Bio Notes Class X

CHAPTER 6: LIFE PROCESSES.
Top definitions:
1. Life Processes: The processes like nutrition, respiration, growth, excretion etc. which
together keep the living organisms alive and perform the function of body maintenance are
called life processes.
2. Nutrition: It is the process of intake of nutrients and its utilization by organism in various
biological activities.
3. Autotrophic nutrition: It is the mode of nutrition in which organisms prepare their own
food utilizing the raw materials from the surroundings and does not depend on others for
their food.
4. Heterotrophic nutrition: It is the mode of nutrition in which the organisms depends upon
other organisms for food i.e., they obtain food from autotrophs.
5. Holozoic nutrition: It is the mode of nutrition in which an organism feeds on solid food
which is a complex organic matter by the process of ingestion then the food is subsequently
digested and absorbed and finally undigested residue is removed from the body.
5. Photosynthesis: It is a biological process in which organisms prepare their own food by
using inorganic raw materials like water, carbon dioxide in presence of chlorophyll and
sunlight or light energy and oxygen is evolved as a by product during this process.
7. Chlorophyll: It is a green pigment found within the chloroplasts of green plants and some
algae which traps solar energy for the process of photosynthesis.
8. Light reaction: The series of reactions which occurs only in presence of light inside the
Granum of chloroplast where there is formation of oxygen molecule due to photolysis of
water and production of assimilatory powers like NADPH and ATP.
9. Dark reaction: The series of reaction in which carbon dioxide is converted to glucose in
absence of light utilizing the assimilatory powers like NADPH and ATP in stroma of
chloroplast.
10. Photolysis: The reaction in which water splits to produce hydrogen, protons, electrons
and oxygen by using light energy trapped by chlorophyll.
11. Peristalsis: The rhythmic contraction and expansion movement of muscular wall of
oesophagus when food (bolus) passes from mouth to stomach.
12. Respiration: It is a complex process which involves gaseous exchange i.e., oxygen is
taken in and carbon dioxide is given out as well as oxidation of glucose in cells to release
chemical energy in the form of ATP.
13. Transportation: It is a life process in which a substance synthesized or absorbed in one
part of the organism is carried to the other parts of the body.
14. Excretion: It is a biological process where there is removal of nitrogenous wastes from
our body produced due to metabolism.
15. Chyme: It is the semi solid paste formed by the churning of partially digested food from
the stomach mixed with gastric juice secreted by the stomach.
16. Osmoregulation: The process of maintaining a constant osmotic condition in the body by
regulating the water and solute concentration of body fluids.
17. Dialysis: It is an artificial process of removal of metabolic wastes and excess water from
the body by using a machine in order to maintain the normal water and solute concentration
in our body.
18. Enzymes – The biological catalysts which speed up the rate of biochemical
reactions in the body.
19. Gastric glands – The glands present in the wall of the stomach that release HCl,
pepsin and mucus.
20. Emulsification of fat – A process in which bile salts emulsifies fat globules, i.e.
Increases the surface area of the oil–water interface, which promotes the breakdown
of fats by pancreatic lipase.
21. Aerobic respiration – The metabolic process that uses oxygen to break down
food and produce carbon dioxide and water, along with the release of energy.
22. Anaerobic respiration – The metabolic process by which nutrients are broken
down in the absence of oxygen to release energy.
23. Alveoli – The tiny air sacs of the lungs where gas exchange occurs with the
circulatory system.
24. Trachea – A thin walled tube of the respiratory system with cartilaginous rings
that conveys inhaled air from the larynx to the bronchi.
25. Bronchus – Either of the two main branches of the trachea, which delivers air to
the lungs from trachea.
26. Haemoglobin – The respiratory pigment present in the red blood cells of
vertebrates, which transports oxygen from lungs to the tissues.
27. Atria – The two upper chambers in the heart, which receive blood from the veins
and push it into the ventricles.
28. Ventricles – The two lower chambers of the heart, which receive blood from the
atria and pump it into the arteries.
29. Double circulation – A type of circulation in which the blood flows through the
heart twice, during each cycle of passage through the body.
37. Root pressure – Pressure exerted in the roots of plants as the result of osmosis
that causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves.
38. Transpiration – The loss of excess water in the form water vapour from the aerial
parts of the plant.
39. Translocation – The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis from leaves
or storage organs to other parts of the plant through phloem.
40. Holozoic Nutrition: It is the type of nutrition in which an organism takes the
complex organic food materials into its body by the process of ingestion; the
ingested food is digested and then absorbed into the body cells of the organism
Activity 6.1 (Text book Page 96)
The leaf gets decolourised on boiling in alcohol. The colour of the solution becomes
green as the chlorophyll gets dissolved in alcohol. On comparing the colour of the
leaf, we find that the colour of leaf changes to bluish-black at the regions where
chlorophyll was present whereas the regions which did not have chlorophyll remain
pale/yellow coloured in iodine solution. So, we can conclude that chlorophyll is
necessary for photosynthesis because only the regions where chlorophyll is present
are able to photosynthesise and produce starch.
Activity 6.2(Text book Page 97)The leaves of the plant in the bell jar in which
potassium hydroxide was present are not able to perform photosynthesis and
produce starch whereas the leaves of the plant in the other bell jar is able to perform
photosynthesis and produce starch. We can conclude from this activity that carbon
dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis as the plants which are devoid of carbon
dioxide do not contain starch as they are not able to
perform photosynthesis.
Activity 6.3 (Textbook Page 99)
No colour change occurs in the test-tube A on addition of iodine as starch is
degraded by saliva. The colour changes to bluish-black in test-tube B on addition of
iodine as starch is not degraded in it. This activity shows that saliva has a enzyme
called salivary amylase which breaks down starch into simpler carbohydrates.
Lime water turns milky faster in the test tube where air is blown through the mouth.
This is because the air we breathe out contains higher levels of carbon dioxide than
that present in the air.
The lime water turns milky after sometime. This shows that Yeast produces carbon
dioxide during the process of alcoholic fermentation. The carbon dioxide produced
during the process turns the lime water milky.
This activity shows that the rate of breathing is higher in the aquatic animals as they
have to take in the oxygen dissolved in water. Their rate of breathing is higher and
faster as compared to human beings.
Normal results for adults vary, but in general are: Male: 13.8 to 17.2 grams per
decilitre (g/dL) Female: 12.7 to 15. 1 g/dL The range is not same for children and
adults. Normal results for children vary, but in general are:
Newborn: 14 to 24 g/dL; Infant: 9.5 to 13 g/dL
Yes, this range is different in calves, male and female animals. The average range of
haemoglobin content of cattle is as follows:
Cows: 10 to 15 gm/dL; Bulls: 8 to 12 gm/dL
The differences can be due to the hormonal and physiological differences in males
and females.
The soil in pot with the plant in it will lose its moisture due to which the plastic sheet
covering it will have moisture on it. The soil of the pot without the plant will retain
its moisture so no moisture will be there on the plastic sheet. This activity shows that
the water absorbed by the plants from the soil is transpired by its leaves in the form
of water vapour.
Lymph- Extracellular fluid similar to plasma but colourless with lesser protein.
Function of lymph- (i) Transportation of digested & absorbed fats from the small
intestine.
(ii) Drains excess fluid from the intercellular spaces back in the blood.
1Q: Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi-

cellular organisms like Humans?
Answer: Multicellular organisms such as humans possess complex body designs.
They have specialised cells and tissues for performing various necessary functions of
the body such as intake of food and Oxygen. Unlike unicellular organisms,
multicellular cells are not in direct contact with the outside Environment. Therefore,
diffusion cannot meet their oxygen requirements.
2Q: What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?
Answer: Any visible movement such as walking, breathing, or growing is generally
used to decide whether something is alive or not. However, a living organism can
also have movements, which are not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, the presence
of life processes is a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide whether
something is alive or not.
3Q: What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?
Answer: An organism uses outside raw materials mostly in the form of food and
oxygen. The raw materials required by an organism can be quite varied depending
on the complexity of the organism and it’s Environment.
4Q: What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Answer: Life processes such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, and
etc. are essential for maintaining life.
5Q. (a) What criteria can be used to decide whether something is alive?
(b) What is meant by life processes? Name the basic life processes common to all living
organisms which are essential for maintaining life.
Answer: (a) The criteria to decide whether something is alive is the movement.
(b) The basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain their life on this earth are
called life processes. The basic life processes common to all living organisms are: Nutrition
and Respiration; Transport and Excretion; Control and Coordination; Growth; Movement
and Reproduction.
6Q: What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic
nutrition?
Answer: Autotrophic nutrition
(i) Food is synthesised from simple inorganic raw materials such as co2 and water.
(ii) Presence of green pigment (chlorophyll) is necessary.
(iii) Food is generally prepared during day time.
(iv) All green plants and some bacteria have this type of nutrition
Heterotrophic nutrition
(i) Food is obtained directly or indirectly from autotrophs. This food is broken down
with the Help of enzymes.
(ii) No pigment is required in this type of nutrition.
(iii) Food can be prepared at all times.
(iv) All animals and fungi have this type of nutrition.
7Q: (a) Photosynthesis converts energy X into energy Y. What are X and Y?
(b) State the various steps involved in the process of photosynthesis.
Answer: (a) X is sunlight energy and Y is chemical energy.
(b) The photosynthesis takes place in the following three steps;
(i) Absorption of sunlight energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water into
hydrogen and oxygen by light energy.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to form carbohydrates like glucose by
utilising the chemical energy
8Q: (a) How do plants obtain food?
(b) Why do plants need nitrogen? How do plants obtain nitrogen?
Answer:
(a) Plants obtain food by a process called photosynthesis.
(b) Plants need nitrogen to make proteins and other compounds. They take up
nitrogen from the soil in the form of inorganic salts called nitrates (or nitrites), or
in the form of organic compounds which are produced by bacteria from the
atmospheric nitrogen.
9Q: Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
Answer: The following raw materials are required for photosynthesis:
• The raw material co2 enters from the atmosphere through stomata.
• Water is absorbed from the soil by the plant roots.
• Sunlight, an important component to manufacture food, is absorbed by the
chlorophyll and other green parts of the plants.
10Q: Define (i) saprophytic nutrition (ii) parasitic nutrition, and (iii) holozoic
nutrition. Give one example of each type.
Answer:
(i) Saprophytic nutrition: It is that nutrition in which an organism obtains its food
from dead organic matter of dead plants, dead animals and rotten bread. Example:
Fungi and many bacteria obtain food by saprophytic nutrition.
(ii) Parasitic nutrition: It is that nutrition in which an organism derives its food from
the body of another living organism (called its host) without killing it.Example:
Plasmodium and round worms obtain food by parasitic nutrition.
(iii) Holozoic nutrition: It is that nutrition in which an organism takes the complex
organic food materials into its body by the process of ingestion; the ingested food is
digested and then absorbed into the body cells of the organism. Example: Human
beings obtain food by holozoic nutrition
11Q: What is the role of the acid in our stomach?
Answer: The hydrochloric acid present in our stomach dissolves bits of food and
creates an acidic medium. In this acidic medium, enzyme pepsinogen is converted to
pepsin, which is a protein-digesting Enzyme.
12Q: What is the function of digestive enzymes?
Answer: Digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, etc. Help in the
breaking down of complex food particles into simple ones. These simple particles
can be easily absorbed by the blood and thus transported to
all the cells of the body.
13Q: How is the small intestine designed to absorb

digested food?
Answer: The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like
projections called villi. These villi increase the surface area
for more efficient food absorption. Within these villi, many
blood vessels are present
That absorb the digested food and carry it to the blood
stream. From the blood stream, the absorbed food is
delivered to each and every cell of the body.
Enlarged view of a villus (diagram)
14Q: (a) What is common for Cuscuta, ticks and leeches ?
(b) Name the substances on which the following enzymes act in the human
digestive system:
(i) Trypsin (ii) Amylase (iii) Pepsin (iv) Lipase
(c) Why does absorption of digested food occur mainly in the small intestine?
Answer:
(a) Parasitic mode of nutrition.
(b) (i) Proteins (ii) Starch (iii) Proteins (iv) Fats.
(c) Absorption of digested foods occurs mainly in the small intestine due to the
presence of a large number of finger like projections called villi.
15Q: (a) Why is small intestine in herbivores longer than in carnivores?
(b) What will happen if mucus is not secreted by the gastric glands?
(c) What causes movement of food inside the alimentary canal?
Answer:
(a) Herbivores eat only plants so they need a longer small intestine to allow the
cellulose present in the plants to be digested completely.
(b) If mucus is not secreted, hydrochloric acid will cause the erosion of inner lining
of stomach leading to the formation of ulcers in the stomach.
(c) The contraction and expansion movements of oesophagus also called peristaltic
movements push the food down into the elementary canal.
16Q: (a) How do guard cells regulate opening and closing of stomatal pores?
(b) Two similar green plants are kept separately in oxygen free containers, one in
dark and the other in continuous light. Which one will live longer ? Give reasons.
Answer:
(a) The opening and closing of stomatal pores is controlled by the guard cells, when
water flows into the guard cells, they swell, become curved and cause the pore to
open whereas when the guard cells lose water, they shrink, become straight and
close the stomatal pore. (b) Plant kept in continuous light will live longer because it
will be able to produce oxygen required for its respiration by the process of
photosynthesis.
17Q: (a) What would happen if all the green plants disappear from the earth ?
(b) If a plant is releasing carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen during the day,
does it mean that there is no photosynthesis occurring ? Justify your answer.
Answer:
(a) If all the green plants disappear from the earth, then all the organisms
(herbivores, carnivores and omnivores) will die due to starvation as green plants are
the source of food for all organisms.
(b) When photosynthesis occurs during the day, the carbon dioxide released by
plants by respiration is all used up and not released. Similarly, some of the oxygen
produced during photosynthesis is used up in respiration. Since the plant is
releasing carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen even during the day, it means that no
photosynthesis is taking place.
18Q: (a) Leaves of a healthy potted plant were coated with Vaseline. Will this
plant remain healthy for long? Give reason for your answer.
(b) What will happen to the rate of photosynthesis in a plant under the following
circumstances?
1. Cloudy day in morning but bright sunshine in the afternoon
2. No rainfall in the area for a considerable time.
3. Gathering of dust on the leaves
Answer:
(a) This plant will not remain healthy for long because Vaseline coating closes the
stomatal pores on the leaves due to which
(i) Plant will not get oxygen for respiration
(ii) Plant will not get carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, and
(iii) Plant will not get water (and minerals) due to stoppage of transpiration.
(b) (i) Decreases in morning but increases in the afternoon
(ii) Decreases.
(iii) Decreases.
19Q: (a) Describe the process of nutrition in Amoeba. Draw labelled diagrams to
show the various steps in the nutrition in Amoeba.
(b) What is the mode of nutrition in Amoeba known as?
(c) What is the process of obtaining food by Amoeba called? What does it mean?
Answer:
(a) Nutrition in amoeba: Nutrition in amoeba involves the following steps
(i) Ingestion : Amoeba has no mouth for ingestion of food. It ingests the food by
using its pseudopodia. The food is engulfed with little water to form a food vacuole.
(ii) Digestion : The food is digested by digestive enzymes present in the cytoplasm
which breaks the food into small soluble molecules by chemical reactions.
(iii) Absorption : The digested food is absorbed directly into the cytoplasm by
diffusion. The digested food spreads out from the food vacuole into the whole cell
and after absorption the food vacuole disappears.
(iv) Assimilation : Food is used to obtain energy through respiration and the
remaining part of the food is used for growth.
(v)Egestion: The undigested food collects inside the cell and the cell membrane
ruptures. Through this, the undigested food is thrown out of the body.
(a) The mode of nutrition in amoeba is holozoic.

(b) The process of obtaining food is called phagocytosis, which means cell feeding.
20Q. a) Draw a labelled diagram of the human digestive system. With the help of this
diagram, describe the process of digestion of food in man (humans).
(b) Describe one way in which the small intestine is adapted for the absorption of
digested food.
(c) What is the special name of the contraction and expansion movement which
pushes the food further in our digestive tract (or alimentary canal)?
Answer:
(a) Digestion of food in human beings:
 Digestion of food begins in the mouth or Oral cavity or Buccal cavity
 The mouth cavity contains teeth, tongue and salivary glands. The teeth cut the
food into small pieces, chew and grind it. This is called physical digestion.
 Salivary glands produce saliva which mixes with the food. This involves
chemical digestion of food. The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary
amylase which digests the starch and converts it into (maltose/ dextrose)
simple sugar. Mucus binds the food, softens for easy swallowing.
 Mouth opens into a small funnel shaped area called pharynx(common
passage for food and air) which leads to a long tube called oesophagus. It
carries the food down into the stomach. The wall of oesophagus is muscular.
When the slightly digested food enters the food pipe, the walls of the
oesophagus starts contraction and expansion movements called peristaltic
movements which push the food into the stomach. Digestion does not take
place in the oesophagus.
 The glands present on the walls of the stomach secrete gastric juice that
contains hydrochloric acid, the enzyme pepsin and mucus.
 A small amount of gastric lipase is also present that breaks down the fats
present in the food.
 Gastric juice is acidic due to the presence of HCl which is necessary for the
pepsin to become active and
converts the proteins into
peptones.
 The mucus protects the
stomach walls from HCl.
From the stomach, the
partially digested food goes
into the small intestine
through sphincter muscle.
 Small intestine is divided into
three parts: Duodenum,
Jejenum and Ileum.
Duodenum receives the
secretions of two glands, liver
and pancreas through a
common duct.
 Liver secretes bile which is
alkaline and contains salts to
emulsify the fats (or lipids).
The bile secreted by the liver is stored in the gall bladder. Bile juice makes the
acidic food(chyme) into alkaline and also helps in emulsification of fats.
 Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains trypsin, lipase and
pancreatic amylase.
 Trypsin digests the proteins, lipase emulsifies the fats and pancreatic amylase
breaks down the simple sugars.
 Thus, small intestine is the site of complete digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats.
 The walls of ileum secrete succus entericus which completes the digestion
process. Carbohydrates into glucose, Proteins into amino acids, Fats into fatty
acids and glycerol.
21Q: What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have
with regard to obtaining oxygen for respiration?
Answer: Terrestrial organisms take up oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic
animals need to utilize oxygen present in the water. Air contains more o 2 as
compared to water. Since the content of o2 in air is high, the terrestrial animals do
not have to breathe faster to get more oxygen. Therefore, unlike aquatic animals,
terrestrial animals do not have to show various adaptations for better gaseous
exchange.
22Q: What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy
in various organisms?
Answer: Glucose is first broken down in the cell cytoplasm into a three carbon
molecule called pyruvate.
Pyruvate is further broken down by different ways to provide energy.
The breakdown of glucose by different pathways can be illustrated as follows.
In yeast and human muscle cells, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the absence
of oxygen
Whereas, in mitochondria, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the presence of
oxygen.
23Q: How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
Answer: Haemoglobin transports oxygen molecule to all the body cells for cellular
respiration. The Haemoglobin pigment present in the blood gets attached to four o 2
molecules that are obtained from breathing. It thus forms oxyhaemoglobin and the
blood becomes oxygenated. This Oxygenated blood is then distributed to all the
body cells by the heart. After giving away o2 to the Body cells, blood takes away co2
which is the end product of cellular respiration. Now the blood becomes de-
oxygenated. Since haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for co 2, co2 is mainly
transported in the dissolved form. This de-oxygenated blood gives co2 to lung alveoli
and takes o2 in return.
24Q: How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for
exchange of gases?
Answer: The exchange of gases takes place between the blood of the capillaries that
surround the alveoli and the gases present in the alveoli. Thus, alveoli are the site for
exchange of gases. The lungs get filled up with air during the process of inhalation
as ribs are lifted up and diaphragm is flattened.
The air that is rushed inside the lungs fills the numerous alveoli present in the lungs.
Each lung contains 300-350 million alveoli. These numerous alveoli increase the
surface area for gaseous exchange making the process of respiration more efficient.
25Q: Define breathing. State the differences between breathing and respiration.
Answer:
The mechanism by which an organism
obtains oxygen from the air and releases
carbon dioxide is called breathing.
Difference between breathing and
respiration:-
Breathing
(i) Breathing is a simple process.
(ii) Breathing involves taking in oxygen
from the air and releasing carbon dioxide
into the air.
(iii) Breathing is a physical process.
Respiration
(i) Respiration is a complex process.
(ii) Respiration includes breathing as well
as the oxidation of food in the cells of the
organism to release energy.
(iii) Respiration is a bio-chemical process.
26Q: Describe the process of respiration in State whether it is anaerobic
respiration or aerobic respiration.
Answer: Respiration in amoeba: Amoeba depends on simple diffusion of gases for
breathing. The diffusion of gases takes place through the thin cell membrane of
amoeba. Amoeba lives in water which contains dissolved oxygen. The oxygen from
water diffuses into the body of amoeba through its cell membrane. The oxygen
spreads quickly into the whole body and is used for respiration inside the amoeba
cell. The process of respiration produces carbon dioxide which diffuses out through
its cell membrane into the surrounding water.
27Q: State the three common features of all the respiratory organs like skin, gills
and lungs.
Answer: The common features of all respiratory organs skin, gills and lungs are: (i)
All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.(ii) All the
respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory
gases.(iii) All the respiratory organs like skin, gills and lungs have a rich blood
supply for transporting respiratory gases.
28Q: Describe the process of respiration in fish.
Answer: Respiration and fish: The fish has special organ of breathing called gills on
both the sides of its head. The gills are covered by gill covers. The fish lives in water
which contains dissolved oxygen. The fish breathes by
taking in water through its mouth and sending it over the
gills. When water passes over the gills, the gills extract
dissolved oxygen from the water. The extracted oxygen is
absorbed by the blood and carried to all the parts of the
fish. The carbon dioxide produced by respiration is
brought back by the blood into the gills for expelling into the surrounding water.
29Q: Describe the process of respiration in the following parts of a plant:
(a) Root (b) Stem (c) Leaves
Answer:
(a) Respiration in roots: The roots of a plant take the oxygen required for respiration
from the air present in-between the soil particles by the process of diffusion. The
roots have extensions of epidermal cells of a root called root hair which are in
contact with the air in the soil. Oxygen diffuses from root hairs and reaches all the
other cells of the root for respiration. Carbon dioxide gas produced in the cells of the
root during respiration moves out through the root hairs by the process of diffusion.
Thus, the respiration in roots occurs by diffusion of respiratory gases through the
root hairs.
(b) Respiration in stems: It takes place through stomata/ lenticels. The oxygen from
the air diffuses into the stem of an herbaceous plant through stomata and reaches all
the cells for respiration. The carbon dioxide produced diffuses out through stomata.
In woody stems, the bark has lenticels for the exchange of gases.
(c) Respiration in leaves: The leaves of a plant have tiny pores called stomata
through which the exchange of respiratory gases takes place by diffusion. Oxygen
from air diffuses into a leaf through stomata and reaches all the cells, where it is
used for respiration and the carbon dioxide produced diffuses out from the leaf into
the air through stomata.
30Q: (a) Explain how, the air we breathe in gets cleaned while passing through
the nasal passage.
(b) Why do the walls of trachea not collapse when there is less air in it?
(c) How are oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged in our body during
respiration?
(d) How are lungs designed in human beings to maximise the exchange of
gases?
Answer:(a) When air passes through the nasal passage, the dust particles and other
impurities present in it are trapped by nasal hair and mucus so that clean air goes
into the lungs.
(b) Trachea does not collapse even when there is no air in it because it is supported
by rings of soft bones called cartilage.
(c) During the process of ‘breathing in’ the air sacs or alveoli of the lungs get filled
with air containing oxygen. The alveoli are surrounded by capillaries carrying blood
so the oxygen of air diffuses from the alveoli walls into the blood from where it is
carried to all the parts of the body. As the blood passes through the tissues of the
body, the oxygen present in it diffuses into the cells. This oxygen combines with the
digested food to release energy. Carbon dioxide gas is produced as a waste product
during respiration in the cells of the body tissues which diffuses into the blood.
Blood carries the carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it diffuses into the alveoli.
(d) The human lungs have been designed to maximise the exchange of gases as there
are millions of alveoli in the lungs which provides a large surface area for the
exchange of gases.
31Q: Explain why, a land plant may die if its roots remain water logged for a
long time.
Answer: A land plant may die if its roots remain water logged for a long time
because too much water expels all the air from in-between the soil particles. Due to
this, oxygen is not available to the roots for aerobic respiration. Under these
conditions the roots will respire anaerobically producing alcohol which may kill the
plant.
32Q: What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are
the functions of these components?
Answer: The main components of the transport system in human beings are the
heart, blood, and blood Vessels. Heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the
body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the various body parts and sends this
impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Being a fluid connective tissue, blood
helps in the transport of oxygen, nutrients, co 2, and nitrogenous wastes. The blood
vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) carry blood either away from the heart to
various organs or from various organs back to the heart.
33Q: State the differences between artery, vein and capillary.
Answer:
34Q: Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in

