. The attribute address may also have the
subparts as street number, city, state, and pin code. Hence, to store the address of the employee, we need to store the
address of the employee into a separate structure and nest the structure address into the structure employee. Consider the
following program.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. struct address
3. {
4. char city[20];
5. int pin;
6. char phone[14];
7. };
8. struct employee
9. {
10. char name[20];
11. struct address add;
12. };
13. void main ()
14. {
15. struct employee emp;
16. printf("Enter employee information?\n");
17. scanf("%s %s %d %s",emp.name,emp.add.city, &emp.add.pin, emp.add.phone);
18. printf("Printing the employee information....\n");
19. printf("name: %s\nCity: %s\nPincode: %d\nPhone: %s",emp.name,emp.add.city,emp.add.pin,emp.add.phone);
20. }

Output

Enter employee information?

Arun

Delhi

110001

1234567890

Printing the employee information....

name: Arun

City: Delhi

Pincode: 110001

Phone: 1234567890

The structure can be nested in the following ways.

1. By separate structure
2. By Embedded structure

1) Separate structure

Here, we create two structures, but the dependent structure should be used inside the main structure as a member. Consider
the following example.

1. struct Date
2. {

Page 83
3. int dd;
4. int mm;
5. int yyyy;
6. };
7. struct Employee
8. {
9. int id;
10. char name[20];
11. struct Date doj;
12. }emp1;

As you can see, doj (date of joining) is the variable of type Date. Here doj is used as a member in Employee structure. In this
way, we can use Date structure in many structures.

2) Embedded structure

The embedded structure enables us to declare the structure inside the structure. Hence, it requires less line of codes but it
can not be used in multiple data structures. Consider the following example.

1. struct Employee
2. {
3. int id;
4. char name[20];
5. struct Date
6. {
7. int dd;
8. int mm;
9. int yyyy;
10. }doj;
11. }emp1;

Accessing Nested Structure

We can access the member of the nested structure by Outer_Structure.Nested_Structure.member as given below:

1. e1.doj.dd
2. e1.doj.mm
3. e1.doj.yyyy

C Nested Structure example

Let's see a simple example of the nested structure in C language.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <string.h>
3. struct Employee
4. {
5. int id;
6. char name[20];
7. struct Date
8. {
9. int dd;
10. int mm;
11. int yyyy;

Page 84
12. }doj;
13. }e1;
14. int main( )
15. {
16. //storing employee information
17. e1.id=101;
18. strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array
19. e1.doj.dd=10;
20. e1.doj.mm=11;
21. e1.doj.yyyy=2014;
22.
23. //printing first employee information
24. printf( "employee id : %d\n", e1.id);
25. printf( "employee name : %s\n", e1.name);
26. printf( "employee date of joining (dd/mm/yyyy) : %d/%d/%d\n", e1.doj.dd,e1.doj.mm,e1.doj.yyyy);
27. return 0;
28. }

Output:

employee id : 101
employee name : Sonoo Jaiswal
employee date of joining (dd/mm/yyyy) : 10/11/2014

Passing structure to function

Just like other variables, a structure can also be passed to a function. We may pass the structure members into the function
or pass the structure variable at once. Consider the following example to pass the structure variable employee to a function
display() which is used to display the details of an employee.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. struct address
3. {
4. char city[20];
5. int pin;
6. char phone[14];
7. };
8. struct employee
9. {
10. char name[20];
11. struct address add;
12. };
13. void display(struct employee);
14. void main ()
15. {
16. struct employee emp;
17. printf("Enter employee information?\n");
18. scanf("%s %s %d %s",emp.name,emp.add.city, &emp.add.pin, emp.add.phone);
19. display(emp);
20. }
21. void display(struct employee emp)
22. {
23. printf("Printing the details....\n");
24. printf("%s %s %d %s",emp.name,emp.add.city,emp.add.pin,emp.add.phone);
25. }

C Union

Page 85
 Like structure, Union in c language is a user-defined data type that is used to store the different type of elements.

At once, only one member of the union can occupy the memory. In other words, we can say that the size of the union in any
instance is equal to the size of its largest element.

Advantage of union over structure

It occupies less memory because it occupies the size of the largest member only.

Disadvantage of union over structure

Only the last entered data can be stored in the union. It overwrites the data previously stored in the union.