mammals and birds?
Answer: Warm-blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant
body temperature by cooling themselves when they are in a hotter environment and
by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler environment. Hence, these
animals require more oxygen (o2) for more cellular Respiration so that they can
produce more energy to maintain their body temperature.
Thus, it is necessary for them to separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood, so
that their
Circulatory system is more efficient and can maintain their constant body
temperature.
35Q: What are the components of the transport system in highly organised
plants?
Answer: In highly organised plants, there are two different types of conducting
tissues − xylem and Phloem. Xylem conducts water and minerals obtained from the
soil (via roots) to the rest of the plant. Phloem transports food materials from the
leaves to different parts of the plant body.
36Q: How are water and minerals transported in plants?
Answer: The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and
leaves are
Interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels that
reaches all parts of the plant. Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of
which water is forced into the Xylem cells of the roots. Then there is a steady
movement of water from the root xylem to all the Plant parts through the
interconnected water-conducting channels.
Components of xylem tissue (diagram)
37Q: How is food transported in plants?
Answer: Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the
plant body. The Transportation of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy
from ATP. As a result of this, the Osmotic pressure in the tissue increases causing
water to move into it. This pressure moves the Material in the phloem to the tissues
which have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials According to the needs
of the plant. For example, the food material, such as sucrose, is transported into the
phloem tissue using ATP energy.
38Q: Define excretion. Name the excretory unit of a kidney.
Answer:
The process of removal of toxic waste from the body of an organism is called
excretion. The excretory unit of a kidney is called nephron.
39Q: (a) What job is done by the kidneys?
(b) What do kidneys excrete?
(c) What is the name of the tubes which connect the kidneys to bladder?
(d) What does the bladder in our body do?
Answer:The kidneys remove the poisonous substance urea, other waste salts and
excess water from the blood in the form of yellowish liquid called urine.(b) Urea.(c)
Ureters.(d) Urinary bladder is a bag which stores the urine temporarily till it is
excreted out.
40Q: A dialysis machine contains long tubes coiled in a tank containing
dialysing solution:
(i) Of what substance are the tubes made?
(ii) What does the dialysing solution contain?
(iii) Name the main waste which passes into the dialysing solution.
Answer:
(i) Cellulose.(ii) Water, glucose, salts in similar concentration to those in normal
blood.
(iii) Urea
41Q: Describe the
structure and functioning
of nephrons.
Answer: Nephrons are the
basic filtering units of
kidneys. Each kidney
possesses large number of
nephrons. Approximately
1-1.5 million. The main
components of the
nephron are glomerulus,
Bowman’s capsule, and a
long renal tubule.
Structure of a nephron
(diagram)
Functioning of a nephron:
The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many
capillaries
associated with glomerulus. The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at
Bowman’s capsule. In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids,
glucose, and salts are
Selectively reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine. The filtrate
then moves down into the loop of henle, where more water is absorbed. From here,
the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct.
Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons. The urine formed in each kidney
enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported to the urinary
bladder and then into the urethra.
42Q: (a) What is meant

by dialysis? What type
of patients is put on
dialysis?
(b) Explain the principle
of dialysis with the help
of a labelled diagram.
Answer:
(a) Dialysis: The procedure used for cleaning the blood of a person by separating
the urea from it is called dialysis. The patients with kidney failure are put on
dialysis. (b) Principle of Dialysis: The blood from an artery in the patients arm
is made to flow into the dialyser of a dialysis machine made of long tubes of
selective permeable membrane (like cellulose) which are coiled in a tank
containing dialysing Solution. The dialysing Solution contains water, glucose
and salts in similar concentrations to those in normal blood. As the patient’s
blood passes through the dialysing Solution most of the waste like urea
present in it pass through the selectively permeable cellulose tubes into the
dialysing Solution. The clean blood is pumped back into a vein of the patients
arm
43Q: (a) Why is transport of materials necessary in an organism (plant or animal)?
(b) What is the need of
special tissues or organs
for transport of
substances in plants and
animals? (c) How are
water and minerals
transported in plants?
(d) How is food
transported in plants?
Answer:(a) Transport in
organisms (plants and
animals) is necessary as it
absorbs all essential
substances and transports
them to all parts so that
they reach each and every
cell of the body.
(b) Special tissues and
organs are needed for the
transport of substances in
plants and animals because these tissues and organs can pick up the essential
substances like food, oxygen, water, etc at one end of their body and carry them to
all other parts.
(c) Water and minerals are transported to various parts of the plant by xylem tissues
called xylem vessels and tracheids. Plants take in water from the soil through the
roots. The water containing minerals called cell sap is carried by the xylem vessels to
all the parts of the body. The roots have root hairs to absorb water and minerals
from the soil by diffusion and then pass from cell to cell by osmosis through
epidermis, root cortex, endodermis and then reach the root xylem. The water enters
the root xylem into the stem xylem and then reaches the leaves from the petioles.
(d) Transportation of food in plants: The transport of food from the leaves to other
parts of the plant is called translocation. Phloem tissue transports the food from the
leaves to the other parts of the plant. The movement of food in phloem takes place
by utilising energy. The sugar made in the leaves is loaded into the sieve tubes of
phloem by using ATP. Water enters the sieve tube containing sugar which causes
high pressure and pushes the food to all the parts of the plant having low pressure.
This is how the food is transported according to the needs of the plant.
44Q: What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Answer: Plants can get rid of excess of water by transpiration. Waste materials may
be stored in the cell vacuoles or as gum and resin, especially in old xylem. It is also
stored in the leaves that later fall Off. CO2 during respiration and O2 during
respiration through stomata
45Q: How the amount of urine is produced regulated?
Answer: The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and
dissolved wastes present in the body. Some other factors such as habitat of an
organism and hormone such as antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) also regulates the
amount of urine produced.
46Q: The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
(a) Nutrition. (b) Respiration. (c) Excretion. (d) Transportation.
Answer: (c) In human beings, the kidneys are a part of the system for excretion.
47Q: The xylem in plants is responsible for
(a) Transport of water. (b) Transport of food. (c) Transport of amino acids.
(d) Transport of oxygen.
Answer: (a) In a plant, the xylem is responsible for transport of water.
48Q: The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires
(a) Carbon dioxide and water. (b) Chlorophyll. (c) Sunlight. (d) all of the
above.
Answer
(d) The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll
and sunlight.
49Q: The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes
place in (a) Cytoplasm. (b) Mitochondria. (c) Chloroplast. (d) Nucleus.
Answer: (b) The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy
takes place in mitochondria.
50Q: How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Answer: Fats are present in the form of large globules in the small intestine. The
small intestine gets the secretions in the form of bile juice and pancreatic juice
respectively from the liver and the pancreas. The bile salts (from the liver) break
down the large fat globules into smaller globules so that the pancreatic enzymes can
easily act on them. This is referred to as emulsification of fats. It takes place in the
small intestine.
51Q: What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?
Answer: Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands. It moistens the food for easy
swallowing. It contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks
down starch into sugar.
52Q: What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its
by-products?
Answer: Autotrophic nutrition takes place through the process of photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll pigment, and sunlight are the necessary
conditions required for autotrophic nutrition.
Carbohydrates (food) and O2 are the by-products of photosynthesis.
53Q: How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?
Answer: The alveoli are the small balloon-like structures present in the lungs. The
walls of the alveoli consist of extensive network of blood vessels. Each lung contains
300−350 million alveoli, making it a total of approximately 700 million in both the
lungs. The alveolar surface when spread out Covers about 80 m2 area. This large
surface area makes the gaseous exchange more efficient.
54Q: What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our
bodies?
Answer: Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body
cells for cellular Respiration. Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in blood can
affect the oxygen supplying capacity of blood. This can lead to deficiency of oxygen
in the body cells. It can also lead to a disease called Anaemia.
55Q: Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary?
Answer: The human heart is divided into four chambers − the right atrium, the right
ventricle, the left Atrium, and the left ventricle.
Flow of blood in the heart:
 The heart has superior and
inferior vena cava, which
carries de-oxygenated
blood from the upper and
lower regions of the body
respectively and supplies
this de-oxygenated blood
to The right atrium of the
heart.
Flow of blood in the human heart
 The right atrium
then contracts and passes
the de-oxygenated blood to
the right ventricle,through
an auriculo-ventricular
aperture.
 The right ventricle contracts and passes the de-oxygenated blood into the two
pulmonary arteries, which pumps it to the lungs where the blood becomes
oxygenated.
 From the lungs, the pulmonary veins transport the oxygenated blood to the
left atrium of the heart.
 Then the left atrium contracts and through the auriculo-ventricular aperture, the
Oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle.
 The blood passes to aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta gives rise to many
arteries that distribute the oxygenated blood to all the regions of the body.
Therefore, the blood goes twice through the heart. This is known as double
circulation.
Importance of double circulation:
The separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood allows a more efficient
supply of oxygen to the body cells. This efficient system of oxygen supply is very
useful in warm-blooded animals such as human beings.
As we know, warm-blooded animals have to maintain a constant body temperature
by cooling
themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies
when they are in a cooler environment. Hence, they require more O 2 for more
respiration so that they can produce more energy to maintain their body
temperature. Thus, the circulatory system of humans is more efficient because of the
double circulatory heart.
56Q: What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and
phloem?
Answer: Transport of materials in Xylem
(i) Xylem tissue helps in the transport of water and minerals.
(ii) Water is transported upwards from roots to all other plant parts.
(iii) Transport in xylem occurs with the help of simple physical forces such as
transpiration pull.
Transport of materials in Phloem
(i) Phloem tissue helps in the transport of food.
(ii) Food is transported in both upward and downward directions.
(iii) Transport of food in phloem requires energy in the form of ATP.
57Q: Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys
with respect to their structure and functioning.
Answer:
Alveoli Structure
(i) Alveoli are tiny balloon-like structures present inside the lungs.
(ii) The walls of the alveoli are one cell thick and it contains an extensive network of
blood capillaries.
Function
(i) The exchange of O2 and CO2 takes place between the blood of the capillaries that
surround the alveoli.(ii) Alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange.
Nephron Structure
(i) Nephrons are tubular structures present inside the kidneys.
(ii) Nephrons are made of glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule and a long renal tube. It
also contains a cluster of thin walled capillaries.
Function
(i) The blood enters the kidneys through the renal artery which branches into many
capillaries in the glomerulus.
The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman ’s capsule. Then the
filtrate moves through the proximal tubule and then down into the loop of henle.
From henle’s loop, filtrate passes into the distal tubule and then to the collecting
duct. The collecting duct collects the urine from many nephrons and passes it to the
ureter.
During the flow of filtrate, some substances such as glucose, amino acids, and water
are selectively reabsorbed.
(ii) Nephrons are the basic filtration unit.
Multiple choice Questions
1. The opening and closing of the stomatal pore depends upon:
(a) oxygen (b) temperature
(c) water in guard cells (d) concentration of CO2 in stomata
2. The vessel which leads blood into Bowman's capsule is
(a) afferent arteriole (b) efferent arteriole
(c) renal vein (d) renal artery
3. Which is the first enzyme to mix with food in the digestive tract
(a) Pepsin (b) Cellulose
(c) Amylase (d) Trypsin
4. If salivary amylase is lacking in the saliva, which of the following events in the
mouth cavity will be affected?
(a) Proteins breaking down into amino acids
(b) Starch breaking down into sugars
(c) Fats breaking down into fatty acids and glycerol
(d) Absorption of vitamins
5. The inner lining of stomach is protected by one of the following from hydrochloric
acid.
(a) Pepsin (b) Mucus
(c) Salivary amylase (d) Bile
6. Which part of alimentary canal receives bile from the liver?
(a) Stomach (b) Small intestine
(c) Large intestine (d) Oesophagus
7. A few drops of iodine solution were added to rice water. The solution turned blue-
black in colour. This indicates that rice water contains:
(a) Complex proteins (b) simple proteins
(c) Fats (d) starch
8. In which part of the alimentary canal food is finally digested?
(a) Stomach (b) Mouth cavity
(c) Large intestine (d) Small intestine
9. Movement of food through the oesophagus is due to
(a) Lubrication by saliva (b) Peristalsis
(c) Gravitational pull (d) all of these
10. When air is blown from mouth into a test tube containing lime water, the lime
water turned milky due to the presence of:
(a) oxygen (b) carbon dioxide
(c) nitrogen (d) water vapour
11. The liquid which collects in the cavity of Bowman's capsule is
(a) concentrated urine (b) blood plasma minus blood proteins
(c) glycogen and water (d) used bile for excretion.
12. What prevents backflow of blood inside the heart during contraction?
(a) Valves in heart (b) Thick muscular walls of ventricles
(c) Thin walls of atria (d) none of the above
13. Glomerular filtration is possible because
(a) afferent arteriole has less diameter than the efferent arteriole
(b) afferent arteriole has more diameter than the efferent arteriole
(c) both have the same diameter
(d) afferent capillaries have more diameter than efferent capillaries.
14. Maintenance of proper amount of water and ionic balance in the body is called as
(a) osmoregulation (b) excretion
(c) dehydration (d) none of these
15. Which is the correct sequence of air passage during inhalation?
(a) Nostrils → larynx → pharynx → trachea → lungs
(b) Nasal passage → trachea → pharynx → larynx → alveoli
(c) Larynx → nostrils → pharynx → lungs
(d) Nostrils →pharynx →larynx → trachea → alveoli
16. During respiration, exchange of gases takes place in:
(a) Trachea and larynx (b) alveoli of lungs
(c) Alveoli and throat (d) throat and larynx
17. How many molecules of ATP are gained during anaerobic respiration of one
molecule of glucose?
(a) 36 (b) 2 (c) 38 (d) 1
18. Lack of oxygen in muscles often leads to cramps among cricketers. This results
due to :
(a) conversion of pyruvate to ethanol (b) conversion of pyruvate to glucose
(c) non-conversion of glucose to pyruvate (d) conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid
19. Choose the correct path of urine in our body :
(a) kidney → ureter → urethra → urinary bladder
(b) kidney → urinary bladder → urethra → ureter
(c) kidney → ureter → urinary bladder →urethra
(d) urinary bladder → kidney → ureter → urethra
20. Total oxidation of 1 glucose molecule during aerobic respiration produces.
(a) 33 ATP molecules (b) 30 ATP molecules
(c) 36 ATP molecules (d) 32ATPmolecules.
Assertions and Reasoning type Questions

Directions: In each of the following questions, a statement of Assertion is given followed by
a corresponding statement of Reason just below it- Of the statements, mark the correct
answer as:
(A) If both assertion and reason are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion.
(B) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion.
(C) If assertion is true but reason is false.
(D) If assertion is false but reason is true.
Q.1. Assertion: Saprotrophic mode of nutrition is required for the decomposition
process.
Reason: During saprotrophic nutrition food is digested outside the body.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
Q2. Assertion: Left ventricle of heart has a thicker wall than that of the right
ventricle.
Reason: Left ventricles need to pump blood to nearby lungs only
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
Q3. Assertion: Blood and Lymph both are circulatory fluid.
Reason: Blood flows in both direction but lymph flows in one direction.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
Q.4 Assertion: The colour of blood is red.
Reason: It is due to oxidation of haemoglobin with oxygen.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
Q5. Assertion: Transpiration is the process which is associated with ascent of sap.
Reason: Transpiration process helps in lowering temperature of plant.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
ANSWERS 1.b 2.c 3. b 4. a 5. b
LIFE PROCESSESE: WORKSHEET1
Q1. How would non secretion of HCl in our stomach affect food digestion? Explain.
Q2. Do plants also need oxygen? Explain
Q3. In which cell organelle breakdown of pyruvate takes place using oxygen?
Q4. What is compensation point?
Q5. Distinguish between lactic Acid Alcoholic fermentation.
Q6. Why do plants need less energy than animals?
Q7. If the grana of the chloroplast are removed then, which of the reaction will not
be carried out?
Q8. Name the pore through which gaseous exchange takes place in older stems
Q9. The mode of nutrition in which digestive enzymes are secreted outside the body.
Q10. Name an organ which is part of 2 body systems.
Q11. Why do raw bread taste sweeter on mastication?
Q12. Which organ secrete A) Pepsin B) Trypsin
Q13. Name the factors which effect photosynthesis.
Q14. The bark of woody plants is dead, but the inner layers inside the bark are
living. How do they get oxygen and release carbon di oxide.
Q15. Who has longer small intestine tiger or cow and why?
Q16. Why is there extra air in our lungs after exhaling?
Q17. What in kidney is analogous to alveoli in lungs?
Q18. What is pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation?
Q19. What would be the outcome if farmers flood their fields every day?
Q20. Sweating in animals is equivalent to what in plants?
LIFE PROCESSES: WORKSHEET2
Q. 1 While eating you are advised not to talk. Why are you advised so? 1
Mark Q. 2 We say that
movement is a characteristic of living organisms but we always don’t see visible
movements in plants. Comment
Q. 3 If a person is working on a treadmill in a gymnasium, will it affect his rate of
breathing? How?
Q. 4 If you compare your rate of breathing by feeling your chest movement with the
number of times a fish opens and closes its mouth. Which will be higher and why?
Q. 5 Mucus is not used for churning the food or digesting it. Then why is it secreted
in the stomach?
Q. 6 In the process of Photosynthesis food A is prepared which gets converted into
food B. What are A and B? Why is A converted to B?
Q. 7 When we are asleep we are not performing any activity still our life processes
are going on. Why
Q. 8 Leaves of a healthy potted plant were coated with petroleum jelly. How will it
affect the plant? State two reasons.
LIFE PROCESSES: WORKSHEET3
Q. 1. What are life processes?
Q. 2. What outside raw materials, are used for life by an organism?
Q. 3. What are enzymes?
Q. 4. Explain the action of saliva secreted from salivary glands on the food?
Q. 5. Name the common process, both in the aerobic and anaerobic respirations?
Q. 6. Name the products produced by the fermentation of glucose by the yeast cell?
Q. 7. Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and
birds?
Q. 8. Name the functional unit of human kidney?
Q. 9. The xylem in plants is responsible for __________.
Q. 10. Define photosynthesis?
Q. 11. What substances are contained in the gastric juice? What are their function?
Q. 12. What are the various processes that take place in the duodenum?
Q. 13. What the different types of heterotopic nutrition?
Q. 14. Show by experiment that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis?
Q. 15. Name the type of respiration in which the end products are: _______________.
Q. 16. Describe the process of anaerobic respiration?
Q. 17. Distinguish between breathing and respiration?
Q. 18. Differentiate between artery and vein?
Q. 19. Give examples of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes in plants?
Q. 20. Explain the nutrition process in amoeba?
Q. 21. Write important functions of blood?
Q. 22. Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary?
Q. 23. Compare the functioning of alveoli in lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect
to their structure and functioning?
Q. 24. Explain the mechanism of the circulation of blood in human body?
Q. 25. What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?
Q. 26. What is the role of acid in our stomach?
Q. 27. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
Q. 28. What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the
functional of these components?
Q. 29. What are the components of the transport system in highly organized plants?
Q. 30. Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons?
CHAPTER 7 – CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Sugar has a sweet taste. No difference in taste will be observed if we eat sugar while
pressing our nose between thumb and index finger, because the smell of sugar does not
influence its taste. The smell of food perceived by the receptors of smell (olfactoreceptors)
helps to stimulate the receptors of taste (gustatoreceptors). We will not be able to fu1ly
appreciate the taste of the food we are eating if we press our nose between thumb and index
finger while eating because we won't be able to smell the food.
Yes, the old parts of the shoot and root changed direction. When the flask is placed in the
cardboard which is open from one side which faces light coming from a window, the shoots
of freshly germinated seeds show growth by bending towards light and roots show growth
by bending away from light.
But, when the flask is turned so that the shoots are away from light and the roots towards
light, we observe after few days that the shoots again grow by bending towards light and
the roots grow by bending away from light.
This experiment shows that the shoots of plants respond by showing growth movement
towards light (i.e., positive phototropism) and roots of plants respond by showing g:rowth
movement away from light (i.e., negative phototropism)
Definitions
1. Stimuli: The changes in the environment to which the organisms respond and react are
called stimuli.
2. Coordination: The working together of various organs of the body of an organism in a
proper manner to generate a proper reaction in response to a stimulus is called coordination.
3. Sensory neurons: Sensory neurons receive stimuli through their dendrites and transmit
impulses towards central nervous system from receptors.
4. Motor neurons: Motor neurons transmit impulses from central nervous system to
effectors.
5. Receptors: Receptor is a sensory nerve cell or a group of sensory nerve cells which is
sensitive to a specific stimulus or to a specific change in the environment.
6. Reflex actions: It is a spontaneous, quick, automatic response to a stimulus acting on a
specific receptor without the will of an animal.
7. Reflex arc: The neural pathway that mediates a reflex action. It is the shortest route taken
by a nerve impulse from receptor to effector during a reflex action.
8. Cerebrospinal fluid: It is a clear, colourless, slightly alkaline fluid present in ventricles of
brain, central canal of spinal cord and spaces between meninges which protects brain and
spinal cord from injury and shocks.
9. Nastic movements: These are non-directional induced variation movements that do not
involve growth which occurs due to change in turgor pressure in response to stimuli.
10. Movements of curvature: These are changes in orientation of some plant parts in relation
to others caused by external or internal stimuli.
11. Tropic movements: These are directional movements of plant parts which involve
growth in response to stimuli.
12. Phytohormones: Phytohormones are naturally occurring organic chemical substances
present in plants which control and coordinate various activities in them and are called as
growth regulators.
13. Hormones: Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands which
regulate various physiological processes in living organisms.
14. Endocrine glands: They are ductless glands which pour their secretion directly into
blood stream and are carried by blood to the site of action or target organs.
15. Gustatory receptors – Receptors present in tongue and capable of detecting taste.
16. Olfactory receptors – Receptors present in nose and capable of detecting smell.
17. Synapse – A specialized junction between two neurons, across which nerve impulse
passes.
18. Neuromuscular junction – The junction between a nerve fibre and the muscle cell it
supplies.
19. Nerve impulse – An electrochemical signal that travels through a neuron in response to
a stimulus.
20. Effectors – A muscle, gland, or organ capable of responding to a stimulus, especially a
nerve impulse.
21. Sensory neuron – A neuron that conducts impulses from a receptor organ to the central
nervous system.
22. Motor neuron – A neuron that conducts impulses from the central nervous system to
muscle or gland.
23. Relay neuron – A neuron which connects sensory neurons with motor neurons in neural
pathways.
24. Cranial nerves – Nerves arising from the brain
25. Spinal nerves – Nerves arising from the spinal cord.
26. Phototropism – The movement of a plant towards light.
27. Hydrotropism – The movement of a plant either towards water.
28. Geotropism – The directional movements shown by plants in response to gravity.
29. Chemotropism – Movement or growth of an organism or part of an organism in
response to a chemical stimulus.
30. Feedback mechanism – A type of self-regulating mechanism in which the level of one
substance in body influences the level of another.
Question and Answers
1. What is the difference between a reflex action and walking?
Answer: A reflex action is a sudden, rapid, involuntary, automatic response to a stimulus. It
does not involve any thinking. For example, we close our eyes immediately when the bright
light is focused. In general reflex action is controlled by spinal cord.
Walking, on the other hand, is a voluntary action which is controlled by brain. It is under
our conscious control.
2. What happens at the synapse between two neurons?
Answer: The axon of one neuron does not usually make direct contact with the cell body of
the next neuron. A very small gap that occurs between the last portion of axon of one
neuron and the dendron of the other neuron is known as a synapse. Synapses allow
information to pass from one neuron to another. It acts as a one way valve to transmit
impulses in one direction only. This uni-direction transfer of impulses occurs as the
chemicals are produced in only one side of the neuron i.e., the axon’s side. From axon, the
impulses travel across the synapse to the dendron of the other neuron. Synapse finally
allows delivery of such impulses from neurons to other cells such as muscle cells or glands.
3. Which part of the brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body?
Answer: Cerebellum, a part of hindbrain is responsible for maintaining posture and
equilibrium of the body.
4. How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick)?
Answer: The thinking part of our brain is the forebrain. It has separate areas that are
specialized for hearing, smelling, sight, taste, touch, etc. The forebrain also has regions that
collect information or impulses from the various receptors. When the smell of an incense
stick reaches us, Olfactory receptors of our nose detects it and sends the information to
forebrain. Then, the forebrain interprets it by putting it together with the information
received from other receptors and also with the information already stored in the brain.
5. What is the role of the brain in reflex action?
Answer: Reflex actions are sudden responses, which do not involve any thinking. For
example, when we touch a hot object, we withdraw our hand immediately without thinking
as thinking may take time which would be enough to get us burnt.
The sensory nerves that detect the heat are connected to the nerves that move the muscles of
the hand. Such a connection of detecting the signal from the nerves (input) and responding
to it quickly (output) is called a reflex arc. The reflex arcs –connections present between the
input and output nerves − meet in a bundle in the spinal cord.
Reflex arc Reflex arcs are formed in the spinal cord and the information (input) reaches the
brain. The brain is only aware of the signal and the response that has taken place. However,
the brain has no role to play in the creation of the response.
6. What are plant hormones?
Answer: Plant hormones or phytohormones are naturally-occurring organic substances.
These are synthesized in one part of the plant body (in minute quantities) and are
translocated to other parts when required. The five major types of phytohormones are
auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene.
7. How is the movement of leaves of the sensitive plant different from the movement of a
shoot towards light?
Answer: The movement of leaves of the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica or “touch me not”,
occurs in response to touch or contact stimuli. This movement is independent of growth.
The movement of shoot towards light is known as phototropism. This type of movement is
directional and is growth dependent.
8. Give an example of a plant hormone that promotes growth.
Answer: Auxin is an example of growth-promoting plant hormone.
9. How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?
Answer: Auxin is synthesized at the shoot tip. It helps the cell grow longer. When a tendril
comes in contact with a support, auxin stimulates faster growth of the cells on the opposite
side, so that the tendril forms a coil around the support. This makes the tendrils appear as a
watch spring.
10. Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism.
Answer: Take two small beakers and label them as A and B. Fill beaker A with water. Now
make a cylindrical-shaped roll from a filter paper and keep it as a bridge between beaker A
and beaker B, as shown in the figure. Attach few germinating seeds in the middle of the
filter paper bridge. Now, cover the entire set-up with a transparent plastic container so that
the moisture is retained.
Observation:
The roots of the germinating seeds will grow towards beaker A.

This experiment demonstrates the phenomenon of hydrotropism.
11. How does chemical coordination take place in animals?
Answer: Chemical coordination takes place in animals with the help of hormones which are
secreted by endocrine glands. Hormone is the chemical messenger that regulates the
physiological processes like growth, metabolism and reproduction in living organisms. The
regulation of physiological processes, and control and coordination by hormones comes
under the endocrine system. The nervous system along with the endocrine system in our
body controls and coordinates the physiological processes.
12. Why is the use of iodised salt advisable?
Answer: Iodine stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxin hormone. It regulates
carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism in our body. Deficiency of this hormone results in
the enlargement of the thyroid gland. This can lead to goitre, a disease characterized by
swollen neck. Therefore, iodised salt is advised for normal functioning of the thyroid gland.
13. How does our body respond when adrenaline is secreted into the blood?
Answer: Adrenalin is a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands in case of any danger or
emergency or any kinds of stress. It is secreted directly into the blood and is transported to
different parts of the body.
When secreted in large amounts, it speeds up the heartbeat and hence supplies more oxygen
to the muscles. The blood to digestive system and skin is reduced due to contraction of
muscles around small arteries in these organs. This diverts blood to our skeletal muscles.
The breathing rate also increases due to contractions of diaphragm and rib muscles. It also
increases the blood pressure. All these responses enable the body to deal with any stress or
emergency.
14. Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of insulin?
Answer: Diabetes is a disease in which the level of sugar in the blood is too high. Insulin, a
hormone secreted by the pancreas, helps in regulating the blood sugar levels. This is the
reason why diabetic patients are treated by giving injections of insulin.
15. Which of the following is a plant hormone?
(a) Insulin (b) Thyroxin (c) Oestrogen (d) Cytokinin
Answer: (d) Cytokinin is a plant hormone.
16. The gap between two neurons is called a
(a) dendrite. (b) synapse. (c) axon. (d) impulse.
Answer: (b) The gap between two neurons is called a synapse.
17. The brain is responsible for
(a) thinking. (b) regulating the heartbeat. (c) balancing the body. (d) all of the
above.
Answer: (d) The brain is responsible for thinking, regulating the heart beat and balancing
the body.
18. What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situations where receptors do
network properly. What problems are likely to arise?
Answer: Receptors are sensory structures (organs/tissues or cells) present all over the body.
The receptors are either grouped in case of eye or ear, or scattered in case of skin.
Functions of receptors:
(i) They sense the external stimuli such as heat or pain.
(ii) They also trigger an impulse in the sensory neuron which sends message to the spinal
cord.
When the receptors are damaged, the external stimuli transferring signals to the brain are
not felt. For example, in the case of damaged receptors, if we accidentally touch any hot
object, then our hands might get burnt as damaged receptors cannot perceive the external
stimuli of heat and pain.
19. Draw the structure of a neuron and explain its function.
Answer: Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system.
The three main parts of a neuron are axon, dendrite, and cell body.
Structure of a neuron
Functions of the three parts of a neuron:
Dendrite: It receives information from axon of another cell and
conducts the messages towards the cell body.
Cell body: It contains nucleus, mitochondria, and other
organelles. It is mainly concerned with the maintenance and
growth.
Axon: It conducts messages away from the cell body.
20. How does phototropism occur in plants?
Answer: When growing plant s detect light, a hormone called auxin, synthesised at the
shoot tip, helps the cells to grow longer. When light falls on one side of the plant, auxins
diffuses towards the shady side of the shoot. This concentration of auxin stimulates the cells
to grow longer on the side of the shoot which is away from light. Thus, the plant appears to
bend towards light.
21. Which signals will get disrupted in case of a spinal cord injury?
Answer: Spinal cord is an important component of Central Nervous System. It serves as a
two way conduction path between peripheral nervous system and brain. The controlling
centres in different areas of spinal cord function as reflex centres which control all the spinal
reflexes. The reflex arc connections between the input and output nerves meet in a bundle in
the spinal cord. In fact, nerves from all over the body meet in a bundle in the spinal cord on
their way to the brain. In case of any injury to the spinal cord, the signals coming from the
nerves as well as the signals coming to the receptors will be disrupted.
22. How does chemical coordination occur in plants?
Answer: In animals, control and coordination occur with the help of nervous system.
However, plants do not have a nervous system.
Plants respond to stimuli by showing movements. The growth, development, and responses
to the environment in plants is controlled and coordinated by a special class of chemical
substances known as hormones. These hormones are produced in one part of the plant body
and are translocated to other needy parts. For example, a hormone produced in roots is
translocated to other parts when required. The five major types of phytohormone are auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene. These phytohormones are either growth
promoters (such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, and ethylene) or growth inhibitors such
as abscisic acid.
23. What is the need for a system of control and coordination in an organism?
Answer: The maintenance of the body functions in response to changes in the body by
working together of various integrated body systems is known as coordination. All the
movements that occur in response to stimuli are carefully coordinated and controlled. In
animals, the control and coordination movements are provided by nervous and muscular
systems. The nervous system sends messages to and away from the brain. The spinal cord
plays an important role in the relay of messages. In the absence of this system of control and
coordination, our body will not be able to function properly. For example, when we
accidentally touch a hot utensil, we immediately withdraw our hand. In the absence of nerve
transmission, we will not withdraw our hand and may get burnt.
24. How are involuntary actions and reflex actions different from each other?
Answer: Involuntary actions cannot be consciously controlled. For example, we cannot
consciously control the movement of food in the alimentary canal. These actions are
however directly under the control of the brain. On the other hand, the reflex actions such as
closing of eyes immediately when bright light is focused show sudden response and do not
involve any thinking. This means that unlike involuntary actions, the reflex actions are not
under the control of brain.
25. Compare and contrast nervous and hormonal mechanisms for control and
coordination in animals.
Nervous system mechanism Hormonal system mechanism
1. The information is conveyed in the form of 1. The information is conveyed in the form of
electric impulse. chemical messengers.
2. The axons and dendrites transmit the 2. The information is transmitted or transported
information through a coordinated effort. through blood.
3. The flow of information is rapid and the 3. The information travels slowly and the
response is quick response is slow.
4. Its effects are short lived. 4. It has prolonged effects.
25. What is the difference between the manner in which movement takes place in a
sensitive plant and the movement in our legs?
Movement in sensitive plants Movement in our legs
1. The movement that takes place in a sensitive 1. Movement in our legs is an example of
plant such as Mimosa pudica occurs in voluntary actions.
response to touch (stimulus).
2. For this movement, the information is 2. The signal or messages for these actions are
transmitted from cell to cell by electrochemical passed to the brain and hence are consciously
signals as plants do not have any specialised controlled.
tissue for conduction of impulses.
3. For this movement to occur, the plant cells 3. In animal muscle cells, some proteins are
change shape by changing the amount of water in found which allow the movement to occur.
them.
26: Explain the difference between each of the following pairs of terms:
(a) Receptor and effector (b) Cerebrum and cerebellum
Answer:
(a)Receptor
A receptor is a cell (or a group of cells) in a sense organ which is sensitive to a particular
type of stimulus (or a particular type of change in the environment).
Example: Photoreceptors and Phonoreceptors.
Effector
An effector is the part of the body which can respond to the stimulus according to the
instructions sent from the nervous system (spinal cord and brain).
Example: Muscles and glands.
(b) Cerebrum
(i) It is a part of forebrain.
(ii) It is the main thinking part of the brain. All our thoughts, sensation, actions and
movements are controlled by cerebrum.
(c)Cerebellum
(i) It is a part of hindbrain.
(ii) It helps in maintaining posture and balance of the body. It enables us to make precise
and accurate movements.
27: What is the difference between a voluntary and an involuntary action? Which kind of
action is digestion? Explain your choice.
Answer :
28. (a) Name the structural and functional unit of nervous system.
(b) Draw a flow chart to show the classification of nervous system into various parts.
(c) What is autonomic nervous system? What is its function?
(d) What is voluntary nervous system? Explain the working of voluntary nervous system
with an example.
Answer:
(a) The structural and functional unit of nervous system is neuron.
(b)
(c) Autonomic nervous system means self-governing nervous system. Its
function is to control and regulate the functions of the internal organs of our
bodyinvoluntarily.
(d) The voluntary nervous system is a system which helps us to take voluntary
actions which are under the conscious control of the brain. Example: If a student
is getting late for school and sees his watch. He starts walking fast. In this
process, the eyes see the time and send the information to the brain through the
sensory nerves. The brain analyses the information and sends the instructions to
walk faster to the muscle of our legs through the motor nerves. The muscles of
the legs act accordingly and make the student walk faster.
29: (a) What is a reflex action? Explain with the help of an example.
(b) Define reflex arc. Give the flow chart of a
spinal reflex arc.
(c) How are involuntary actions and reflex
actions different from each other?
Answer:
(a) The rapid, automatic response to a
stimulus which is not under the voluntary
action of the brain is called reflex action.

Example: Moving our hand away on
touching a hot plate
(b)
30: (a) What is the function of our nervous system?
(b) What are the main organs of the human nervous system? Draw a labelled diagram
to show the main organs of the human nervous system.
(c) How does the human nervous system work? Explain.
Solution :
(a) (i) The function of the nervous system is to
coordinate the activities of our body.
(ii) It helps all other systems of our body to work together.
(iii) It receives information from the surroundings, processes
it, interprets it and then responds accordingly.
(b) The main organs of the nervous system are; brain, spinal
cord and nerves.
(c) When the sense organ in our body is affected, it sends the
message to the brain in the form of electrical impulses
through the sensory neurons. The brain analyses this message
and decides the action to be taken. The brain then sends out
instructions to the muscles of the concerned body parts
through motor nerves and the concerned body part acts accordingly.
31. (a) What does a stem (or shoot) do in response to gravity ? What is this phenomenon
known as?
(b) What does a root do in response to light? What is this phenomenon known as?
Answer:
a) Stem grows upward against the direction of gravity; negative geotropism.(b) Root
bends away from light; negative phototropism
32. What is a tendril? Name the two types of tendrils. What does a tendril do in response
to the touch of a support? What is this phenomenon known as?
Answer:
Tendrils are the thin, thread-like growths on the stems or leaves of climbing plants.
The two types of tendrils are stem tendrils and leaf tendrils. The tendrils grow
towards the things they happen to touch. This phenomenon is known as
thigmotropism
33. Define chemotropism. Give one example of chemotropism. State whether this
example is of positive chemotropism or negative chemotropism.
Answer:
The growth of a plant part due to chemical stimulus is known as chemotropism. For
example the growth of pollen tube towards the ovule induced by a sugary substance as
stimulus. This is an example of positive chemotropism
34. Distinguish between tropic movements and nastic movements in plants. Give
examples to illustrate your answer.
Answer:
Tropic movements
1. These movements are always in the direction of the stimulus.
2. These movements are slow.
3. These movements are exhibited by all parts of a plant. For example, movement of shoot
towards the light and not towards gravity.
Nastic movements
1. These movements are neither away nor towards the stimulus.
2. These movements are fast.
3. These movements are exhibited by the flat organs (like leaves and petals of flowers) of a
plant. For example, the bending and drooping of leaves in ‘Touch-me-not’ plant.
35(a) What is meant by nastic movements in plants ? Give one example of nastic
movements in plants.
(b) What is the difference between photonasty and thigmonasty ?
Answer : The movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus in which
the direction of response is not determined by the direction of stimulus is called
nastic movement. Example: The folding up of the leaves of a sensitive plant on
touching is an example of thigmonasty.
36. (a) Define phototropism. Give one example of phototropism.