Defining union

The union keyword is used to define the union. Let's see the syntax to define union in c.

1. union union_name
2. {
3. data_type member1;
4. data_type member2;
5. .
6. .
7. data_type memeberN;
8. };

Let's see the example to define union for an employee in c.

1. union employee
2. { int id;
3. char name[50];
4. float salary;
5. };

C Union example

Let's see a simple example of union in C language.

Page 86
1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <string.h>
3. union employee
4. { int id;
5. char name[50];
6. }e1; //declaring e1 variable for union
7. int main( )
8. {
9. //store first employee information
10. e1.id=101;
11. strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array
12. //printing first employee information
13. printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", e1.id);
14. printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", e1.name);
15. return 0;
16. }

Output:

employee 1 id : 1869508435
employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal

As you can see, id gets garbage value because name has large memory size. So only name will have actual value.

File Handling in C

In programming, we may require some specific input data to be generated several numbers of times. Sometimes, it is not
enough to only display the data on the console. The data to be displayed may be very large, and only a limited amount of
data can be displayed on the console, and since the memory is volatile, it is impossible to recover the programmatically
generated data again and again. However, if we need to do so, we may store it onto the local file system which is volatile and
can be accessed every time. Here, comes the need of file handling in C.

File handling in C enables us to create, update, read, and delete the files stored on the local file system through our C
program. The following operations can be performed on a file.

o Creation of the new file

o Opening an existing file
o Reading from the file
o Writing to the file
o Deleting the file

Functions for file handling

There are many functions in the C library to open, read, write, search and close the file. A list of file functions are given
below:

No. Function Description

1 fopen() opens new or existing file

2 fprintf() write data into the file

3 fscanf() reads data from the file

Page 87
 4 fputc() writes a character into the file

5 fgetc() reads a character from file

6 fclose() closes the file

7 fseek() sets the file pointer to given position

8 fputw() writes an integer to file

9 fgetw() reads an integer from file

10 ftell() returns current position

11 rewind() sets the file pointer to the beginning of the file

Opening File: fopen()

We must open a file before it can be read, write, or update. The fopen() function is used to open a file. The syntax of the
fopen() is given below.

1. FILE *fopen( const char * filename, const char * mode );

The fopen() function accepts two parameters:

o The file name (string). If the file is stored at some specific location, then we must mention the path at which the file
is stored. For example, a file name can be like "c://some_folder/some_file.ext".
o The mode in which the file is to be opened. It is a string.

We can use one of the following modes in the fopen() function.

Mode Description

r opens a text file in read mode

w opens a text file in write mode

a opens a text file in append mode

r+ opens a text file in read and write mode

w+ opens a text file in read and write mode

a+ opens a text file in read and write mode

rb opens a binary file in read mode

wb opens a binary file in write mode

ab opens a binary file in append mode

rb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

wb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

ab+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

Page 88
 The fopen function works in the following way.

o Firstly, It searches the file to be opened.

o Then, it loads the file from the disk and place it into the buffer. The buffer is used to provide efficiency for the read
operations.
o It sets up a character pointer which points to the first character of the file.

Consider the following example which opens a file in write mode.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main( )
3. {
4. FILE *fp ;
5. char ch ;
6. fp = fopen("file_handle.c","r") ;
7. while ( 1 )
8. {
9. ch = fgetc ( fp ) ;
10. if ( ch == EOF )
11. break ;
12. printf("%c",ch) ;
13. }
14. fclose (fp ) ;
15. }

Output

The content of the file will be printed.

#include;
void main( )
{
FILE *fp; // file pointer
char ch;
fp = fopen("file_handle.c","r");
while ( 1 )
{
ch = fgetc ( fp ); //Each character of the file is read and stored in the character file.
if ( ch == EOF )
break;
printf("%c",ch);
}
fclose (fp );
}

Closing File: fclose()

The fclose() function is used to close a file. The file must be closed after performing all the operations on it. The syntax of
fclose() function is given below:

1. int fclose( FILE *fp );

C fprintf() and fscanf()

C fprintf() and fscanf() example

C fputc() and fgetc()

Page 89
 C fputc() and fgetc() example

C fputs() and fgets()

C fputs() and fgets() example

C fseek()

C fseek() example

C fprintf() and fscanf()

Writing File : fprintf() function

The fprintf() function is used to write set of characters into file. It sends formatted output to a stream.

Syntax:

1. int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format [, argument, ...])

Example:

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. main(){
3. FILE *fp;
4. fp = fopen("file.txt", "w");//opening file
5. fprintf(fp, "Hello file by fprintf...\n");//writing data into file
6. fclose(fp);//closing file
7. }

Reading File : fscanf() function

The fscanf() function is used to read set of characters from file. It reads a word from the file and returns EOF at the end of
file.

Syntax:

1. int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format [, argument, ...])

Example:

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. main(){
3. FILE *fp;
4. char buff[255];//creating char array to store data of file
5. fp = fopen("file.txt", "r");
6. while(fscanf(fp, "%s", buff)!=EOF){
7. printf("%s ", buff );
8. }
9. fclose(fp);

Page 90
10. }

Output:

Hello file by fprintf...

C File Example: Storing employee information

Let's see a file handling example to store employee information as entered by user from console. We are going to store id,
name and salary of the employee.

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. void main()
3. {
4. FILE *fptr;
5. int id;
6. char name[30];
7. float salary;
8. fptr = fopen("emp.txt", "w+");/* open for writing */
9. if (fptr == NULL)
10. {
11. printf("File does not exists \n");
12. return;
13. }
14. printf("Enter the id\n");
15. scanf("%d", &id);
16. fprintf(fptr, "Id= %d\n", id);
17. printf("Enter the name \n");
18. scanf("%s", name);
19. fprintf(fptr, "Name= %s\n", name);
20. printf("Enter the salary\n");
21. scanf("%f", &salary);
22. fprintf(fptr, "Salary= %.2f\n", salary);
23. fclose(fptr);
24. }

Output:

Enter the id
1
Enter the name
sonoo
Enter the salary
120000

Now open file from current directory. For windows operating system, go to TC\bin directory, you will see emp.txt file. It will
have following information.

emp.txt

Id= 1
Name= sonoo
Salary= 120000

C fputc() and fgetc()

Writing File : fputc() function

Page 91
 The fputc() function is used to write a single character into file. It outputs a character to a stream.

Syntax:

1. int fputc(int c, FILE *stream)

Example:

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. main(){
3. FILE *fp;
4. fp = fopen("file1.txt", "w");//opening file
5. fputc('a',fp);//writing single character into file
6. fclose(fp);//closing file
7. }

file1.txt

Reading File : fgetc() function

The fgetc() function returns a single character from the file. It gets a character from the stream. It returns EOF at the end of
file.

Syntax:

1. int fgetc(FILE *stream)

Example:

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. FILE *fp;
5. char c;
6. clrscr();
7. fp=fopen("myfile.txt","r");
8.
9. while((c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF){
10. printf("%c",c);
11. }
12. fclose(fp);
13. getch();
14. }

myfile.txt

this is simple text message

C fputs() and fgets()

The fputs() and fgets() in C programming are used to write and read string from stream. Let's see examples of writing and
reading file using fgets() and fgets() functions.

Writing File : fputs() function

Page 92
 The fputs() function writes a line of characters into file. It outputs string to a stream.

Syntax:

1. int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream)

Example:

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. FILE *fp;
5. clrscr();
6.
7. fp=fopen("myfile2.txt","w");
8. fputs("hello c programming",fp);
9.
10. fclose(fp);
11. getch();
12. }

myfile2.txt

hello c programming

Reading File : fgets() function

The fgets() function reads a line of characters from file. It gets string from a stream.

Syntax:

1. char* fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *stream)

Example:

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. FILE *fp;
5. char text[300];
6. clrscr();
7.
8. fp=fopen("myfile2.txt","r");
9. printf("%s",fgets(text,200,fp));
10.
11. fclose(fp);
12. getch();
13. }

Output:

hello c programming

C fseek() function

The fseek() function is used to set the file pointer to the specified offset. It is used to write data into file at desired location.

Syntax:

Page 93
1. int fseek(FILE *stream, long int offset, int whence)

There are 3 constants used in the fseek() function for whence: SEEK_SET, SEEK_CUR and SEEK_END.