(b) How does phototropism occur in a plant stem (or shoot)? Explain with the help of
labelled diagrams.
(c) What is meant by positive phototropism and negative phototropism? Give one
example of each type.
Answer :
(a) Phototropism – The movement of a plant part in response to light is called phototropism.
Example -Stem bends towards the light is positive phototropism.
(b) Phototropism in a plant stem – The bending of a plant stem towards light is an example
of phototropism. The plant stem responds to light and bends towards it due to the action of
auxin hormone. The auxin hormone is present at the tip of the stem of the growing plant.
Auxin prefers to stay in shade away from light so when sunlight falls on the stem from one
side, it gets concentrated on the opposite side. Due to more auxin, the shady side of the stem
grows to be longer than the side of stem which is facing light, and makes the stem bend
towards light.
(c) The movement of a plant part towards light is called positive phototropism. Example: the
stem of the growing bends towards light. The movement of a plant part away from light is
called negative phototropism. Example: The roots of a plant move away from light.
37. Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate your answer indicating the plant part which
shows positive geotropism and the plant part which shows negative geotropism.
(c) Name one plant part which exhibits positive thigmotropism.
Answer:
(a) The movement of plant part in response to gravity is called geotropism. Example – Roots
grow towards gravity.
(b) If the plant part moves towards the direction of gravity, it is called positive geotropism.
Example – Roots. If the plant part moves against the direction of the gravity it is negative
geotropism. Example – Stem
(c) Tendrils
38.(a) What are the various sense organs in our body ?
(b) What is meant by receptors and effectors? Give two examples of each.
Answer:
(a) There are 5 sense organs: Eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin.
(b) A receptor is a cell (or a group of cells) in a sense organ which is sensitive to a particular
type of stimulus (or a particular type of change in the environment).
Example: Photoreceptors and Phono-receptors. An effecter is the part of the body which can
respond to the stimulus according to the instructions sent from the nervous system (spinal
cord and brain).
Example: Muscles and glands.
39.(a) What is spinal cord ? What is its main function?
(b) Give the functions of medulla.
Answer:
(a) Spinal cord is a cylindrical structure which begins in continuation with medulla and
extends downwards. Its function is the conduction of nerve impulses to and from the brain
and it is concerned with spinal reflex actions.
(b) The medulla controls various involuntary actions such as heart beat, breathing, blood
pressure and peristaltic movements of the elementary canal.
It is also the controlling centre for reflexes such a swallowing, coughing, sneezing, secretion
of saliva and vomiting
40.(a) Write the names of the regions in hindbrain. Give one function of each region.
(b) Name the functions of cerebrum.
Answer:
(a) Hindbrain has 3 regions:
(i) Pons: It takes part in regulating respiration.
(ii) Cerebellum: It helps in maintaining posture and balance of the body. It enables us to
make precise and accurate movements.
(iii) Medulla: The medulla controls various involuntary actions such as heart beat,
breathing, blood pressure and peristaltic movements of the elementary canal. It is also the
controlling centre for reflexes such a swallowing, coughing, sneezing, secretion of saliva and
vomiting.
(b) Function of cerebrum: It is the main thinking part of the brain. It is the site of our
faculties such as learning, reasoning, intelligence, personality and memory. All our
thoughts, sensation, actions and movements are controlled by cerebrum.
Multiple choice Questions

1. Which of the following protects the brain from shocks?
(a) Pons (b) Cerebrospinal fluid
(c) Duramatter (d) Arachnoid membrane
2. Which statement is not true about thyroxine ?
(a) Iron is essential for the synthesis of thyroxine.
(b) It regulates carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism in the body.
(c) Thyroid gland requires iodine to Synthesise thyroxine.
(d) Thyroxine is also called thyroid hormone
3. Dwarfism results due to
(a) Excess secretion of thyroxins. (b) Less secretion of growth hormone.
(c) Less secretion of adrenaline. (d) Excess secretion of growth hormone.
4. Dramatic changes of body features associated with puberty are mainly because of
secretion of :
(a) Oestrogen from testes and testosterone from ovary.
(b) Oestrogen from adrenal gland and testosterone from pituitary gland.
(c) Testosterone from testes and oestrogen from ovary.
(d) Testosterone from thyroid gland and oestrogen from pituitary gland.
5. Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of which hormone?
(a) Adrenaline (b) Thyroxine (c) Auxin (d) Insulin.
6. Any change in the environment to which an organism responds is called :
(a) response (b) stimulus (c) tropism (d) tonicity.
7. Select the mismatched pair :
(a) Adrenaline : Pituitary gland (b) Testosterone : Testes
(c) Oestrogen: Ovary (d) Thyroxine : Thyroid gland
8. The shape of guard cells changes due to change in the :
(a) Protein composition of cells. (b) Temperature of cells.
(c) Amount of water in cells. (d) Position of nucleus in the cells.
9. The growth of tendril in pea plants is due to:
(a) Effect of light. (b) Effect of gravity.
(c) Rapid cell divisions in tendrillar cells that are away from the support.
(d) Rapid cell divisions in tendrillar cells in contact with the support.
10. Production of seedless fruits is referred to as :
(a)parthenocarpy (b) parthenogenesis
(c) endocarpy (d) exocarpy.
11. Which of the following statements about transmission of nerve impulse is incorrect?
(a) Nerve impulse travels from dendritic end towards axonal end.
(b) At the dendritic end electrical impulses bring about the release of some chemicals which
generate an electrical impulse at the axonal end of another neuron.
(c) The chemicals released from the axonal end of one neuron cross the synapse and
generate a similar electrical impulse in a dendrite of another neuron.
(d) A neuron transmits electrical impulses not only to another neuron but also to muscle and
gland cells.
12. Involuntary actions in the body are controlled by,
(a) Medulla in forebrain (b) Medulla in midbrain
(c) Medulla in hindbrain. (d) Medulla in spinal cord.
13. Which of the following is not an involuntary action?
(a) Vomiting (b) Salivation (c) Heartbeat (d) Chewing.
14. When a person is suffering from severe cold, he or she cannot
(a) Differentiate the taste of an apple from that of an ice cream.
(b) Differentiate the smell of a perfume from that of an agarbatti.
(c) Differentiate red light from green light.
(d) Differentiate a hot object from a cold object.
15. Which of the following statements are true?
(i) Sudden action in response to something in the environment is called reflex action.
(ii) Sensory neurons carry signals from spinal cord to muscles.
(iii) Motor neurons carry signals from receptors to spinal cord.
(iv) The path through which signals are transmitted from a receptor to a muscle or a gland is
called reflex arc.
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii) (c) (i) and (iv) (d) (i), (ii) and(iii)
16. Leaf fall can be induced by:
(a) florigens (b) auxins (c) cytokinins (d) abscisic acid.
17. Opening and closing of flowers represent a kind of:
(a) nastic movement (b) geotropism movement
(c) nutation (d) autonomic movement.
18. Posture and balance of the body is controlled by:
(a) Cerebrum (b) Cerebellum (c) Medulla (d) Pons.
19. Spinal cord originates from:
(a) Cerebrum (b) Medulla (c) Pons (d) Cerebellum
20. Which of the following statements is correct about receptors
(a) Gustatory receptors detect taste while, olfactory receptors detect smell.
(b) Both gustatory and olfactory receptors detect smell.
(c) Auditory receptors detect smell and olfactory receptors detect taste.
(d) Olfactory receptors detect taste and gustatory receptors detect smell.
21. Medulla oblongata of hindbrain controls:
(a) rate of heart beat (b) equilibrium (c) thinking (d) vision.
22. Name the gland having both exocrine and endocrine regions.
(a) Thyroid (b) Pancreas (c) Adrenal gland (d) Pituitary
23. In a synapse/ chemical signal is transmitted from:
(a) Dendritic end of one neuron to axonal end of another neuron.
(b) Axon to cell body of the same neuron.
(c) Cell body to axonal end of the same neuron.
(d) Axonal end of one neuron to dendritic end of another neuron.
24. In a neuron, conversion of electrical signal to a chemical signal occurs at / in:
(a) Cellbody (b) Axonal end (c) Dendritic end (d) Axon
25. Which is the correct sequence of the components of a reflex arc?
(a) Receptors →Muscles → Sensory neuron → Motor neuron → Spina1 cord
(b) Receptors → Motor neuron → Spinal cord → Sensory neuron → Muscles
(c) Receptors → Spinal cord →Sensory neuron → Motor neuron → Muscles
(d) Receptors → Sensory neuron → Spinal cord → Motor neuron → Muscles

answer as:
1. Assertion: Nervous control is through cranial and spinal nerves.

Reason : For complete coordination in an organism both nervous and hormonal
coordination is required.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
2. Assertion: Brain is the main coordinating centre in body.
Reason: Brain contains both sensory and motor neuron for working.
(a) A (b) B (c) c (d) D
3. Assertion: Activities like walking in a straight line, riding a bicycle, picking up a
pencil are controlled by cerebellum.
Reason: It is responsible for precision of voluntary actions and maintaining the
posture and balance.
(a) A (b) B (c) c (d) D
4. Assertion : Plants show both tropic and nastic response.
Reason: Nastic response are of one type always whereas tropic response are towards
or away from stimulus.
(a) A (b) B (c) c (d) D
5. Assertion : Auxin is known as a growth hormone
Reason : Concentration of Auxin is maximum at root and shoot tips. It also helps in
phototroprism and formation of tendrils.
(a) A (b) B (c) c (d) D
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4 (b) 5. (a)
CONTROL AND COORDINATION WORKSHEET 1:
Very short Questions (1Mark)
1. Where is auxin synthesized in plants?
2. Which gland is known as master gland?
3. Name the hormone that regulates blood sugar level.
4. What is synapse?
5. What are tropic movements?
6. Which part of the brain is responsible for maintaining posture and balance of our body?
7. Which hormone has inhibiting effects on growth of plants?
8. What is phototropism?
9. What are the components of central nervous system?
10. What happens at synapse between two neurons?
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 Marks)
1. Draw a labelled diagram of neuron.
2. What is reflex arc? Explain with the help of flow chart.
3. What is the cause of diabetes? How it can be controlled?
4. Why is it advisable to use iodised salt?
5. What are sensory and motor neurons? Write their functions.
6. Why is Abscisic acid called as stress hormone?
7. What is the need for a system of control and coordination in an organization?
1. What are plant hormones? Name a plant hormone that promotes growth in plants.
2. What is the significance of tropic movements in plants? Explain any two types of tropic
movements.
3. Which hormone is known as emergency hormone in our body? How it helps in coping
during emergency?
4. Where are different receptors present in our body? What are their functions?
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 Marks)
1. Draw a labelled diagram of human brain and state the functions of its different parts.
2. What are hormones? Give the name of associated gland and functions of different animal
hormones.
3. What is feedback mechanism? Explain its working with the help of one example.
4. (a) How brain and spinal cord are protected ?
(b) What are the different parts of human nervous system?
(c) What are the limitations of nervous system?
CONTROLAND COORDINATION: WORKSHEET2

Q1. Justify that the pancreas and the gonads perform dual functions.
Q2. How does the nervous system serve for coordination of all other systems in the body?
Q3. Where are pons present in the brain? Which activity do they control?
Q4. What do you understand by the term target organ? Give any one example.
Q5.Distingush between exocrine and endocrine glands.
Q6. It usually takes a lot of time to observe the effect of a stimulus on plants. Explain
Q7. What is the importance of hypothalamus?
Q8.Brain is the highest coordinating centre in the body? Explain
Q9. Nervous and hormonal system together perform the function of control and
coordination in human beings. Justify the statement.
Q10. What regulates the timing and amount of release of hormone?
Q11. What is synapse? In a neuron how an electrical impulse created and what is is the role
of synapse in this context?
Q12. Suggest a proof that even unicellular organisms like amoeba respond to stimuli. Justify
giving two examples that even plants respond to stimuli.
Q13. What would happen if intake of iodine is low in our diet?
Q14. Why is abscisic acid called as stress hormone?
Q15. What are limitations of nervous system?
Q16. Give the function and source of insulin hormone.
Q17. Name the two sets of nerves that constitute the peripheral nervous system.
Q18. Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism.
Q19. What happens if a young green plant receives sunlight from one direction only?
Q20. Describe the effects of imbalance in the secretion of growth hormone.
CHAPTER 8: HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
Tissue culture is a practice of propagating organisms under sterile conditions, often to

produce clones of a organism. Here, new organisms are grown by removing a tissue or
separating cells from the growing tip of an organism. It can be plant tissue culture or animal
tissue culture
Advantages
1. They produce exact copies of organisms such as plants required that have desirable traits.
2. They produce mature plants quickly.
Disadvantages
1. It is labour intensive and expensive process.
2. It may be vulnerable to many environmental factors since they have same genetic
material.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation:
(i) Plants produced by vegetative reproduction are exactly similar to parental type.
Thus the best varieties of potatoes, oranges, apple etc., can be preserved by
vegetative reproduction without loss of their fine quality. In this way pure lines of
desired types can be selected and propagated all over the world.
(ii) This is quick method and thus, by this means, flowers and fruits can be produced
early.
(iii) This is more certain method of producing new plants than that of seed
reproduction.
(iv) It is more economical for the plant because no energy is wasted in producing
large and showy petals, nectar, fruits, seeds etc.
Disadvantages of Vegetative Propagation:
(i) Due to overcrowding of large number of plants near the parent plants, there is
severe competition between the members of the same species. Thus many plants
become weak and stunted.
(ii) There may be degeneration of species due to lack of sexual stimulus.
(iii) Due to lack of genetic variability in vegetative reproductive structure there may
not be evolution of new species.
• The process of fusion of one of the male gamete with egg and the other male gamete with polar
bodies is called as “double fertilization.” • The fusion of one male gamete with the two polar bodies
to form endosperm is called a “triple fusion”
Accessory Sex Organs in human male reproductive system
The internal organs of the male reproductive system are called accessory organs. They
include the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbo-urethral (Cowper’s)
glands.
 Vas deferens: Transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.
 Seminal vesicles: Sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the
bladder. The vesicles produce molecules such as fructose that serve as energy sources
for sperm. The seminal vesicle fluid makes up most of the volume of a man’s ejaculate.
 Prostate gland: A walnut-sized structure located below the urinary bladder in front of
the rectum. It contributes additional fluid to the ejaculate that serves as nourishment
for sperm.
 Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands: Pea-sized structures located on the sides of the
urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that
empties directly into the urethra. Fluid produced by these glands lubricates the
urethra and neutralizes acidity (alkaline) associated with residual urine.
Semen: it is milky, viscous and alkaline fluid, ejaculated by reproductive system of
males during copulation • It’s quantity is 2.5 - 4.0 ml at a time having about 40
million sperms.
Top definitions
1. Asexual reproduction: The process of producing offsprings which involves a single
parent without the formation of gametes is called asexual reproduction.
2. Spore: A spore is a single celled or multicelled reproductive structure which gets
separated from its parent and under favourable conditions gives rise to new individual.
3. Seed: A seed is the reproductive unit of a plant from which a new plant grows.
4. Primary sex organs: They are the gonads i.e., testes and ovaries which produce gametes
and secrete sex hormones.
5. Vegetative propagation: It is mainly seen in plants and is an asexual mode of
reproduction where a new plant grows from different parts of plant like roots, stem, leaves
etc., rather than from a seed.
6. Tissue culture: The production of new plants from a small piece of plant tissues or cells
removed from the growing tips of a plant in a suitable growth medium is called tissue
culture.
7. Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers of stamens to the stigma
of carpel within the same flower or different flower of same plant or to any other flowers of
different plants but of same species is called pollination.
8. Triple fusion: The fusion of one of the male gamete with the two polar nuclei inside the
embryo sac to form triploid primary endosperm is called triple fusion.
9. Double fertilisation: The process by which a male gamete fuses with an egg to form
zygote and the second male gamete unites with two polar nuclei to form endosperm is
called double fertilisation.
10. Gametes: The special cells involved in sexual reproduction to produce the offsprings are
called gametes or sex cells.
11. Puberty: The age at which sex hormones are produced, reproductive organs become
matured and have the capacity to give rise to new individual and there is development of
secondary sexual characters in both males and females.
12. Fertilisation: The process of fusion of male and female gametes to produce the zygote is
called fertilisation.
13. Gestation period: It is the time from fertilisation till the birth of the new born.
14. Parturition: The delivery of full term baby from the uterus of mother after the end of
gestation period is called parturition.
15. Reproduction - The biological process by which new individuals of the same
parental kind are produced.
16. Variation – The differences found among individuals of a group or species,
caused either by genetic differences or by the effect of environment on genes.
17. Fission – A type of asexual reproduction in which the unicellular parent
organism divides into two or more parts, each developing into genetically identical
individuals.
18. Binary fission – Fission in which the parent cell divides to form two similar
daughter cells.
19. Multiple fission – Fission in which the parent cell divides to produce more than
two daughter cells.
20. Fragmentation – The reproductive method in which certain multi-cellular
organisms, on maturation, break up into smaller fragments, each of which develops
into new individual.
21. Budding – The reproductive method in which an organism produces an
outgrowth on its body surface, which then matures and develops into a new
individual.
22. Vegetative propagation – The reproductive method in which new plants are
produced asexually from roots, stems or leaves of the parent plant.
23. Spore - A small, usually single-celled reproductive body produced by certain
fungi, bacteria, algae, and non-flowering plants, which is highly resistant to
desiccation and heat and is capable of growing into a new organism.
24. Sexual reproduction - Mode of reproduction in which new individuals are
produced by fusion of a male and a female gamete.
25. Pollination – Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
26. Self-pollination – Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower.
27. Cross-pollination – Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower.
28. Fertilization – Fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote, which
eventually develops into an embryo.
29. Germination – The process in which a seed develops into a seedling under
appropriate conditions.
30. Puberty - The period during adolescence when a child's body becomes sexually
mature and develops into adult form.
31. Sperm – The male reproductive cell or gamete produced in the testes.
32. Ova – The female reproductive cell or gamete produced in the ovary.
33. Ovulation – The periodic release of an ovum from the ovary.
34. Menstruation - The monthly discharge of blood and shed mucous lining of the
uterus through the vagina of non-pregnant women from puberty to menopause.
35. Contraception – The prevention of conception by the use of birth control devices
or pills or surgery.

The budding process of yeast may be seen as the yeast multiply by the process of
budding
The slice of bread would be seen covered with a white cottony mass of fungal
threads called hyphae, belonging to the fungus Rhizopus. Rhizopus reproduces by
spores formed in the sporangia borne on the hyphae.
Amoeba has no definite shape, has cytoplasm and a nucleus in a flexible cell
membrane. During binary fission
Amoeba undergoes nuclear division and forms two nuclei. The two nuclei formed
by division move to opposite directions in the parent cell. Ultimately, the cell divides
and forms two daughter cells.
Spirogyra is a filamentous alga found as slimy filamentous green masses in clean
water, ditches and ponds.
Its filaments come to the surface of water and form dense green coloured structures
on it. It has unbranched chains of cylindrical cells having spiral chloroplasts. It
occurs as a slimy, green 'blanket weed' in ponds.
Only the pieces of potato having the notch or the bud give rise to fresh green shoots
whereas those pieces which do not have the notch or bud are not able to reproduce.
This is so because the reproductive buds are present in the potato at the regions
called as eyes form where the buds arise to form new plants. Potato is a stem.
Only the portions which have at least one leaf will be able to form new plants
because the leaves arise from the nodes. Nodes are the regions where reproductive
buds are present in most of the plants. So, new plants will arise from the
reproductive buds present at nodes in plants having at least one 1eaf, whereas the
portion between two leaves known as the inter node will not be able to form new
plants.
The seeds when cut open will show two large cotyledons attached to the middle of
the embryonal axis. The cotyledons have reserve food material to nourish the
developing embryo. The portion above the cotyledon is the future shoot called as
plumule and the portion below the cotyledons is the future root called as the radicle.
1. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?

Answer: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in the chromosomes,
which are present in the nucleus of a cell. The DNA is the information site for making
proteins and each specific type of protein leads to a specific type of body design.
Thus, it is the DNA molecule that determines the body design of an individual. Therefore, it
can be concluded that it is the DNA that gets transferred from parents to offspringsand
makes them look similar.
DNA determines body structure
2. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
Answer: Variations are beneficial to the species than individual because sometimes for a
species, the environmental conditions change so drastically that their survival becomes
difficult. For example, if the temperature of water increases suddenly, then most of the
bacteria living in that water would die. Only few variants that are resistant to heat would be
able to survive. However, if these variants were not there, then the entire species of bacteria
would have been destroyed. Thus, these variants help in the survival of the species.
However, all variations are not necessarily beneficial for the individual organisms.
3. (a) What is meant by reproduction ?
(b) What are the two general methods of reproduction in organisms?
(c) How does an Amoeba reproduce? Describe the process of reproduction in Amoeba
with the help of labelled diagrams of different stages in its reproduction process.
(d) What is the name of the process by which Amoeba reproduces?
(e) Name two organisms which reproduce by the same asexual process as that of Amoeba.
Answer:
(a) The production of new organisms from the existing organisms of the same species is
known as reproduction.
(b) The two methods of reproduction in living organisms are asexual reproduction and
sexual reproduction.
(c) Amoeba reproduces by binary fission by dividing its body into two parts. When the
amoeba cell reaches its maximum size, the nucleus of amoeba lengthens and divides into
two parts. After that the cytoplasm of amoeba divides into two parts, one part around each
nucleus. In this way one parent amoeba divides to form two smaller amoebae.
(d) Binary fission.(e) Paramecium and Leishmania.

4. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?
Answer: Binary fission in Amoeba
In binary fission, a single cell divides into two equal halves. Amoeba and Bacteria divide by
binary fission.
Multiple fission in Plasmodium
In multiple fission, a single cell divides into many daughter cells simultaneously. Amoeba
and Plasmodium divide by multiple fission.
5. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?
Answer: There are many advantages, if an organism reproduces through spores.
Advantages of spore formation:
 Large numbers of spores are produced in one sporangium.
 Spores are distributed easily by air to far-off places to avoid competition at one place.
 Spores are covered by thick walls to prevent dehydration under unfavourable
conditions.
6. (a) What is the difference between the two asexual methods of reproduction : fission
and fragmentation ?
(b) Name one organism which reproduces by fission and another which reproduces by
fragmentation.
(c) What is meant by multiple fission? Name one organism which reproduces by the
process of multiple fission.
(d) Describe the process of reproduction in Hydra with the help of labelled diagrams.
What is the name of this process of reproduction?
(e) Name one unicellular organism which reproduces by the same asexual process as
Hydra.
Answer :
Fission
(i) It is a process in which an organism splits to form two or more new organisms.
(ii) Fission occurs in unicellular organisms.
Example : Amoeba.
Fragmentation
(i) It is a process in which the body breaks up into two or more pieces on maturing, each of
which subsequently grows to form a complete new organism.
(ii) It takes place in multicellular organisms.
Example : Spirogyra.
(b) Amoeba reproduces by fission and Spirogyra reproduces by fragmentation.
(c) Multiple fission is a process in which a parent organism splits to form many new
organisms at the same time. Plasmodium reproduces by multiple fission.
(d) Hydra reproduces by budding. In hydra, first a small outgrowth called bud is formed on
the side of its body by repeated mitotic divisions of its cells. This bud then grows gradually
to form a small hydra by developing a mouth and tentacles. The tiny new hydra detaches
itself from the parent body and develops into a separate organism.
7. (a) Name the method by which bread mould (Rhizopus fungus) reproduces. Is this
method sexual or asexual?
(b) What is yeast? Describe the process of reproduction in yeast with the help of labeled
diagrams.
(c) Name a tiny fresh-water animal which reproduces by the same method as that of
yeast? What is this method known as?
(d) Name two marine organisms which also reproduce by the same method as yeast but
form colonies.
Answer:(a) Spore formation; asexual reproduction.
(b) Yeast is tiny, unicellular non green
plant which reproduces by budding. In
yeast, first a bud appears on the outside of
the cell wall. The nucleus of the parent
yeast cell divides into two parts and one
part of the nucleus moves into the bud.
Ultimately, the bud separates off from the
parent yeast cell and forms a new yeast
cell.
(a) Hydra; Budding.
(b) Sponge and corals.
8. (a) What is meant by ‘grafting’ as a means of propagation in plants ?
(b) Define ‘stock’ and ‘scion’.
(c) Describe the grafting method for the artificial propagation of plants with the help of
labelled diagrams.
(d) Name two fruit trees which are usually propagated by grafting method.
(e) State two advantages of grafting method of artificial propagation of plants.
(f) What is the difference between the cuttings method and grafting method for the
artificial propagation of plants?
Answer :
(a) Grafting – It is a method in which the
cut stems of two different plants (one
with roots and other without roots) are
joined together in such a way that the
stems join and grow as a single plant.
(b) The cut stem of a plant having roots is
called stock and the cut stem of the other
plant without roots is called scion.
(c) In grafting, two plants are chosen
which are used as scion and stock. First
the stem is removed from the plant
chosen to be made scion by giving a slanting cut. The scion is placed over the stock and is
fitted together by binding tightly by a piece of cloth or plastic sheet. The cut soon heals and
the stock and scion of two plants grow together to become one plant.
(d) Banana and pineapple.
(e) Advantages of grafting method:
(i) It enables us to combine the most desirable characteristics of the two plants in its flowers
and fruits.
(ii) It can be used to produce varieties of seedless fruits.
(f)Cutting
Grafting:
(i) A small part of the plant which is removed by making a cut with a sharp knife is called
cutting.(ii) The new plant formed is exactly similar to the parent plant.
(i) It is a method in which the cut stems of two different plants (one with roots and other
without roots) are joined together in such a way that the stems join and grow as a single
plant.(ii) The new plant produced has the characteristics of both the parent plants
9. Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new
individuals through regeneration?
Answer: Simple organisms such as Hydra and Planaria are capable of producing new
individuals through the process of regeneration. The process of regeneration involves the
formation of new organisms from its body parts. Simple organisms can utilize this method
of reproduction as their entire body is made of similar kind of cells in which any part of their
body can be formed by growth and development.
However, complex organisms have organ-system level of organization. All the organ
systems of their body work together as an interconnected unit. They can regenerate their lost
body parts such as skin, muscles, blood, etc. However, they cannot give rise to new
individuals through regeneration.
10: Why is vegetative propagation practiced for growing some types of plants?
Answer: Vegetative propagation is practiced for growing some types of plants because of
the following advantages:
- It is used to grow a plant in which viable seeds are not formed or very few seeds are
formed such as orange, banana, pineapple.
- It helps to introduce plants in new areas where the seed germination fails to produce
mature plant due to change in environmental factors and the soil. It is more rapid,
easier and cheaper.
- By this method a good quality of a race or variety can be preserved.
11. (a) What is tissue culture ?(b) Name any four types of ornamental plants which are
being produced by tissue culture technique.(c) What is the importance of DNA copying in
reproduction? Explain with an example.(d) How does reproduction help in providing
stability to populations of species? (e) Why is variation during reproduction beneficial to
the species but not necessarily for the individual?
Answer:
(a) The production of new plants from a small piece of plant tissue (or cells) removed from
the growing tips of a plant in a suitable growth medium is called tissue culture.
(b) Orchids, dahlia, carnation, chrysanthemum.
(c)(i) The chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contains information for the inheritance of
features from the parents to the next generation in the form of DNA molecules so the
characteristics of a parent organism are transmitted to their offspring.
(ii) When the DNA already present in the nucleus of a parent cell is copied by making more
of DNA by certain biochemical reactions, then slight variations come in the two copies
formed. Thus, variations are produced in the offspring’s during reproduction which form
the basis of evolution. Example: Offspring’s produced by asexual reproduction have slight
variations from their parents.
(d) The process of reproduction introduces some variations in the individual organisms of a
species which enables them to survive even in adverse environmental conditions such as
excessive heat or cold, etc. In this way, the introduction of variations during reproduction
provides stability to the populations of various species.
(e) Variation is useful for the survival of species even in adverse environmental conditions.
This happens as follows: There may be some drastic changes like excessive heat or cold etc
in the habitat of a species of organisms. If all the organisms of a population living in that
habitat are exactly identical, then there is a danger that all of them may die and no one
would survive under these conditions. This will eliminate the species from that habitat
completely however, if some variations are present in some individual organisms to tolerate
these drastic changes then there is a chance for them to survive and flourish even in adverse
environment. Example: Certain bacteria living in temperate water – If the temperature of
water increases too much due to global warming most of them will not be able to tolerate
excessive heat and would die however, if there are bacteria with variation then there is a
chance for them to survive.
12. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?
Answer: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) copying is an essential part of reproduction as it
passes genetic information from parents to offspring. It determines the body design of an
individual. The reproducing cells produce a copy of their DNA through some chemical
reactions and result in two copies of DNA. The copying of DNA always takes place along
with the creation of additional cellular structure. This process is then followed by division of
a cell to form two cells.
13. (a) Explain the terms ‘self-pollination’ and ‘cross-pollination’?
(b) How do the insects help in cross-pollination?
(c) How is the process of pollination different from fertilization?
Answer:(a)
(i) Self-pollination: When the pollen grains from the anther of a flower are transferred to the
stigma of the same flower (or another flower on the same plant), it is called self-pollination.
(ii) When the pollen grains from the anther of a flower on one plant are transferred to the
stigma of a flower on another similar plant, it is called cross pollination.
(b) When an insect sits on the flower of a plant for sucking nectar, then the pollen grains
from the anther of this flower sticks to its body. And when this insect sits on another flower
of another similar plant, then the pollen grains sticking to its body are transferred to the
stigma of this second flower. In this way, the insect transfers the pollen grains from the
anther of flower in one plant to the stigma of flower in another plant and causes cross
pollination.
14. How is the process of pollination different from fertilization?

Answer: Pollination is the process of transfer of pollens from anther to stigma. It occurs with
the help of certain pollinators such as air, water, birds, or some insects.
Fertilization, on the other hand, is the fusion of the male and female gametes. It occurs
inside the ovule and leads to the formation of zygote.
15. What is the role of the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland?
Answer: The secretions from seminal vesicles and prostate glands lubricate the sperms and
provide a fluid medium for easy transport of sperms. Their secretion also provides nutrient
in the form of fructose, calcium, and some enzymes.
16. What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty?
Answer: Secondary sexual characteristics in girls:
· Increase in breast size and darkening of skin of the nipples present at the tips of the breasts.
· Appearance of hair in the genital area.
· Appearance of hair in other areas of skin like underarms, face, hands, and legs.
· Increase in the size of uterus and ovary.
· Beginning of menstrual cycle.
· More secretion of oil from the skin, which results in the appearance of pimples.
17. How does the embryo get nourishment inside the mother’s body?
Answer: The embryo develops inside the mother’s body for about nine months.
 Inside the uterus, the outer tissue surrounding the embryo develops finger-like
projections called villi. These villi are surrounded by uterine tissue and maternal
blood. They provide a large surface area for exchange of oxygen and nutrients.
 Also, there is a special tissue called placenta, which is embedded in the uterine wall.
The embryo receives the oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood via the
placenta. The waste materials produced by the embryo are also removed through
the placenta.
18. If a woman is using a copper−T, will it help in protecting her from sexually
transmitted diseases?
Answer: No. Using a copper-T will not provide a protection from sexually transmitted
diseases, as it does not prevent the entry of semen. It only prevents the implantation of the
embryo in the uterus.
Exercise solution
19. Asexual reproduction takes place through budding in
(a) amoeba. (b) Yeast. (c) Plasmodium. (d) leishmania.
Answer: (b) Asexual reproduction takes place through budding in yeast.
20. Which of the following is not a part of the female reproductive system in human
beings?
(a) Ovary (b) Uterus (c) Vas deferens (d) Fallopian tube
Answer: (c) Vas deferens is not a part of the female reproductive system in human beings.
21. The anther contains
(a) Sepals. (b) Ovules. (c) Carpel. (d) Pollen grains.
Answer: (d) The anther contains pollen grains.
22. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
Answer:
Advantages of sexual reproduction:
 In sexual reproduction, more variations are produced. Thus, it ensures
survival of species in a population.
 The new formed individual has characteristics of both the parents.
 Variations are more viable in sexual mode than in asexual one. This is
because in asexual reproduction, DNA has to function inside the inherited
cellular apparatus.
23. What are the functions performed by the testis in human beings?
Answer:
The testes are the male reproductive organs that are located outside the abdominal cavity
within a pouch called scrotum.
Functions of testes:
· Produce sperms
· Produce a hormone called testosterone, which brings about secondary sexual characters in
boys.
24. Why does menstruation occur?
Answer:
Menstruation is a process in which blood and mucous flows out every month through the
vagina. This process occurs every month because one egg is released from the ovary every
month and at the same time, the uterus (womb) prepares itself to receive the fertilized egg.
Thus, the inner lining of the uterus gets thickened and is supplied with blood to nourish the
embryo. If the egg does not get fertilised, then the lining of the uterus breaks down slowly
and gets released in the form of blood and mucous from the vagina.
25. Draw a labeled diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower.
Answer: diagram
26. What are the different methods of contraception?
Answer: The contraceptive methods can be broadly divided into the following types:
 Natural method→ It involves avoiding the chances of meeting of sperms and ovum. In this
method, the sexual act is avoided from day 10th to 17th of the menstrual cycle because
during this period, ovulation is expected and therefore, the chances of fertilization are very
high.
 Barrier method→ In this method, the fertilization of ovum and sperm is prevented with
the help of barriers. Barriers are available for both males and females. Condoms are
barriers made of thin rubber that are used to cover penis in males and vagina in females.
 Oral contraceptives→In this method, tablets or drugs are taken orally. These contain small
doses of hormones that prevent the release of eggs and thus fertilization cannot occur.
 Implants and surgical methods→Contraceptive devices such as the loop or Copper-T are
placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy. Some surgical methods can also be used to block
the gamete transfer. It includes the blocking of vas deferens to prevent the transfer of
sperms known as vasectomy. Similarly, fallopian tubes of the female can be blocked so that
the egg will not reach the uterus known as tubectomy.
27. (a) What is gestation period ? How much is the gestation period in humans?
(b) Name one method of contraception which also protects against sexually transmitted
diseases.
(c) Name one sexually transmitted disease for which no definite cure has been found so
far. What is the causative organism of this disease?
Answer:
(a) The time period from the fertilisation up to the birth of a baby is called gestation. The
average gestation period in humans is about 9 months (about 38 weeks).
(b) Condoms.
(c) AIDS has no cure. Its causative organism is HIV (human Immunodeficiency Virus).
28. How are the modes for reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular
organisms?
Answer:
In unicellular organisms, reproduction occurs by the division of the entire cell. The modes of
reproduction in unicellular organisms can be fission, budding, etc. whereas in multicellular
organisms, specialised reproductive organs are present. Therefore, they can reproduce by
complex reproductive methods such as vegetative propagation, spore formation, etc. In
more complex multicellular organisms such as human beings and plants, the mode of
reproduction is sexual reproduction.
29. Explain how, offsprings and parents of organisms reproducing sexually have the same
number of chromosomes.
Answer: The offsprings and parents of organisms reproducing sexually have same number
of chromosomes due to reduction division (meiosis) during gamete formation which
reduces the number of chromosomes into half in both male and female gametes. During
fertilisation when male and female gametes fuse the original numbers of chromosomes as in
parents is restored in the offspring.
30. How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of species?
Answer: Living organisms reproduce for the continuation of a particular species. It helps in
providing stability to the population of species by producing a new individual that
resembles the parents. This is the reason why cats give birth to only cats or dogs give birth to
only dogs. Therefore, reproduction provides stability to populations of dogs or cats or any
other species.
31. (a) What is ovulation ? How often does it happen in human females?
(b) Where does fertilisation take place in human females?
(c) Explain why, fertilisation is possible if mating takes place during the middle of
menstrual cycle.
(d) What is meant by implantation?
(e) What is placenta? What is its function?
(f) What joins embryo to placenta in mother’s body?
Answer:
(a) The release of an ovum from an ovary is called ovulation. In human females, the ovaries
start releasing ovum once every 28 days from the age of puberty.
(b) Oviducts.
(c) Fertilisation is possible if mating takes place during the middle of menstrual cycle
because in a normal healthy girl the ovulation takes place on the 14th day of the beginning
of menstrual cycle of 28 days.
(d) The embedding of embryo in the thick lining of the uterus is called implantation.
(e) Placenta – Placenta is a disc like special tissue which develops between the uterus wall
and the embryo after implantation. Its function is the exchange of nutrients, oxygen and
waste products between the embryo and the mother.
(f) Umbilical cord.
32. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?
Answer:
Contraceptive methods are mainly adopted because of the following reasons:
(i) To prevent unwanted pregnancies.
(ii) To control population rise or birth rate.
(iii) To prevent the transfer of sexually transmitted diseases.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. In human males, the testes lie in the scrotum, because it helps in the :
(a) process of mating (b) formation of sperm
(c) easy transfer of gametes (d) all the above
2. Which among the following is not the function of testes at puberty?
(i) formation of germ cells (ii) secretion of testosterone
(iii) development of placenta (iv) secretion of oestrogen
(a) (i)and(ii) (b) (ii)and(iii)
(c) (iii) an(iv) (d) (i) and (iv)
3. The correct sequence of organs in the male reproductive system for transport of
sperms is :
(a) testis → vas deferens → urethra
(b) testis → ureter → urethra
(c) testis → urethra → ureter
(d) testis → vas deferens → ureter
4. Which among the following diseases is not sexually transmitted?
(a) Syphilis (b) Hepatitis (c) HIV-AIDS (d) Gonorrhoea
5. Which of the following is not an advantage of vegetative propagation?
(a) Plants which produce non-viable seeds can be grown.
(b) Easier method than sowing seeds.
(c) Such plants produce seeds and fruits much earlier than plants produced from
other methods.
(d) Best method to introduce new genetic traits in the species.
6. Which of the following is not the function of the seminal vesicles present in
human males ?
(a) To store the sperms in a fluid medium.
(b) To provide nutrition to developing spermatozoa.
(c) To make transport of sperms easier
(d) None of the above.
7. After fertilization which of the following parts develops into seed?
(a) Ovary (b) Ovule (c) Pollen grain (d) Stigma
8. Reproduction is essential for living organisms in order to :
(a) Keep the individual organism alive (b) Fulfil their energy requirement
(c) Maintain growth (d) continue the species generation after generation
9. During adolescence, several changes occur in the human body. Mark one change
associated with sexual maturation in boys:
(a) loss of milk teeth (b) increase in height
(c) cracking of voice (d) weight gain
10. In human females, an event that reflects onset of reproductive phase is:
(a) growth of body (b) changes in hair Pattern
(c) change in voice (d) menstruation
11. In Rhizopus, tubular thread-like structures bearing sporangia at their tips are
called :
(a) filaments (b) hyphae (c) rhizoids (d) roots
12. Vegetative propagation refers to formation of new plants from:
(a) stem, roots and flowers (b) stem, roots and leaves
(c) stem, flowers and fruits (d) stem, leaves and flowers
13. Factors responsible for the rapid spread of bread mould on slices of bread are :
(i) large number of spores
(ii) availability of moisture and nutrients in bread
(iii) presence of tubular branched hyphae
(iv) formation of round shaped sporangia
(a) (i) and(iii) (b) (ii) and (iv)
(c) (i) and (ii) (d) (iii) and (iv)
14. The process of release of an egg from the ovary is called
(a) menstruation (b) ovulation (c) oogenesis (d) none of these
15. The condition when the menstrual cycle stops is known as
(a) puberty (b) menstruation (c) menopause (d) gestation.
16. Which among the following statements are true for unisexual flowers?
(i) they possess both stamen and pistil
(ii) they possess either stamen or pistil
(iii) they exhibit cross-pollination
(iv) unisexual flowers possessing only stamens cannot produce fruits
(a) (i) and (iv) (b) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) (iii) and (iv) (d) (i), (iii) and(iv)
17. Characters transmitted from parents to offspring are present in:
(a) cytoplasm (b) ribosome (c) golgi bodies (d) genes
18. The ability of a cell to divide into several cells during reproduction
(a) budding (b) reduction division (c) binary fission (d) multiple fission
19. Examples of vegetatively reproducing plants are
(a) tomato, lady's finger, onion, cauliflower (b) potato, ginger, onion, sugarcane
(c) cauliflower, onion, potato, tomato (d) lady's finger, onion, ginger, sugarcane.
20. If there is no formation of egg cell during the development of ovule, then after
fertilization which of the following structure will not develop?
(a) Embryo (b) Endosperm (c) Seed (d) Fruit

answer as:
1. Assertion: Two modes of reproduction are sexual and asexual.

Reason: No genetic variations occur in asexual reproduction but it occurs during
sexual reproduction.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
2. Assertion: Fertilization is the fusion of male gamete and female gamete.
Reason: After fertilization season the zygote divides several times to form an
embryo within the ovule.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
3. Assertion: Testes are located outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum.
Reason: The sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the normal body
temperature.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
4. Assertion: Reproduction involves creation of DNA copy and additional cellular
apparatus by the cell involved in the process.
Reason: DNA copying mechanism creates variations which are useful for ensuring
the survival of the species.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
5. Assertion: The reproduction of Rhizopus is by spore formation.
Reason: These spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until they come
into contact with another moist surface and can begin to grow.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
Key 1. b 2. a 3. d 4. a 5. b
WORKSHEET:1 HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Why regeneration is considered to be a method of reproduction?
2. When an organism is called as bisexual, what does it indicate?
3. Define fertilization.
4. What happens to the ovule and the ovary after fertilization?
5. Define the term puberty.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
6. What is name the sexual cycle in human females called? Explain the sexual cycle in
human female.
7. What do you understand by gestation period and what is it’s time duration?
8. In case of self-pollination there are two possibilities. State them.
9. What is the function of fallopian tube?
10. What is semen?
WORKSHEET: 2 HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1mark each)

1. Define reproduction.
2. Define fertilization. Where the fertilization does takes place in human female?
3. Name two type of reproduction.