Example:

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. void main(){
3. FILE *fp;
4.
5. fp = fopen("myfile.txt","w+");
6. fputs("This is javatpoint", fp);
7.
8. fseek( fp, 7, SEEK_SET );
9. fputs("sonoo jaiswal", fp);
10. fclose(fp);
11. }

myfile.txt

This is sonoo jaiswal

C rewind() function

The rewind() function sets the file pointer at the beginning of the stream. It is useful if you have to use stream many times.

Syntax:

1. void rewind(FILE *stream)

Example:

File: file.txt

1. this is a simple text

File: rewind.c

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. FILE *fp;
5. char c;
6. clrscr();
7. fp=fopen("file.txt","r");
8.
9. while((c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF){
10. printf("%c",c);
11. }
12.
13. rewind(fp);//moves the file pointer at beginning of the file
14.
15. while((c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF){
16. printf("%c",c);
17. }
18.
19. fclose(fp);
20. getch();
21. }

Page 94
 Output:

this is a simple textthis is a simple text

As you can see, rewind() function moves the file pointer at beginning of the file that is why "this is simple text" is printed 2
times. If you don't call rewind() function, "this is simple text" will be printed only once.

C ftell() function

The ftell() function returns the current file position of the specified stream. We can use ftell() function to get the total size of a
file after moving file pointer at the end of file. We can use SEEK_END constant to move the file pointer at the end of file.

Syntax:

1. long int ftell(FILE *stream)

Example:

File: ftell.c

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main (){
4. FILE *fp;
5. int length;
6. clrscr();
7. fp = fopen("file.txt", "r");
8. fseek(fp, 0, SEEK_END);
9.
10. length = ftell(fp);
11.
12. fclose(fp);
13. printf("Size of file: %d bytes", length);
14. getch();
15. }

Output:

Size of file: 21 bytes

C Preprocessor Directives

The C preprocessor is a micro processor that is used by compiler to transform your code before compilation. It is called micro
preprocessor because it allows us to add macros.

Note: Proprocessor direcives are executed before compilation.

Page 95
 All preprocessor directives starts with hash # symbol.

Let's see a list of preprocessor directives.

o #include
o #define
o #undef
o #ifdef
o #ifndef
o #if
o #else
o #elif
o #endif
o #error
o #pragma

What is Macro

Please visit next page.

C Macros

A macro is a segment of code which is replaced by the value of macro. Macro is defined by #define directive. There are two
types of macros:

1. Object-like Macros
2. Function-like Macros

Object-like Macros

The object-like macro is an identifier that is replaced by value. It is widely used to represent numeric constants. For example:

1. #define PI 3.14

Here, PI is the macro name which will be replaced by the value 3.14.

Function-like Macros

Page 96
 The function-like macro looks like function call. For example:

1. #define MIN(a,b) ((a)<(b)?(a):(b))

Here, MIN is the macro name.

Visit #define to see the full example of object-like and function-like macros.

C Predefined Macros

ANSI C defines many predefined macros that can be used in c program.

No. Macro Description

1 _DATE_ represents current date in "MMM DD YYYY" format.

2 _TIME_ represents current time in "HH:MM:SS" format.

3 _FILE_ represents current file name.

4 _LINE_ represents current line number.

5 _STDC_ It is defined as 1 when compiler complies with the ANSI standard.

C predefined macros example

File: simple.c

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. printf("File :%s\n", __FILE__ );
4. printf("Date :%s\n", __DATE__ );
5. printf("Time :%s\n", __TIME__ );
6. printf("Line :%d\n", __LINE__ );
7. printf("STDC :%d\n", __STDC__ );
8. return 0;
9. }

Output:

File :simple.c
Date :Dec 6 2015
Time :12:28:46
Line :6
STDC :1

C Programs

Fibonacci Series in C
Fibonacci Series in C: In case of fibonacci series, next number is the sum of previous two numbers for example 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,
13, 21 etc. The first two numbers of fibonacci series are 0 and 1.

There are two ways to write the fibonacci series program:

Page 97
 o Fibonacci Series without recursion
o Fibonacci Series using recursion

Fibonacci Series in C without recursion

Let's see the fibonacci series program in c without recursion.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int n1=0,n2=1,n3,i,number;
5. printf("Enter the number of elements:");
6. scanf("%d",&number);
7. printf("\n%d %d",n1,n2);//printing 0 and 1
8. for(i=2;i<number;++i)//loop starts from 2 because 0 and 1 are already printed
9. {
10. n3=n1+n2;
11. printf(" %d",n3);
12. n1=n2;
13. n2=n3;
14. }
15. return 0;
16. }

Output:

Enter the number of elements:15

0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Fibonacci Series using recursion in C

Let's see the fibonacci series program in c using recursion.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void printFibonacci(int n){
3. static int n1=0,n2=1,n3;
4. if(n>0){
5. n3 = n1 + n2;
6. n1 = n2;
7. n2 = n3;
8. printf("%d ",n3);
9. printFibonacci(n-1);
10. }
11. }
12. int main(){
13. int n;
14. printf("Enter the number of elements: ");
15. scanf("%d",&n);
16. printf("Fibonacci Series: ");
17. printf("%d %d ",0,1);
18. printFibonacci(n-2);//n-2 because 2 numbers are already printed
19. return 0;
20. }

Output:

Enter the number of elements:15

Page 98
 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Prime Number program in C

Prime number in C: Prime number is a number that is greater than 1 and divided by 1 or itself. In other words, prime numbers can't
be divided by other numbers than itself or 1. For example 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23.... are the prime numbers.

Note: Zero (0) and 1 are not considered as prime numbers. Two (2) is the only one even prime number because all the numbers can be
divided by 2.

Let's see the prime number program in C. In this c program, we will take an input from the user and check whether the number is
prime or not.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main(){
3. int n,i,m=0,flag=0;
4. printf("Enter the number to check prime:");
5. scanf("%d",&n);
6. m=n/2;
7. for(i=2;i<=m;i++)
8. {
9. if(n%i==0)
10. {
11. printf("Number is not prime");
12. flag=1;
13. break;
14. }
15. }
16. if(flag==0)
17. printf("Number is prime");
18. return 0;
19. }

Output:

Enter the number to check prime:56

Number is not prime
Enter the number to check prime:23
Number is prime

Palindrome program in C
Palindrome number in c: A palindrome number is a number that is same after reverse. For example 121, 34543, 343, 131, 48984
are the palindrome numbers.

Palindrome number algorithm

o Get the number from user
o Hold the number in temporary variable
o Reverse the number
o Compare the temporary number with reversed number
o If both numbers are same, print palindrome number
o Else print not palindrome number

Let's see the palindrome program in C. In this c program, we will get an input from the user and check whether number is palindrome
or not.

Page 99
1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int n,r,sum=0,temp;
5. printf("enter the number=");
6. scanf("%d",&n);
7. temp=n;
8. while(n>0)
9. {
10. r=n%10;
11. sum=(sum*10)+r;
12. n=n/10;
13. }
14. if(temp==sum)
15. printf("palindrome number ");
16. else
17. printf("not palindrome");
18. return 0;
19. }

Output:

enter the number=151

palindrome number
enter the number=5621
not palindrome number

Factorial Program in C
Factorial Program in C: Factorial of n is the product of all positive descending integers. Factorial of n is denoted by n!. For example:

1. 5! = 5*4*3*2*1 = 120
2. 3! = 3*2*1 = 6

Here, 5! is pronounced as "5 factorial", it is also called "5 bang" or "5 shriek".

The factorial is normally used in Combinations and Permutations (mathematics).

There are many ways to write the factorial program in c language. Let's see the 2 ways to write the factorial program.

o Factorial Program using loop

o Factorial Program using recursion

Factorial Program using loop

Let's see the factorial Program using loop.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int i,fact=1,number;
5. printf("Enter a number: ");
6. scanf("%d",&number);
7. for(i=1;i<=number;i++){
8. fact=fact*i;
9. }
10. printf("Factorial of %d is: %d",number,fact);
11. return 0;

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100
12. }

Output:

Enter a number: 5
Factorial of 5 is: 120

Factorial Program using recursion in C

Let's see the factorial program in c using recursion.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2.
3. long factorial(int n)
4. {
5. if (n == 0)
6. return 1;
7. else
8. return(n * factorial(n-1));
9. }
10.
11. void main()
12. {
13. int number;
14. long fact;
15. printf("Enter a number: ");
16. scanf("%d", &number);
17.
18. fact = factorial(number);
19. printf("Factorial of %d is %ld\n", number, fact);
20. return 0;
21. }

Output:

Enter a number: 6
Factorial of 5 is: 720

Armstrong Number in C
Before going to write the c program to check whether the number is Armstrong or not, let's understand what is Armstrong number.