4. The anther contains: a...Sepal b. ovules c. carpel d.. Pollen grains
5. What method will you use for growing jasmine and rose plant?
6. Define menstruation.
7. Write the name of male and female reproductive part of a flower.
8. Define gestation period. What is the gestation period in human?
9. Why do testes in mammals descend in scrotum?
10. Name the type of fission carried out by Amoeba.
11. Name two sexually transmitted diseases.
12. What is vegetative propagation?
13. Name the male and female gonads and what are the products they produce.
14. Which part of human female reproduction system is called ―birth canal‖ and the
―womb?
15. Write the full form of IUCD and AIDS,
17. What is syngamy?
18. What is advantage of fruit formation in plant?
19. What is ovulation?
20. What is menopause?
WORKSHEET: 3HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (Each of 2 marks)

1. What is the importation of DNA copying in reproduction?
2. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
3. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?
4. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?
5. Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new
individuals through regeneration?
6. .Why vegetative reproduction is practiced for growing some type of plants?
7. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?
8. What are the changes seen in girl’s at the time of puberty?
9. What is the role of the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland?
10. How is the process of pollination different from fertilization?
11. How does the embryo get nourishment inside the mother’s body?
12. If a woman is using copper –Twill it help in protecting her from sexually transmitted
diseases?
13. Show by a series of labelled diagram, the manner in which reproduction in Hydra
14. Define the terms unisexual and bisexual flowers by giving one example of each.
15. Leaves of the bryophyllum fallen on the ground produce new plants whereas the leaves
of rose do not. Why?
16. Why does menstruation occur?
17. What are the different methods of contraception?
18. How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of species?
WORKSHEET: 4 HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
Q1. What is fertilization? Differentiate between external and internal fertilization.What is the
site of fertilization in human beings?
Q2. In the human body what is the role of the following:
a) Seminal vesicles b)Prostate gland
List one function performed by testis in human beings.
Q3. Illustrate the following with the help of suitable diagrams.
a) Regeneration in planarian. b) Budding in hydra. c) Binary fission in amoeba.
Q4. What is regeneration? State a reason why more complex organism cannot give rise to
new individuals by this process.
Q5. What is reproduction? What are its 2 types? Which one the 2 confers new characteristics
on the offspring and how?
Q6.Explain vegetative propagation with the help of 2 examples. List 2 advantages of
vegetative propagation.
Q7. Draw an LS of a flower and label the following parts
a) Parts that produces pollen grain
b) Part that is sticky to trap the pollen grain.
c) Part that develop into a fruit
Q8. What does HIV stands for? Is AIDS an infectious disease? List any 4 modes of spreading
disease.
Q9. How growing embryo does gets nutrition from the mother’s blood?
Q10.Leaves of bryophyllum fallen on the ground produce new plants whereas the leaves of
rose do not .Why?
Q11. State in brief the changes that take place in a fertilized egg (zygote) till the birth of a
child in human’s female reproductive system. What happens to the egg when it is not
fertilized?
Q12. How does the chemical method help in preventing pregnancy?
Q13. List four modes of asexual reproduction with examples.
Q14. State the role of placenta in the development of embryo.
Q15. What happens when:
a) Planaria gets cut into pieces.
b) A mature spirogyra filament attains considerable length?
c) On maturation spirogyra burst?
Q16. i) Which are the two main types of reproduction in living organisms?
ii) Classify the following under these two types: Amoeba, Frog, Earthworm, Yeast
Q17. What is pollination? How does it occur in plants?
Q18. Name the human male reproductive organ that produces sperms and also secretes
hormones. Write the functions of the hormone secreted.
Q19. Write the functions of the following parts in human female reproduction system:
i) Ovary ii) Oviduct iii)Uterus
Q20. Why is budding, fragmentation and regeneration all considered as asexual types of
reproduction?
Q21. What are the benefits of using mechanical barriers for contraception?
Q22. What changes are noticed on sexual maturity of human beings?
CHAPTER 9: HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
HEREDITY:
In includes those traits or characters which are transmitted from generation to generation
and are therefore fixed for a particular individual.
• Genetics: Study of Heredity and variation is said to be known as genetics.
The term genetics was first of all used by W. Bateson in 1905.
An Austrian monk namely Gregor Johann Mendel was the first person to study genetics.
He was therefore regarded at the ‘Father of Genetics’.
VARIATIONS: Variation is concerned with the difference between the individuals
of same species and also between the offspring of the same parents.
• Variations could be of two types:
(i) Somatic variation (ii) Germinal variation
Causes of variation: The most common causes of variations are mutation, recombination
and random mating. Recombination or crossing over is one of the important reasons for
variation. It is an exchange of chromosome segment at the time of gamete formation.
Significance of Variation:
• Variation enables the organisms to adapt themselves to the changing environment.
• If forms raw material for evolution.
• It enables the organisms to face the struggle for existence in a better way.
• It helps men in improving the races of useful animals and plants.
• It is the basis of heredity.
• It also leads to the existence of new traits.
MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTS AND LAWS OF INHERITANCE:

Gregor Johann Mendel is appropriately called as Father of genetics. With the help
of his experiments on garden pea, he was able to formulate laws which explain the
manner of inheritance of characters.
• Some general terms used by him are :
• Dominant trait: The trait which appears in F1 generation is called as dominant
trait. It is denoted by capital letter. e.g. TT (tall).
• Recessive trait: The traits which does not appear in F1 generation is called as
recessive trait. It is denoted by small letter, e.g. tt (dwarf)
• Monohybrid cross: It involves the study of inheritance of one pair of contrasting
character. e.g. Inheritance of tall and dwarf characters.
• Dihybrid Cross: It is the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters.
• Trihybrid cross: It is the inheritance of three pairs of contrasting characters.
• Back cross: The cross between F1 generation with any of the parents is known as
back cross. • Test cross: The cross between F1 generation and the recessive parent is
called as test cross.
• Genotype: It is the genetic representation of a trait. e.g. TT or Tt for a tall plant.
• Reciprocal cross: The reciprocal cross involves two crosses concerning the same
characteristic but with reverse sex. It means if in the first cross A is female and B is
male then in the second cross A will be male and B will be female.
• Phenotype: It is the expression of a trait e.g. Tall pea plant, it can be noted by
direct observation of an individual.
• Allele: Term allele refers to each of the members of a genetic pair.
• Homozygous traits: They have similar alleles for specific trait (TT or tt). They
produce only one type of gametes.
• Heterozygous traits: They have dissimilar alleles for a specific trait (Tt). They
produce two types of gametes
MENDEL’S EXPERIMENT:
Mendel chose garden pea as plant material for his experiments, since it has
following advantages.
• Well defined characters
• Bisexual flowers
• Predominantly self-fertilization
• Easy hybridization
• Cross fertilization is possible
(a) Crossing Technique Employed by Mendel:
Since garden pea is self- fertilizing, the anthers have to be removed before maturity.
This operation is called as emasculation.
The stigma is protected against any foreign pollen with the help of a bag. The
pollens then at the dehiscence stage, is brought from the plant to be used as male
parent and is dusted on the feathery stigma of the emasculated flower. At the time of
pollination, the pollens should be mature and the stigma should be receptive.
Emasculation
↓
Bagging [for protection]
↓
Dehiscence [by dusting pollens]
↓
Pollination
Traits chosen by Mendel for his experiment: There are seven traits which Mendel
has chosen, they are as follows
The traits that Mendel studied are listed below:
 Form of ripe seed (R) – smooth or wrinkled
 Colour of seed albumen (Y) – yellow or green
 Colour of flower (P) – purple or white
 Form of ripe pods (I) – inflated or constricted
 Colour of unripe pods (G) – green or yellow
 Position of flowers (A) – axial or terminal
 Length of stem (T) – tall or dwarf
Mendel performed experiments in three stages:
(A) he made sure that, the plant which he had chosen must be true breeding
plant, by letting the plant to undergo self-fertilization.
(B) He performed the process of cross palliation of alternate forms of traits. The
resultant generation obtained was termed as hybrid, and these hybrids formed
are called as F1 generation i.e. First filial generation.
(C) He allowed the hybrid to self-pollinate up to five generations and these
generations are subsequently termed as F2, F3, F4 and so on.
MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE: On the basis of the experiments performed

and the result obtained Mendel formulated four laws. They are :
(a)The Principle of Paired Factors: Each character in an individual is governed by
two factors called as gene. The alternative form of gene is called as alleles or
allelomorphs.
If an individual consists of similar types of alleles, they are called as homozygous
e.g. TT, tt while those having different types of alleles are called as heterozygous e.g.
Tt etc.
(b) The Principle of Dominance or Law of Dominance: When two homozygous

individuals with one or more sets of contrasting character are crossed the characters
that appear in the F1 hybrids are dominant characters and those which do not
appear in F1 are recessive characters.
(c) The Principle of Segregation of Law of Segregation : [Law of purity of gametes]
The law of segregation states that when a pair of contrasting factors or genes or
alleles are brought together in a heterozygous condition, the two remains together
without being contaminated but when gametes are formed form them the two
separate out from each other. This is also known as Mendel’s first law of heredity.
(d) The Principle of Independent Assortment or Law of Independent Assortment:
If the inheritance of more than one pair of characters is studied simultaneously, the
factors or genes for each pair of characters assort out independently. It is called as
Mendel’s second law of heredity.
GENES: The term ‘gene’ was introduced by Johansson for Mendelian factor. Gene
determines the physical as well as physiological characteristics. They are transmitted
from parents to their offsprings generation after generation. Genes are located on
chromosomes where they occupy specific position called as locus. This was proved
experimentally by T.Bovery and W.S. Sutton in 1902. They are responsible for
characteristic features.
Functions of Chromosomes:
(i) They carry hereditary characters from parents to offsprings.
(ii) They help the cell to grow, divide and maintain itself by synthesis of proteins.
(iii) They undergo mutation and thus contributed to the evolution of animals.
(iv) They guide cell differentiation during development.
(v) They also help in metabolic processes. (vi) They bring about continuity of life.
SEX DETERMINATION:
• Chromosomes are of two types:
• Autosomes or Somatic chromosomes: These regulate somatic characters.
• Allosomes or Heterosomes or Sex chromosomes : These chromosomes are
associated with sex determination.
Evolution by Stages
Evolution can take place in stages also. For example, evolution of eyes. Flatworms have
rudimentary eyes, whereas insects possess compound eyes. In the last humans have
binocular vision.
Evolution of feathers is also an example of evolution by stages. For example, dinosaurs have
feathers but unable to fly. But later on birds used feathers for flying.
Molecular Phylogeny
It is also an evidence for evolution. According to this, changes in DNA during reproduction
are the basic events of evolution. Organisms which are related to each other most distantly,
they will have greater differences in their DNA.
 Variations beneficial to a species have a greater chance of flourishing in the

species than the harmful or neutral variations.
 Genetic drift can alter gene frequencies in small population and provide
diversity without any survival benefits.
 Several factors like environment, mutations, reproduction etc can cause
alterations in gene frequencies in a population over generations, leading to
evolution.
 Changes occurring in the DNA of germ cells are heritable whereas changes
taking place in the non-reproductive tissues are not inherited.
 Charles Darwin proposed that evolution of species occurred by natural
selection, but he did not know the underlying mechanism.
 Natural selection, genetic drift, variations and geographical isolation can lead
to speciation in sexually reproducing organisms.
 Gene flow between the members of a population prevents speciation.
 The fundamental characteristics used to classify organisms are - presence of
prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells - whether the organism is unicellular or
multicellular - ability to perform photosynthesis - presence of endoskeleton or
exoskeleton in heterotrophic organisms.
 As we go back in time to trace common ancestors, we find that all organisms
must have arisen and radiated from a single species, which in turn originated
from non-living material. Thus life arose from non-living matter.
 Fossils help in tracing evolutionary pathways.
 The age of fossils can be determined by using the relative method or the
isotope dating method.
 Evolution is not a one-step process, but a continuous process occurring in
several stages.
 Complex organs are formed slowly over many generations, sometimes with
intermediate forms playing an important role.
 Sometimes the use of certain features gets modified with time. For example-
Feathers may have provided insulation initially, but later became associated
with flight.
 Evolutionary studies have shown that birds are closely related to reptiles.
 Humans have carried out artificial selection for various features of cabbage
and produced different vegetables.
Vegetable produced Selected feature
Broccoli Arrested flower development
Cauliflower Sterile flowers
Kohlrabi Swollen parts
Kale Larger leaves

 Molecular phylogeny can also be used to trace evolutionary relationships.
Here the DNA of different species is compared. Greater the differences in
DNA, more distantly related are the species.
 Evolution produces more diverse and complex body forms over time, but the
newly formed species are not more progressive than the already existing
ones. So it is wrong to say that evolution produces progressive higher forms
from lower ones.
 All human beings, whether fair skinned or dark skinned, belong to the same
species i.e. Homo sapiens that originated in Africa.
 The human ancestors gradually migrated from Africa to various parts of the
world like Asia, Europe, Australia and America. Thus they spread to different
parts of the Earth and adapted as best as they could to their environmental
conditions.
Definitions
1. Heredity: Transmission of genetically based characters from one generation to the next
generation is called heredity.
2. Gene: It is a specific segment of DNA on a chromosome occupying specific position and
determines the hereditary characters.
3. Traits: The alternative forms of a character are called traits.
4. Genetics: It is the branch of biology that deals with the study of heredity and variations.
5. Monohybrid cross: A breeding experiment which involves the alternative traits of one
single character is called monohybrid cross.
6. Dihybrid cross: A cross between two pure breeding individuals taking into consideration
alternative traits of two different characters is called a dihybrid c.ors.
7. Variation: It is the differences in the traits shown by the individuals of a species and also
by the offsprings of the same parents are called variations.
8. Evolution: It is the sequence of gradual changes of the living organisms from the earlier
simpler forms of life over millions of years resulting in the formation of new species.
9. Sex determination: The mechanism by which sex of an individual is determined when it
begins its life.
10. Natural selection: The struggle for survival within population eliminates the unfit
individuals and only those with favourable variations survive and then they multiply and
pass on these variations to next generation. Here the nature selects the traits which are
favourable to the species in its environment and this phenomenon is called natural selection.
11. Genetic drift: It is the elimination of the genes of certain traits from the small population
when a section of the species population dies of natural calamity or migrates to other region.
It results in random change in the frequency of a particular gene in a population.
12. Reproductive isolation: It is the mechanism which checks the populations of two
different groups from interbreeding.
13. Speciation: It is the formation of a new species from the existing species.
14. Homologous organs: The organs which perform different functions in different species
but have similar basic structure and similar embryonic origin are called homologous organs.
15. Analogous organs: The organs which are quite different in fundamental structure and
embryonic origin but look superficially alike and perform same functions in entirely
different species are called analogous organs.
16. F1 generation- The generation resulting immediately from a cross of the first set
of parents (parental generation).
17. F2 generation – Offspring resulting from a cross of the members of F1
generation.
18. Progeny - The offspring produced as a result of reproduction of the parents.
19. Dominant trait - A genetic trait is considered dominant if it is expressed in a person who
has only one copy of that gene.
20. Recessive trait – A genetic trait that is expressed only when two copies of the gene are
present.
21. Homozygous - having two identical alleles of the same gene
22. Heterozygous - having dissimilar alleles at corresponding chromosomal loci
23. Allele – Either of a pair (or series) of alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same
locus on a particular chromosome and that control the same character.
24. Somatic cells- All cells forming the body of an organism, except the reproductive cells.
25. Sex chromosomes – Either of a pair of chromosomes, usually designated X or Y, in the
germ cells of most animals, that combine to determine the sex and sex-linked characteristics
of an individual.
26. Haploid cell – Cell having only one complete set of chromosomes
27. Diploid cell – Cell having two sets of chromosomes, one of paternal origin, the other
maternal.
28. Micro-evolution – Evolution resulting from small specific genetic changes that can lead
to a new subspecies.
29. Fossils – All preserved traces of living organisms. The remains or impression of a
prehistoric plant or animal embedded in rock and preserved in petrified form.
30. Molecular phylogeny - The use of a gene's molecular characteristics to trace the
evolutionary history of organisms.
Activity 9.1 (Textbook page 143)
The presence of attached ear lobe is a recessive trait. The organisms with free ear lobe show
the dominant trait. The recessive traits express themselves only in homozygous condition.
So, the Law of Dominance given by Mendel will apply and the offsprings will have the traits
as shown below:
Type of gene/allele Trait produced in offspring
AA Free ear lobe
Aa Free ear lobe
aa Attached ear lobe
The experiment done to confirm will be called as the test cross. It involves crossing the
individuals obtained in the F2 generation with the parent with 'tt' as trait combination. The
individuals having tt trait combination would be visible as dwarfs. The confusion of the tall
plants- TT and Tt trait combination can be resolved by the test cross. The individuals having
TT trait combination will give rise to all tall progeny after crossing with tt trait combination.
The individuals with Tt trait combination will produce 50% progeny tall and 50% progeny
dwarf after the cross with tt trait combination.
1. If a trait A exists in 10% of a population of an asexually reproducing species and a trait

B exists in 60% of the same population, which trait is likely
to have arisen earlier?
In asexual reproduction, the reproducing cells produce a copy
of their DNA through some chemical reactions. However, this
copying of DNA is not accurate and therefore, the newly
formed DNA has some variations.
It can be easily observed in the above figure that in asexual
reproduction, very few variations are allowed. Therefore, if a
trait is present in only 10% of the population, it is more likely
that the trait has arisen recently. Hence, it can be concluded that trait B that exists in 60% of
the same population has arisen earlier than trait A.
2. How does the creation of variations in a species promote survival?
Variations occur due to sexual reproduction and also due to inaccurate copying of DNA.
Depending on the nature of variations, different
individuals would have different kinds of
advantages.
For example, if the temperature of water increases
suddenly, most of the bacteria living in that water
would die. Only few variants resistant to heat would
be able to survive. If these variants were not there,
then the entire species of bacteria would have been
destroyed. Thus, these variants help in the survival
of the species.
Thus, variations in a population of a species help in
survival of a species.
However, not all variations are useful. Therefore,
these are not necessarily beneficial for the individual
organisms.
3. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits
may be dominant or recessive?
Mendel selected true breeding tall (TT) and dwarf (tt) pea plants. Then, he crossed these two
plants. The seeds formed after fertilization were grown and these plants that were formed
represent the first filial or F1 generation. All the F1 plants obtained were tall.
Self-pollination of F1 plants
From this experiment, Mendel concluded that the F1 tall plants were not true breeding. They
were carrying traits of both short height and tall height. They appeared tall only because the
tall trait is dominant over the dwarf trait.
4. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits are inherited independently?