Armstrong number is a number that is equal to the sum of cubes of its digits. For example 0, 1, 153, 370, 371 and 407 are the
Armstrong numbers.

Let's try to understand why 153 is an Armstrong number.

1. 153 = (1*1*1)+(5*5*5)+(3*3*3)
2. where:
3. (1*1*1)=1
4. (5*5*5)=125
5. (3*3*3)=27
6. So:
7. 1+125+27=153

Let's try to understand why 371 is an Armstrong number.

1. 371 = (3*3*3)+(7*7*7)+(1*1*1)

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101
2. where:
3. (3*3*3)=27
4. (7*7*7)=343
5. (1*1*1)=1
6. So:
7. 27+343+1=371

Let's see the c program to check Armstrong Number in C.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int n,r,sum=0,temp;
5. printf("enter the number=");
6. scanf("%d",&n);
7. temp=n;
8. while(n>0)
9. {
10. r=n%10;
11. sum=sum+(r*r*r);
12. n=n/10;
13. }
14. if(temp==sum)
15. printf("armstrong number ");
16. else
17. printf("not armstrong number");
18. return 0;
19. }

Output:

enter the number=153

armstrong number
enter the number=5
not armstrong number

Sum of digits program in C

C program to sum each digit: We can write the sum of digits program in c language by the help of loop and mathematical operation
only.

Sum of digits algorithm

To get sum of each digits by c program, use the following algorithm:

o Step 1: Get number by user

o Step 2: Get the modulus/remainder of the number
o Step 3: sum the remainder of the number
o Step 4: Divide the number by 10
o Step 5: Repeat the step 2 while number is greater than 0.

Let's see the sum of digits program in C.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int n,sum=0,m;
5. printf("Enter a number:");

Page
102
6. scanf("%d",&n);
7. while(n>0)
8. {
9. m=n%10;
10. sum=sum+m;
11. n=n/10;
12. }
13. printf("Sum is=%d",sum);
14. return 0;
15. }

Output:

Enter a number:654
Sum is=15
Enter a number:123
Sum is=6

C Program to reverse number

We can reverse a number in c using loop and arithmetic operators. In this program, we are getting number as input from the user and
reversing that number. Let's see a simple c example to reverse a given number.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int n, reverse=0, rem;
5. printf("Enter a number: ");
6. scanf("%d", &n);
7. while(n!=0)
8. {
9. rem=n%10;
10. reverse=reverse*10+rem;
11. n/=10;
12. }
13. printf("Reversed Number: %d",reverse);
14. return 0;
15. }

Output:

Enter a number: 123

Reversed Number: 321

C Program to swap two numbers without third variable

We can swap two numbers without using third variable. There are two common ways to swap two numbers without using third
variable:

1. By + and -
2. By * and /

Program 1: Using + and -

Let's see a simple c example to swap two numbers without using third variable.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
Page
103
4. int a=10, b=20;
5. printf("Before swap a=%d b=%d",a,b);
6. a=a+b;//a=30 (10+20)
7. b=a-b;//b=10 (30-20)
8. a=a-b;//a=20 (30-10)
9. printf("\nAfter swap a=%d b=%d",a,b);
10. return 0;
11. }

Output:

Before swap a=10 b=20

After swap a=20 b=10

Program 2: Using * and /

Let's see another example to swap two numbers using * and /.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main()
4. {
5. int a=10, b=20;
6. printf("Before swap a=%d b=%d",a,b);
7. a=a*b;//a=200 (10*20)
8. b=a/b;//b=10 (200/20)
9. a=a/b;//a=20 (200/10)
10. system("cls");
11. printf("\nAfter swap a=%d b=%d",a,b);
12. return 0;
13. }

Output:

Before swap a=10 b=20

After swap a=20 b=10

C Program to print "hello" without semicolon

We can print "hello" or "hello world" or anything else in C without using semicolon. There are various ways to do so:

1. Using if
2. Using switch
3. Using loop etc.

Program 1: Using if statement

Let's see a simple c example to print "hello world" using if statement and without using semicolon.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. if(printf("hello world")){}
5. return 0;
6. }

Output:

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104
 hello world

Program 2: Using switch statement

Let's see a simple c example to print "hello world" using switch statement and without using semicolon.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. switch(printf("hello world")){}
5. return 0;
6. }

Output:

hello world

Program 3: Using while loop

Let's see a simple c example to print "hello world" using while loop and without using semicolon.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. while(!printf("hello world")){}
5. return 0;
6. }

Output:

hello world

Assembly program in C
We can write assembly program code inside c language program. In such case, all the assembly code must be placed inside asm{}
block.

Let's see a simple assembly program code to add two numbers in c program.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. void main() {
3. int a = 10, b = 20, c;
4.
5. asm {
6. mov ax,a
7. mov bx,b
8. add ax,bx
9. mov c,ax
10. }
11.
12. printf("c= %d",c);
13. }

Output:

c= 30

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105
 Note: We have executed this program on TurboC.

C Program without main() function

We can write c program without using main() function. To do so, we need to use #define preprocessor directive.

Let's see a simple program to print "hello" without main() function.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #define start main
3. void start() {
4. printf("Hello");
5. }

Output:

Hello

Matrix multiplication in C
Matrix multiplication in C: We can add, subtract, multiply and divide 2 matrices. To do so, we are taking input from the user for row
number, column number, first matrix elements and second matrix elements. Then we are performing multiplication on the matrices
entered by the user.

In matrix multiplication first matrix one row element is multiplied by second matrix all column elements.

Let's try to understand the matrix multiplication of 2*2 and 3*3 matrices by the figure given below:

Page
106
 Let's see the program of matrix multiplication in C.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. int a[10][10],b[10][10],mul[10][10],r,c,i,j,k;
5. system("cls");
6. printf("enter the number of row=");
7. scanf("%d",&r);
8. printf("enter the number of column=");
9. scanf("%d",&c);
10. printf("enter the first matrix element=\n");
11. for(i=0;i<r;i++)
12. {
13. for(j=0;j<c;j++)
14. {
15. scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
16. }
17. }
18. printf("enter the second matrix element=\n");
19. for(i=0;i<r;i++)
20. {
21. for(j=0;j<c;j++)
22. {
23. scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);
24. }
25. }
26.

Page
107
27. printf("multiply of the matrix=\n");
28. for(i=0;i<r;i++)
29. {
30. for(j=0;j<c;j++)
31. {
32. mul[i][j]=0;
33. for(k=0;k<c;k++)
34. {
35. mul[i][j]+=a[i][k]*b[k][j];
36. }
37. }
38. }
39. //for printing result
40. for(i=0;i<r;i++)
41. {
42. for(j=0;j<c;j++)
43. {
44. printf("%d\t",mul[i][j]);
45. }
46. printf("\n");
47. }
48. return 0;
49. }

Output:

enter the number of row=3

enter the number of column=3
enter the first matrix element=
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
enter the second matrix element=
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
multiply of the matrix=
6 6 6
12 12 12
18 18 18

Let's try to understand the matrix multiplication of 3*3 and 3*3 matrices by the figure given below:

Page
108
C Program to convert Decimal to Binary
Decimal to binary in C: We can convert any decimal number (base-10 (0 to 9)) into binary number(base-2 (0 or 1)) by c program.

Decimal Number

Decimal number is a base 10 number because it ranges from 0 to 9, there are total 10 digits between 0 to 9. Any combination of
digits is decimal number such as 23, 445, 132, 0, 2 etc.

Binary Number

Binary number is a base 2 number because it is either 0 or 1. Any combination of 0 and 1 is binary number such as 1001, 101, 11111,
101010 etc.

Let's see the some binary numbers for the decimal number.