Mendel crossed pea plants having round green seeds (RRyy) with pea plants having
wrinkled yellow seeds (rrYY).
Since the F1 plants are formed after crossing pea plants having green round seeds and pea
plants having yellow wrinkled seeds, F1 generation will have both these characters in them.
However, as we know that yellow seed colour and round seeds are dominant characters,
therefore, the F1 plants will have yellow round seeds.
Then this F1 progeny was self-pollinated and the F2 progeny was found to have yellow
round seeds, green round seeds, yellow wrinkled seeds, and green wrinkled seeds in the
ratio of 9:3:3:1.
In the above cross, more than two factors are involved, and these are independently
inherited.
6. How is the sex of the child determined in human beings?
Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of these 23 pairs, 22 pairs of
chromosomes regulate the general characteristics like height, facial features etc and are
called autosomes.
The 23rd pair of chromosome is called sex chromosome. It consists of xy chromosomes in a
male human being and xx chromosomes in a female human being.
If a sperm containing x chromosome fertilizes the egg then the sex of the baby will be female
(xx). If a sperm containing y chromosome fertilizes the egg then the sex of the baby will be
male (xy). Thus, the sex of the children is determined by what they inherit from their father.
Type of male gametes: 22+X OR 22+ Y.
However, since the females have XX sex chromosomes, their gametes can only have X sex
chromosome.
Type of female gamete: 22+X
Thus, the mother provides only X chromosomes. The sex of the baby is determined by the
type of male gamete (X or Y) that fuses with the X chromosome of the female.
7. What are the different ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in
a population?
The different ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a population
are
1. Natural selection of some variants – Natural selection provide chances to certain.
Variation that is suitable to changing environment.
2. Genetic drift – Migration of members of a small population also cause increase in
individuals having particular trait. However, genetic drift does not provide survival
advantage.
8. Why are traits acquired during the life-time of an individual not inherited?
Changes that occur in germ cells DNA are only transmitted from one generation to the next
generation. Changes/traits in non-reproductive tissues acquired in life time are not passed to
the next generation.
This happens because an acquired trait involves change in non-reproductive tissues (somatic
cells) which cannot be passed on to germ cells or the progeny. Therefore, these traits cannot
be inherited.
9. Why are the small numbers of surviving tigers a cause of worry from the point of view
of genetics?
The small number of members in a population of tigers do not allow large number of
variation to occur which are essential to survival of the species. A deadly disease or calamity
may cause death of all the tigers. The small number of tiger also indicates that existing tiger
variants are not well adopted to the existing environment and may extinct soon.
10. What factors could lead to the rise of a new species?
The factors that lead to the rise of a new species are
(i) Natural selection
(ii) Changes in number of chromosome or change in gene/genes.
(iii) Geographical isolation
(iv) Reproductive isolation.
11. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of a self-pollinating
plant species? Why or why not?
No, because geographical isolation does not affect much in asexually reproducing
organisms. Asexually reproducing organisms pass on the parent DNA to off springs that
leaves no chance of speciation. However, geographical isolation works as a major factor in
cross pollinated species. As it would result in cross pollinated species. As it would result in
accumulation of variation in the two geographically separated population, so new species
are formed in cross pollinated plants.
12. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of an organism that
reproduces asexually? Why or why not?
No, because asexually reproducing organisms do not produce much variants. They occur
due to errors during DNA copying which are not enough to produce a new species.
Any change resulting due to geographical isolation may not pass on to the next generation.
13. Give an example of characteristics being used to determine how close two species are
in evolutionary terms.
(i) Feathers in some ancient reptiles like dinosaurs, as fossils indicate, evolved to provide
insulation in cold weather. However, they cannot fly with these feathers later on birds
adapted the feathers to flight. This means that birds are very closely related to reptiles, since
dinosaurs were reptile.
(ii) Another method to find out how close two species are in evolutionary terms is by
comparing the DNA of different species. It provides direct estimate of how much the DNA
has changed during the formation of the new species.
14. Can the wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bat be considered homologous organs?
Why or why not?
No, because wings of bat are entirely different in respect of structure, origin and plan from
wings of butterfly. Wings of bat are modified fore-limbs which have bones and skin.
Whereas, wings of butterfly do not have bones. However, wings in both the species perform
similar function, so they are analogous organs and not homologous organs.
15. What are fossils? What do they tell us about the process of evolution?
Fossils are the remains of organisms that once existed on earth. They represent the ancestors
of plants and animals that are alive today. They provide evidences of evolution by revealing
the characteristics of the past organism and the changes that have occurred in these
organisms to give rise to the present organisms.
16. Why are human beings who look so different from each other in terms of size, colour
and looks said to belong to the same species?
Although the genetic makeup of humans may be slightly different in different races of
people, but there is no reproductive isolation.
Different species cannot breed and produce fertile progeny. In case of human beings,
individuals different in size, colour and looks can marry among themselves and produce
fertile offsprings. So, they are clubbed in the same species Homo sapiens.
17. In evolutionary terms, can we say which among bacteria, spiders, fish and
chimpanzees have a ‘better’ body design? Why or why not?
Evolution does not mean progress. Evolution causes generation of diversity and the shaping
of the diversity by environmental selection. Due to evolution, more and more complex body
designs have emerged over time and this has been considered as progressive trend. It does
not mean older and simpler body designs are inefficient and complex body designs like
spiders, fish and chimpanzee have better, body design. Many of the older and simpler body
design still survive.
For example, bacteria have simpler body form, are found in the most inhospitable habitats
like hot springs, deep sea and the ice in Antarctica. Thus, bacteria, spider, fish and
chimpanzees are simple species in the teaming spectrum of evolving life. All the organisms
which exist have a body design that is good as it is suited to their environment.
18. A Mendelian experiment consisted of breeding tall pea plants bearing violet flowers
with short pea plants bearing white flowers. The progeny all bore violet flowers, but
almost half of them were short.
This suggests that the genetic make-up of the tall parent can be depicted as
(a) TTWW (b) TTww (c) TtWW (d) TtWw
Answer: I The genetic make-up of the tall parent can be depicted as TtWW since all the
progeny bore violet flowers, it means that the tall plant having violet flowers has WW
genotype for violet flower colour.
Since the progeny is both tall and short, the parent plant was not a pure tall plant. Its
genotype must be Tt. Therefore, the cross involved in the given question is
TtWw × ttww
↓
TtWw – ttww
Therefore, half the progeny is tall, but all of them have violet flowers.
19. An example of homologous organs is
(a) our arm and a dog’s fore-leg. (b) our teeth and an elephant’s tusks.
I potato and runners of grass. (d) all of the above.
Answer: (b)An example of homologous organs is our teeth and an elephant’s tusks
20. In evolutionary terms, we have more in common with
(a) a Chinese school-boy. (b) a chimpanzee. (c) a spider. (d) a bacterium.
Answer: In evolutionary terms, we have more in common with a Chinese school boy.
21. A study found that children with light-coloured eyes are likely to have parents with
light-coloured eyes.
On this basis, can we say anything about whether the light eye colour trait is dominant or
recessive? Why or why not?
Answer:
Let us assume that children with light-coloured eyes can either have LL or Ll or ll genotype.
If the children have LL genotype, then their parents will also be of LL genotype.
LL × LL
↓
LL
If the children with light-coloured eyes have ll genotype, then their parents will also have
ll genotype.
ll × ll
↓
ll
Therefore, it cannot be concluded whether light eye colour is dominant or recessive.

22. How are the areas of study – evolution and classification – interlinked?
Evolutionary relationships are traced in the classification of organisms. For classification of
organisms, we look for similarities among organisms which allow us to group them.
The more characteristics two species will have in common, the more closely they are related.
It indicates that more closely two species are related, the more recently they would have had
a common ancestor. Thus, classification of species is in fact a reflection of their evolutionary
relationship.
23. Explain the terms analogous and homologous organs with examples.
Homologous organs are similar in origin (or are embryologically similar) but perform
different functions. For example, the forelimbs of humans and the wings of birds look
different externally but their skeletal structure is similar. It means that their origin is similar
(as wings in birds are modifications of forearm) but functions are different – the wings help
in flight whereas human forearm helps in various activities.
24. Outline a project which aims to find the dominant coat colour in dogs?
Select a black homozygous male dog and a white homozygous female dog. Allow them to
mate, observe their progeny (F1 generation). If all member of F1 generation have black coat
then black colour coat is dominant. If the progeny has white coat then white colour coat is
dominant.
25. Explain the importance of fossils in deciding evolutionary relationships?
Fossil provide us evidence about
(i) The organisms that lived long ago such as the time period during which they lived, their
structure etc.
(ii) Evolutionary development of species i.e., line of their development.
(iii) Connecting links between two groups. For example, feathers present in some dinosaurs
means that birds are very closely related to reptiles.
(iv) Which organisms evolved earlier and which later.
(v) Development of complex body designs from the simple body designs.
26. What evidence do we have for the origin of life from inanimate matter?
Experiments conducted by Stanley L Miller and Harold C Urey in 1953 provide some light
for the origin of life from inanimate matter.
They assembled an atmosphere similar to that thought to exist on early earth [that had
molecule like ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4) and hydrogen sulphite, but no oxygen] over
water. They maintained the mixture of these gases just below 100oC and passed sparks to
stimulate lightning.
At the end of a weak, 15% of the carbon (from methane) had been converted to simple
compounds of carbon including amino acids which make up protein molecules. It indicates
the possibility of origin of life from inanimate matter on the earth, when atmosphere was
reducing (containing no free oxygen), containing gases like methane, ammonia, hydrogen
sulphide, frequent lightning and enough water was present. Simple amino acids which are
building blocks of proteins might have given rise to complex molecules that are building
blocks of cells.
The origin of life from inanimate matter is not at all possible today because
(i) Atmosphere contains free oxygen which causes break down of molecules necessary for
origin of life.
(ii) The conditions which existed on early earth cannot be regenerated.
27. Explain how sexual reproduction gives size to more viable variations than asexual
reproduction. How does this affect the evolution of those organisms that reproduce
sexually?
Sexual reproduction causes more viable variations due to the following reasons:
(i) Error in copying of DNA, which are not highly significant.
(ii) Random segregation of paternal and maternal chromosome at the time of gamete
formation.
(iii) Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during formation of
gametes.
(iv) Accumulation of variations occurred due to sexual reproduction over generation after
generation and selection by nature created wide diversity.
In case of asexual reproduction, only the very small changes due to inaccuracies in DNA
copying pass on the progeny. Thus, off springs of asexual reproduction are more or less
genetically similar to their parents. So, it can be concluded that evolution in sexually
reproducing organisms’ proceeds at a faster pace than in asexually reproducing organisms.
28. How is the equal genetic contribution of male and female parents ensured in the
progeny? When round and green seeded crossed with wrinkled and yellow seeded pea
plant, F1 generation obtained has round and yellow seed. F1 generation when self-
fertilized show four types of plants.
(i) Round and yellow (ii) Round and green (iii) Wrinkled and yellow
(iv) Wrinkled and green
If we interpret this result that indicates both parents must be contributing equally to the
DNA of the progeny during sexual reproduction. If both parents can help determine the trait
in the progeny, both parents must be contributing a copy of the same gene. It means a
member of progeny must have two sets of all genes, one inherited from each parent.
29. Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in a
population. Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?
In species, variations that offer survival advantages are naturally selected. Individuals adjust
to their environments with the help of these selected variations and consequently these
variations are passed on to their progeny. Evolution of organisms occurs as a result of this
natural selection.
However, there can be some other variations, which do not offer any survival advantage
and arise only accidentally. Such variations in small populations can change the frequency
of some genes even if they are not important for survival.
This accidental change in the frequency of genes in small populations is referred to as
genetic drift.
Thus, genetic drift provides diversity (variations) without any survival advantage.
30. What is a backcross?
Backcrossing is a crossing of a hybrid with one of its parents or an individual genetically
similar to its parent, in order to achieve offspring (BC1) with a genetic identity which is
closer to that of the parent. It is used in horticulture, animal breeding and in production of
gene knockout organisms.
31. Define ‘evolution’. Describe Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Answer. Evolution is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive
organisms over millions of years and new species are produced. Since, the evolution is of the
living organisms, so it is called ‘Organic Evolution’.
Darwin’s theory of Evolution: Charles Robert Darwin gave the theory of evolution in his
famous book, ‘The Origin of Species’. The theory of evolution proposed by Darwin is known
as ‘The Theory of Natural Selection’. It is also called ‘Darwinism’.
According to Darwin’s theory of evolution:
1. There is natural variation within any population and some individuals have more
favourable variations than others.
2. Population remains fairly constant even though all species produce a large number
of off springs.
3. This is due to ‘competition’ or struggle for existence between same and different
species.
4. The struggle for survival within population eliminates the unfit individuals and
those with ‘favourable variations’ survive and pass on these variations to their
progeny to continue. This is called natural selection.
5. The favourable variations are accumulated over a long time period leading to the
origin of a new species.
32. Describe briefly four ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in
a population.
Answer. The four ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a
population are as follows:
1. Sexual reproduction results into variations.
2. The individuals with special traits survive the attack of their predators and multiply
while the other will perish.
3. Genetic drift provides diversity without any adaptation.
4. Variations in the species may lead to increased survival of the individuals.
33. Explain with an example, how genes control the characteristics (or traits).
Answer :
The characteristics or traits in animals and plants are controlled by genes. For example the
transmission of color of hair from the parents to the child. If a mother has black hair and the
father has blonde hair and the child has black hair then the transmission of genes for hair
colour from the mother and father to the child is as follows: Mother’s cell contains two genes
HH for black hair. Both the genes HH are dominant genes, so the mother has black hair.
Father’s cell contains two genes (hh) for blonde hair. The two genes hh are recessive genes,
so the father has blonde hair. Now, during the process of reproduction, the mother transmits
one of the dominant genes H for black hair to the child and the father transmits one of his
recessive genes h for blonde hair to the child. Due to this, the child has the genes Hh for her
hair. Now the gene H for black hair is the dominant gene but the gene h for blonde hair is
the recessive gene. The dominant gene H for black hair shows its effect due to which the
child has black hair.
34. What are fossils? Giving one example, explain how fossils provide evidence for
evolution.
Answer: The remains of dead animals or plants that lived in the remote past are known as
fossils. The fossils provide evidence of evolution. For example, a fossil bird called
Archaeopteryx looks like a bird but it has many features which are found in reptiles. This is
because Archaeopteryx has feathered wings like those of birds but teeth and tail like those of
reptiles. Therefore, Archaeopteryx is a connecting link between the reptiles and birds and
suggests that birds have evolved from reptiles. Thus, fossils provide evidence that the
present plants and animals have originated from the previously existing ones through the
process of continuous evolution.
35. Give an example of characteristics being used to determine how close two species are
in evolutionary terms.
Answer:The changes in DNA during reproduction are mainly responsible for evolution. The
changes which take place in the DNA of species go on accumulating from one generation to
the next. So, if the changes in the DNA of any two species are less, then the two species are
quite close to one another in evolutionary terms. But if the changes in the DNA of two
species are much more, then the two species will be far apart from one another in
evolutionary terms. Thus, it is the characteristic of the extent of change in the DNA which is
being used to determine how close two species are in evolutionary terms
36. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of an organism that
reproduces asexually? Give reason for your answer.
Answer: Geographical isolation cannot be a major factor in the speciation of an asexually
reproducing organism because it does not require any other organism to carry out
reproduction.
37. (a) What is meant by a species ? Give two examples of plant species and two of
animals.
(b) State the various factors which could lead to the formation of new species.
Answer a) A species is a population of organisms consisting of similar individuals which
can breed together and produce fertile offspring’s. Plant species – Wheat, Paddy, Sunflower
etc. Animal species – Cat, Dog, Tiger, etc.
(b) The important factors which could lead to the rise (or formation) of a new species are the
following:
1. Geographical isolation of a population caused by various types of barriers (such as
mountain ranges, rivers and sea). The geographical isolation leads to reproductive isolation
due to which there is no flow of genes between separated groups of population.
2. Genetic drift caused by drastic changes in the frequencies of particular genes by
chance alone.
3. Variations caused in individuals due to natural selection.
38. (a) Define ‘natural selection’.
(b) “Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in a
population”. Do you agree with this statement? Give reason for your answer.
Answer:
(a) Natural selection is the process of evolution of a species whereby characteristics which
help individual organisms to survive and reproduce are passed on to their offspring, and
those characteristics which do not help are not passed on.
(b) Yes, only those variations that confer advantage to an individual organism will survive
in a population. This will become clear from the following example. Suppose there is a
population of red beetles in the green bushes and a colour variation arises during
reproduction so that one beetle is now green in colour (instead of red). This variation offers
advantage of survival because the green beetle can mix up with green bushes, it cannot be
spotted and eaten up by a crow and hence its population will increase. If, however, the
variation had produced a blue coloured beetle, then this colour could not offer any survival
advantage because blue beetle in green bushes could be easily spotted by a crow and eaten
by it.
39. What is meant by Organic evolution?
The word organic evolution is made up of two words ‘organic’ which means ‘living
organisms’ and ‘evolution’ which means ‘unfold’. So, organic evolution is the unfolding of
the process of formation of different types of organisms. As we see that there are millions of
different types of animals and plants around us. All these forms of life came into existence
from very simple unicellular organisms such as blue-green algae which were produced in
the oceans. With the passage of time, these unicellular organisms modified themselves so
that they can adapt themselves to the changing environment. This modification or variations
were then passed on to the next generations, which resulted in the formation of new species
of organisms. Thus according to the concept of organic evolution, the present day animals
and plants have been evolved by a process of gradual change in the earlier simple forms of
life, which took place in millions of years. This process of evolution is very slow and it is
going on still today. But due to its slow rate, we are not able to observe it.
Evidence for Organic Evolution
The concept of organic evolution is not a hypothetical concept. It can be proved by taking
some evidence which indicates the occurrence of organic evolution. This evidence is:
Homologous organs/Analogous organs/Vestigial organs/Atavism/Connecting links/Fossils
Embryology.
40. How do you define microevolution?
Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population.
This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial),
gene flow and genetic drift.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. In human males all the chromosomes are paired perfectly except one. This/these unpaired
chromosome is/are:
(i) Large chromosome (ii) small chromosome
(iii)Y-chromosome (iv)X-Chromosome
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (iii) only
(c) (iii) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iv)
2. The maleness of a child is determined by :
(a) the X-chromosome in zygote
(b) the Y-chromosome in zygote
(c) the cytoplasm of germ cell which determines the sex
(d) sex is determined by chance
3. A zygote which has an X-chromosome inherited from the father will develop into a:
(a) boy (b) girl (c) X-chromosome does not determine the sex of a child
(d) either boy or girl
4. Select the incorrect statement:
(a) Frequency of certain genes in a population changes over several generations resulting in
evolution.
(b) Reduction in weight of the organism due to starvation is genetically controlled.
(c) Low weight parents can have heavy weight progeny.
(d) Traits which are not inherited over generations do not cause evolution.
5. New species maybe formed if:
(i) DNA undergoes significant changes in germ cells
(ii) chromosome number changes in the gamete
(iii) there is no change in the genetic material
(iv) mating does not take place
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii)
(c) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (d) (i), (ii) and (iii)
6. Mendel conducted his famous breeding experiments by working on
(a) Drosophila (b) Pisum sativum
(c) Escherichia coli (d) all of these.
7. Which of the following is a recessive trait in garden pea plant?
(a)Tall stem (b) Wrinkled seeds (c) Yellow coloured seed coat (d) Round seeds
8. Select the statements that describe characteristics of genes:
(i) genes are specific sequence of bases in a DNA molecule
(ii) a gene does not code for proteins
(iii) in individuals of a given species, a specific gene is located on a particular chromosome
(iv) each chromosome has only one gene
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iv)
9. In peas, a pure tall plant (TT) is crossed with a short plant (tt). The ratio of pure tall plants
to short plants in F2 is:
(a) 1.:3 (b) 3:1 (c) 1 :1 (d) 2:1.
10. A basket of vegetables contains carrot, potato, radish and tomato. Which of them
represent the correct homologous structures?
(a) Carrot and potato (b) Carrot and tomato
(c) Radish and carrot (d) Radish and potato
11. In a dihybrid cross four phenotypes form in the ratio of 9 :3 :3: 1, because of
(a) dominance of one phenotype in each pair of contrasting traits
(b) independent assortment of the genes of contrasting traits
(c) crossing over of genes
(d) mixed effect of dominance and independent assortment.
12. Homologous structures are
(a) similar in origin, but dissimilar in function.
(b) dissimilar in origin, but similar in function
(c) dissimilar in origin and function
(d) similar in origin and function.
13. Set which includes only analogous structures is
(a) wings of butterfly, housefly and bat
(b) hind legs of horse, grasshopper and bat
(c) wings of butterfly, bat and birds,
(d) mandibles of cockroach, mosquito and honeybee.
14. A trait in an organism is influenced by :
(a) paternal DNA only (b) maternal DNA only
(c) both maternal and paternal DNA (d) neither by paternal nor by maternal DNA
15. Two pink coloured flowers on crossing resulted in 1 red, 2 pink and 1 white flower
progeny. The nature of the cross will be:
(a) double fertilisation (b) self pollination (c) cross fertilisation (d) no fertilisation
16. A cross between a tall plant (TT) and short pea plant (tt) resulted in progeny that were all
tall plants because
(a) tallness is the dominant trait
(b) shortness is the dominant trait
(c) tallness is the recessive trait
(d) height of pea plant is not governed by gene 'T' or 't'.
17. Some dinosaurs had feathers although they could not fly but birds have feathers that
help them to fly. In the context of evolution this means that:
(a) reptiles have evolved from birds
(b) there is no evolutionary connection between reptiles and birds
(c) feathers are homologous structures in both the organisms
(d) birds have evolved from reptiles
18. The crossing of a homozygous tall plant with a dwarf would yield plants in the ratio of
(a) two tall and two dwarf
(b) one homozygous tall, one homozygous dwarf and two heterozygous tall
(c) all homozygous dwarf
(d) all heterozygous tall
19. Mendel studied seven contrasting characters for his breeding experiment with Pisum
sativum.
(a) Pod colour (b) Pod shape
(c) Leaf shape (d) Plant height
20. Which of the following character did he not use?
(a) F1 in monohybrid cross shows two types of individuals
(b) The characters are linked
(c) Parents are pure breeding
(d) First pair of contrasting character is dependent upon other pairs.

answer as:
1. Assertion: Variation arising during the process of reproduction can be inherited.

Reason: These variations may lead to increased survival of the individuals.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
2. Assertion: Sexually reproducing individuals have two copies of genes for the same trait.
Reason: If the copies are not identical, the trait that gets expressed is called the
dominant trait and the others is called the recessive trait.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
3. Assertion : Sex is determined by different factors in various species.
Reason : In human beings the sex of the child depends on whether the paternal
chromosome is X or Y
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
4. Assertion: Evolutionary relationships are traced in the classification of organisms.
Reason: Evolution can be worked out by the study of not just living species but also
fossils.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
5. Assertion: Complex organs may have evolved because of the survival advantage of even
the intermediate stages.
Reason: Organs or features may be adapted to new function during the course of
evolution.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
Key: 1.a 2.a 3.b 4.a 5.b

HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION: WORKSHEET 1
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1 Mark)

1. Write the scientific name of men and garden pea.
2. Where are genes located?
3. No two individuals are absolutely alike in a population. Why?
4. What are the chromosomes XY and XX known as?
5. Name five varieties of vegetables which have been produced from ‘wild cabbage’ by the
process of artificial selection.

1. Differentiate between homologous and analogous organs, with examples.
2. What are fossils? How can the age of fossils be determined?
1. Variation is beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual. Give three
reasons to justify it.
2. The human hand, cat paw and horse foot, when studied in detail show the same structure
of bones and point towards a common origin.
(a) What do you conclude from this?
(b) What is the term given to such structures?
3. Which one is the edible part in kale, kohlrabi, broccoli, cabbage and cauliflower?
4. Name a recessive trait which is quiet common in human beings.