Decimal Binary

1 1

2 10

3 11

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

8 1000

9 1001

Page
109
 10 1010

Decimal to Binary Conversion Algorithm

o Step 1: Divide the number by 2 through % (modulus operator) and store the remainder in array
o Step 2: Divide the number by 2 through / (division operator)
o Step 3: Repeat the step 2 until number is greater than 0

Let's see the c example to convert decimal to binary.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. int a[10],n,i;
5. system ("cls");
6. printf("Enter the number to convert: ");
7. scanf("%d",&n);
8. for(i=0;n>0;i++)
9. {
10. a[i]=n%2;
11. n=n/2;
12. }
13. printf("\nBinary of Given Number is=");
14. for(i=i-1;i>=0;i--)
15. {
16. printf("%d",a[i]);
17. }
18. return 0;
19. }

Output:

Enter the number to convert: 5

Binary of Given Number is=101

C Program to print Alphabet Triangle

There are different triangles that can be printed. Triangles can be generated by alphabets or numbers. In this c program, we are going
to print alphabet triangles.

Let's see the c example to print alphabet triangle.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. int ch=65;
5. int i,j,k,m;
6. system("cls");
7. for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
8. {
9. for(j=5;j>=i;j--)
10. printf(" ");
11. for(k=1;k<=i;k++)
12. printf("%c",ch++);
13. ch--;
14. for(m=1;m<i;m++)
15. printf("%c",--ch);

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110
16. printf("\n");
17. ch=65;
18. }
19. return 0;
20. }

Output:

A
ABA
ABCBA
ABCDCBA
ABCDEDCBA

C Program to print Number Triangle

Like alphabet triangle, we can write the c program to print the number triangle. The number triangle can be printed in different ways.

Let's see the c example to print number triangle.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. int i,j,k,l,n;
5. system("cls");
6. printf("enter the range=");
7. scanf("%d",&n);
8. for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
9. {
10. for(j=1;j<=n-i;j++)
11. {
12. printf(" ");
13. }
14. for(k=1;k<=i;k++)
15. {
16. printf("%d",k);
17. }
18. for(l=i-1;l>=1;l--)
19. {
20. printf("%d",l);
21. }
22. printf("\n");
23. }
24. return 0;
25. }

Output:

enter the range= 4

1
121
12321
1234321
enter the range= 7
1
121
12321
1234321
123454321
12345654321
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 1234567654321

C Program to generate Fibonacci Triangle

In this program, we are getting input from the user for the limit for fibonacci triangle, and printing the fibonacci series for the given
number of times (limit).

Let's see the c example to generate fibonacci triangle.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. int a=0,b=1,i,c,n,j;
5. system("cls");
6. printf("Enter the limit:");
7. scanf("%d",&n);
8. for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
9. {
10. a=0;
11. b=1;
12. printf("%d\t",b);
13. for(j=1;j<i;j++)
14. {
15. c=a+b;
16. printf("%d\t",c);
17. a=b;
18. b=c;
19.
20. }
21. printf("\n");
22. }
23. return 0;
24. }

Output:

Enter the limit:9

1
1 1
1 1 2
1 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 5
1 1 2 3 5 8
1 1 2 3 5 8 13
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34
Enter the limit:5
1
1 1
1 1 2
1 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 5

C Program to convert Number in Characters

Number in characters conversion: In c language, we can easily convert number in characters by the help of loop and switch case. In
this program, we are taking input from the user and iterating this number until it is 0. While iteration, we are dividing it by 10 and the
remainder is passed in switch case to get the word for the number.

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 Let's see the c program to convert number in characters.

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<stdlib.h>
3. int main(){
4. long int n,sum=0,r;
5. system("cls");
6. printf("enter the number=");
7. scanf("%ld",&n);
8. while(n>0)
9. {
10. r=n%10;
11. sum=sum*10+r;
12. n=n/10;
13. }
14. n=sum;
15. while(n>0)
16. {
17. r=n%10;
18. switch(r)
19. {
20. case 1:
21. printf("one ");
22. break;
23. case 2:
24. printf("two ");
25. break;
26. case 3:
27. printf("three ");
28. break;
29. case 4:
30. printf("four ");
31. break;
32. case 5:
33. printf("five ");
34. break;
35. case 6:
36. printf("six ");
37. break;
38. case 7:
39. printf("seven ");
40. break;
41. case 8:
42. printf("eight ");
43. break;
44. case 9:
45. printf("nine ");
46. break;
47. case 0:
48. printf("zero ");
49. break;
50. default:
51. printf("tttt");
52. break;
53. }
54. n=n/10;
55. }
56. return 0;
57. }
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Output:

enter the number=4321

four three two one

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