1. Define variation
2. What is monohybrid cross?
3. What is dominant trait?
4. What are genes?
5. Define Homologous organs
6. If an individual has XX chromosome [22+XX] will that individual be male or female.
7. Which plant Mendel had chosen for his experiments.
8. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits may be dominant or recessive?
9. Define analogous organs? Give example.
10. Differentiate between acquired and Inherited traits? Give example of each.
11. Explain what are fossils? How the age of fossils be determined
12. What is speciation? What factors lead to formation of a new species?
13. Explain the mechanism of sex determination in humans.
14. Differentiate between homologous and analogous organs. by giving examples.
15. Define inheritance. What are the units of inheritance
16. What is genetic drift? How it contributes to the formation of new species
17. Explain mono hybrid cross by taking tall and dwarf plants. Mention the phenotypic and
genotypic ratio of F and F off springs. 1 2
18. Explain the process of artificial selection by taking the example of wild cabbage plant.
19. Explain about the human evolution.
20. What is molecular phylogeny?
1. How one is change adopted to perform different functions? Give one example
2. What happened when Mendel crossed two traits of a character in a pea plants?
3. Who provided experimental evidence to support theory of origin of life from inanimate
matter?
4. Why are asexually reproducing organisms capable of showing hereditary features?
5. If the sperm bearing Y-chromosome fertilizes the egg, the child born will not be entirely
like his father. Why is it so?
6. A normal pea plant bearing coloured flowers suddenly start producing white flowers.
What could be the possible cause?
7. Mention any two recessive traits of garden pea.
8. Write the characteristics on the basis of which duck-billed platypus is considered as a link
between reptiles and mammals.
9. Why is the small number of surviving tigers a cause of worry from the point of view of
genetics?
10. What is called phylogenetic system of classification?
11. Is it true that when a new species is emerged, the old species is eliminated and why?
12. What will be the percentage of ab gametes produced by AaBb parent?
13. Mendel crossed a pure white recessive pea plant with a dominant pure red flowered
plant. What will be the first generation of hybrids?
14. In evolutionary terms, which among-bacteria, spider, fish and chimpanzee have a
“better” body design? Why or why not?
15. Why are traits acquired during life-time of an individual not inherited?
16. Name the chemicals which were essential for origin of life.
17. Why males are called heterogametic?
18. What are inherited traits? Give one example.
19. When Mendel crossed a Tall plant with a dwarf plant, no medium height plants were
obtained in F1 generation. Why?
20. The gene type of green stemmed tomato plants is denoted as GG and that of purple
stemmed tomato plants as GG when these two are crossed.
i. What colour of stem would you expect in F1 progeny?
ii. Give the percentage of purple stemmed plants if F1 are self-pollinated.
iii. In what ratio would you find the gene types CG and Gg in the F2 progeny?
1. Give the basic features of the mechanism of inheritance
2. Give reasons for the appearance of new combinations of characters in the F2 progeny
3. When is a recessive trait capable of expressing itself? Write the expression using
contrasting trait of height in plants
4. How do genes control traits?
5. What is meant by analogous organs? Taking a suitable example, explain how they
support the theory of Organic Evolution
6. What is a gene?
7. What is a sex chromosome?
8. ”The sex of the children is determined by what they inherit from their father and not
their mother.”
9. Define variation in relation to a species. Why is variation beneficial to the species?
10. What are fossils? What do they tell us about the process of evolution?
11. . The human beings who look so different from each other in terms of colour, size
and looks are said to belong to the same species. Why? Justify your answer.
12. With the help of suitable examples explain natural selection
13. How is the equal genetic contribution of male and female parents ensured in the
progeny?
14. Give the pairs of contrasting characters in pea plant and mention which is
dominant and recessive a) yellow seed b) round seed
15. What evidence do we have for the origin of life from inanimate matter
16. Give an example of body characteristics used to determine how close two species are
in terms of evolution and explain it
17. A blue colour flower plant denoted by BB is cross bred with that of white colour
flower plant denoted by bb.
(a) State the colour of flower you would expect in their F1 generation plants.
(b) What must be the percentage of white flower plants in F2 generation if flowers
of F1 plants are self-pollinated?
(c) State the expected ratio of the genotypes BB and Bb in the F2 progeny.
18. If we cross pure-bred tall (dominant) pea plant with pure-bred dwarf (recessive) pea
plant we will get pea plants of F1 generation. If we now self-cross the pea plant of
F2 generation, then we obtain pea plants of F2 generation.
(a) What do the plants of F2 generation look like?
(b) State the ratio of tall plants to dwarf plants in F2 generation.
(c) State the type of plants not found in F2 generation but appeared in F2 generation,
mentioning the reason for the same
19. Evolution has exhibited a greater stability of molecular structure when compared
with morphological structures. Comment on the statement and justify your
opinion.
20. What is meant by the term speciation? List four factors which could lead to
speciation.
15: OUR ENVIRONMENT
Top definitions
1. Ecosystem: It is the structural and functional unit of biosphere which comprises of both
biotic and abiotic components that interact with each other to form a stable and self-
supporting system.
2. Natural ecosystem: The ecosystems which operate themselves in nature without any
interference of human beings are called natural ecosystems.
3. Artificial ecosystem: The ecosystem which is maintained by human beings like croplands,
aquarium etc. is called artificial ecosystem.
4. Abiotic components: The non-living physio-chemical factors like soil, humidity, sunlight
rainfall, temperature etc. are the abiotic components'
5. Biotic components: The living organisms like autotrophs, heterotrophs form the biotic
components.
6. Food chain: The sequential interlinking of organisms involving transfer of food energy
starting with a producer through a series of organisms where one is eaten by the other is
called a food chain.
7. Trophic levels: The distinct sequential steps in the food chain where transfer of energy
occurs are referred to as trophic levels.
8. Food web: A network of food chains which are interconnected at various trophic levels to
form a number of feeding connections among different organisms is called a food web.
9. Biodegradable wastes: The wastes which get degraded in a natural process by the action
of microbes into simpler forms are called biodegradable wastes.
10. Non-biodegradable wastes: The wastes which cannot be degraded by the action of
microbes in a natural way and they persist in environment for a longer period of time are
called non-biodegradable wastes.
11. Biodegradable substances – Substances that are broken down by biological
processes.
12. Non- biodegradable substances – Substances that are not broken down by
biological processes.
13. Producers- Organisms like plants and blue green algae that produce complex
organic compounds from simple inorganic molecules using energy from sunlight in
presence of chlorophyll.
14. Consumers - Organisms that feed directly or indirectly on producers and cannot
synthesize their own food from inorganic sources.
15. Decomposers – Organisms that feed on the dead remains and waste products of
organisms and carry out nutrient cycling by breaking down the complex organic
materials into simple inorganic ones.
16. Herbivore - An animal that feeds chiefly on plants.
17. Carnivores – Organisms that mainly feed on the flesh or meat of animals.
18. Omnivore - An animal that feeds on both animal and vegetable substances.
19. Parasite - An organism that lives off or in another organism, obtaining
nourishment and protection while offering no benefit in return
20. Biological magnification – A cumulative increase in the concentrations of a
persistent substance in successively higher levels of the food chain.

The materials like metallic containers, plastic bottles, bubble packs, broken footwear, etc.
remain unchanged for longer periods of time. The materials which change their form and
structure overtime are the empty cartons, kitchen wastes, torn clothes etc. The fastest change
is seen in spoilt food, vegetable peels, and used tea leaves.
The non-biodegradable substances last from a few years to several million years.
Biodegradable plastics are plastics that can be decomposed by the action of living organisms
like bacteria. Under proper conditions, some biodegradable plastics can degrade to the point
where microorganisms can completely metabolise them. They do not harm the environment
in the way the non-biodegradable plastics harm because they are decomposed at a faster rate
by the microorganisms and once decomposed they are no more a problem.
An aquarium becomes a self sustaining system once the above essential materials are
provided in it. The water, oxygen and food are the resources which help in the life processes
of organisms present in the aquarium. The aerator keeps providing fresh supply of oxygen
in it. The biotic and the abiotic components interact among themselves to sustain the
artificial ecosystem. We cannot leave the aquarium as such for a longer time as the growth of
microorganisms like bacteria and fungi occurs which need to be removed in order to avoid
infection of the fishes. Lakes and ponds are large ecosystems which do not need to be
cleaned so frequently. But sometimes they need to be cleaned in order to avoid siltation or
excessive growth of aquatic plants. Example is the recent cleaning of the Pushkar lake in
Ajmer.
Yes, we have to take care not to put an aquatic animal which would eat others. Otherwise
the ecosystem will not remain self-sustaining and can lead to imbalances in the processes
and the whole ecosystem (aquarium).
The food chain present in the ecosystem would also consist of primary producers, primary
consumers, secondary consumers, etc. Primary producers will be the phytoplanktons and
the algae. Primary consumers will be zooplanktons. Secondary consumers will be small
fishes followed by the larger fishes as the tertiary consumers.
These groups are dependent on each other: as the energy produced by the organisms at one
level gets transferred from the lower level to the higher level. The aquatic organisms in the
chain would be will be:
Phytoplanktons (producers) → zooplanktons (primary consumers) → small fishes
(secondary consumers) → large fishes (tertiary consumers)
The producers can be considered of primary importance in an ecosystem. But, an aquarium
being an artificial ecosystem, the role of human being is more in maintaining the supply of
nutrients, aeration, energy, etc. to keep the ecosystem self sustaining type.
There is a big debate going on regarding the use of chemical pesticides as most of them like
DDT once taken in by animals through the food products they consume, can neither be
excreted nor metabolised. It starts accumulating in the body of the organism and as we go
higher up the food chain, the concentration of harmful toxicant reaches higher levels. This
phenomenon is called as biological magnification which is harmful for the health of human
beings and other organisms too. Source of pesticides in the food items are the pesticides
sprayed on plants or crops by humans to increase their levels of agricultural production. Yes
pesticides can enter our body from this source through other food products too as the
various organisms are dependent upon each other for their survival.
The methods which can be applied are
(i) use of bio-control agents to protect loss of crop
(ii) development and use pest resistant crops
(iii) practice of organic farming
The chemical which has been highly detrimental to the ozone layer is the use of chlorofluoro
carbons in the refrigerator, deo-sprays, etc. The harmful effect of these chemical was
highlighted in 1985 when the ozone hole was detected in Antarctica. The various countries
of the world met and signed the Montreal protocol in l987 which laid down the roadmap to
control the emission of ozone depleting substances.
The wastes generated in our homes are segregated in the various bins designated for
keeping biodegradable, recyclable, non-biodegradable and hazardous wastes separately.
The scavengers take away the wastes from the homes and dispose it off properly at the
places meant for them so that they do not cause harm to other living organisms. The resident
welfare association have designated scavengers who take the wastes away from the home.
The recyclable materials are either recycled or sent to units which recycle the wastes for
various other processes. The non-biodegradable and hazardous substances are disposed of
by sending them to the landfill sites or by incineration.
Approximately 2-3 kg of waste is generated at home in a day. Approximately half of it is
biodegradable. The waste generated per day in a classroom is approximately 1 kg. Almost
all the waste generated in the classroom is biodegradable. The biodegradable waste can be
put in compost pits and converted to compost or the recyclable ones can be recycled.
The sewage is treated in the wage treatment plants. The plans are being made to ensure that
no untreated sewage is discarded in the local water bodies. The local industries send their
wastes to the sewage treatment plants where the harmful chemical and constituents are
removed from it, before discharging it into the water bodies. Though some mechanisms are
there to prevent soil and water from getting polluted by such wastes, other advanced
systems are being implemented to control such pollution.
The electronic items thrown as e-wastes contain many harmful and hazardous substances
like lead, cadmium, chromium, brominated flame retardants or polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).
Refer- http ://ewasteguide.info/hazardous-substances
http://listverse.com/2013/01/27/10-ways-recycling-hurts-the-environment
http://w.ww.livestrong.com article/181103-the-effect-of-recycling-plastic-water-bottles-on-
the-environment/
Questions & Answers
1. Why are some substances biodegradable and some non-biodegradable?
Substances are classified as biodegradable and non-biodegradable because some substances
can be decomposed by microorganisms and some cannot.
Substances that are broken down into simple soluble forms are called biodegradable
substances and the substances that are not decomposed by microorganisms into harmless
substances are called non-biodegradable substances.
2. Give any two ways in which biodegradable substances would affect the environment.
Biodegradable substances affect the environment by:
→ The biodegradable substances such as tree leaves, plant parts, and kitchen wastes can be
used as humus after composting. This will enhance the soil fertility.
→ The biodegradable substances mainly contain carbon. These substances after
decomposition release that carbon back into the atmosphere.
3. Give any two ways in which non-biodegradable substances would affect the
environment.
Non-biodegradable substances affect the environment by:
→ They contaminate soil and water resources as they cannot be decomposed by
microorganisms.
→ These substances, when accidentally eaten by stray animals, can harm them and can even
cause their death.
4. What are trophic levels? Give an example of a food chain and state the different trophic
levels in it.
The various links or steps in a food chain at which the transfer of food and energy takes
place are called trophic levels. The producers form the first trophic level as they
manufacture food.
The primary consumers form the second trophic level, the secondary consumers form the
third, and the tertiary consumers form the fourth trophic level.
In the above fig. Grass is the producer which is eaten by the grasshopper known as primary
consumer. Then the grasshopper is eaten by shrew, secondary consumer and lastly shrew
eaten up by owl, tertiary consumer.
5. What is the role of decomposers in the ecosystem?
Various role played by decomposers in the ecosystem are:
→ They clean the environment.
→ They decompose biodegradable substances into useful substances.
→ They release nutrients into soil by decomposing dead and decaying matter, thus making
the soil fertile.
6. What is ozone and how does it affect any ecosystem?
Ozone (O3) is a molecule, made up of three atoms of oxygen.Ozone (O3) forms a layer in the
upper atmosphere. It is very essential for the life on this planet. It shields the surface of the
earth from ultra-violet radiation (UV) coming from sun as these radiations are very harmful
causing skin cancer and cataract in humans. It also does harm to the crops.
7. How can you help in reducing the problem of waste disposal? Give any two methods.
We can help in reducing the problem of waste disposal by these methods:
→ By separating biodegradable substances from non-biodegradable substances.
→ By reducing, reusing and recycling non-biodegradable substances.
8. Which of the following groups contains only biodegradable items?
A. Grass, flowers and leather B. Grass, wood and plastic
C. Fruit-peels, cake and lime-juice D. Cake, wood and grass
Fruit-peels, cake and lime-juice
9.Which of the following constitute a food-chain?
A. Grass, wheat and mango B. Grass, goat and human
C. Goat, cow and elephant D. Grass, fish and goat
Grass, goat and human
10 Which if the following are environment-friendly practices?
A. Carrying cloth-bags to put purchases in while shopping
B. Switching off unnecessary lights and fans
C. Walking to school instead of getting your mother to drop you on her scooter
D. All of the above
All of the above
11. What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
If we kill all the organisms of a trophic level, the number of organism in next trophic level
will decrease drastically due to non-availability food. On the contrary, the number of
individuals in lower trophic level will increase because no one will be there to feed upon
them, resulting in imbalance ecosystem.
Finally the food chain will collapse
12. Will the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level be different for
different trophic levels? Can the organisms of any trophic level be removed without
causing any damage to the ecosystem?
Yes the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level will be different for different
trophic levels.
Removing producers will have a major impact as herbivores would not be able to survive
and thus the carnivores ecosystem would collapse.
Removing herbivores: Producers would grow unchecked; carnivores would not get food.
Removing carnivores: Herbivores would increase to unsustainable levels.
Removing decomposers: Waste material and animal dead remains would pile up and
nutrients would not be available to the producers.
Some or the other damage would be caused to the ecosystem if the organisms of any trophic
level are removed. However, impact of removing producers or decomposers would be
severe as the whole ecosystem would collapse. Without plants sun’s energy cannot be
converted to chemical energy which is the basis of life on earth. Without decomposers the
nutrients cannot be recycled and made available to producers.
13. What is biological magnification? Will the levels of this magnification be different at
different levels of the ecosystem?
Biological Magnification is a phenomenon which explains the increasing concentration of
harmful chemicals (like DDT) with increase in trophic level. From the soil the chemicals
(mainly pesticides, heavy metals, etc.) are absorbed by the plants. The primary consumers
eat these plants and the harmful chemicals enter their bodies. As these chemicals are not
degradable, they accumulate in the bodies of the organisms and the top level of the food
chain gets the highest concentration of these harmful chemicals.
Levels of bio-magnification would increase as the trophic level increases and would be
higher for higher trophic levels.
14.What are the problems caused by the non-biodegradable wastes that we generate?
Problems caused by non-biodegradable wastes are:
(i) Clogging of drains,
(ii) Death of cattle by ingestion of plastic,
(iii) Soil destruction,
(v) Bio-magnification of poisonous chemicals in our body or other animals which disturb
body metabolism resulting in various diseases,
(vi) Pollution of air, water and land, and
(vii) Destruction of balance of ecological environment.
15. If all the waste we generate is biodegradable, will this have no impact on the
environment?
If all the waste generated would be biodegradable this will also create problem. As the
number of decomposers will be quite low so wastes cannot be broken down into harmless
simpler substance at right time. It will became breeding ground for flies causing spread of
diseases. It will also emits foul smell which makes the life of people miserable.
16. Why is damage to the ozone layer a cause for concern? What steps are being taken to
limit this damage?
The damage to the ozone layer a cause for concern because:
→ It causes skin darkening, skin cancer, ageing, and corneal cataracts in human beings.
→ It can result in the death of many phytoplankton that leads to increased global warming.
To limit the damage to the ozone layer, the release of CFCs into the atmosphere must be
reduced. CFCs used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers should be replaced with
environmentally-safe alternatives. Also, the release of CFCs through industrial activities
should be controlled.
17. Students in a school listened to the news read in the morning assembly that the
mountain of garbage in Delhi, suddenly exploded and various vehicles got buried under
it. Several people were also injured and there was traffic jam all around. In the brain
storming session the teacher also discussed this issue and asked the students to find out a
solution to the problem of garbage. Finally they arrived at two main points - one is self-
management of the garbage we produce and the second is to generate less garbage at
individual level. (a) Suggest two measures to manage the garbage we produce. (b) As an
individual, what can we do to generate the least garbage? Give two points. (c) List two
values the teacher instilled in his students in this episode.
(a) Incineration/Waste compaction/Biogas generation/Composting/ Segregation and safe
disposal/Vermicomposting.
(b) Reuse of empty bottles, books etc. Reduce the use of non-biodegradable substances like
polythene, thermocol etc.
(c) Awareness about environment, scientific attitude, Concern for community health and
personal health.
18. Write down a food chain by
using the following clues:
(a) in the sea
(b) which ends with humans
(c) with five links in it.
Answer:
18. Give two differences between

food chain and food web
19. a)With the help of a flow diagram, describe how energy from the sun flows
through various trophic levels.
(b) Explain why, the flow of energy
in the ecosystem is said to be
unidirectional.
Solution :
(a) The energy from sun flows
through various trophic levels. The
food and energy are transferred from
producer organisms to herbivores and from herbivores to carnivores, through the food
chain. First Step – The green plants trap solar energy with the help of green pigment
called chlorophyll which converts the sunlight energy into chemical energy. This gets
stored as carbohydrates in the plants. About 1% of the sun’s energy falling on the leaves
is used by the plants in the process of photosynthesis and stored as chemical energy of
food. The plants utilize the stored energy for their metabolic activities like respiration
and growth. Some of the energy is not utilised and it is released as unusable heat into the
environment. Second Step – The plants are eaten up by herbivores and the chemical
energy of plants is transferred to them. The herbivores utilize this energy for various
metabolic activities and release unused energy as heat energy to the environment.
(a)
Third Step – The herbivores are eaten up by carnivores. The chemical energy stored
in the flesh of herbivores is transferred to the carnivores and they utilise this energy
for their metabolic activities like respiration and growth and some of the energy
which remains unutilised, is released into the environment. This process of transfer
of energy is repeated with large carnivores and so on.
20. (a) How is energy introduced into the ecosystem?
(b) Consider the following food chains:
1. Plants —-> Mice —-> Snakes —-> Hawks
2. Plants —-> Mice —-> Hawks
If energy available at the producer level in both the food chains is 100 J, in
which case will hawks get more energy as food and by how much? Justify
your answer.
Answer:
(a) The energy enters the living components of the ecosystem through the process of
photosynthesis.
(b) (i) The producer level in the food chain are plants, so 100 J of energy is available
in plants as food. Applying the 10% law to the above food chain:
1. According to the 10% law, 10% of energy of plants will be available as food in
mice. Thus, the energy available to mice will be 10% of 100 J, which is 10 J.
2. The energy available to snakes will be 10% of 10 J, which is 1 J.
3. The energy available to hawks will be 10% of 1 J, which is 0.1 J.
(ii) The producer level in the food chain is plants, so 100 J of energy is available in
plants as food. Applying the 10% law to the above food chain:
1. According to the 10% law, 10% of energy of plants will be available as food in
mice. Thus, the energy available to mice will be 10% of 100 J, which is 10 J.
2. The energy available to hawks will be 10% of 10 J, which is 1 J.
Hawks will get more energy in food chain because in this food chain there are three
trophic levels so the energy available will be more as compared to food chain which
has four trophic levels.
21. a)Name and state the law given by Lindeman which tells us how much
energy entering a particular trophic level of organisms is available for transfer to the
next higher trophic level.
(b) How much energy will be available to hawks in the food chain comprising
hawk, snake, paddy and mice, if 10,000 J of energy is available to paddy from the
sun?
Answer:
(a) The law given by Lindeman is 10% law. According to 10% law, only 10% of the
energy entering a particular trophic level of organisms is available for transfer to
next higher trophic level.
(b)
1. Paddy can trap only 1% of the sun’s energy falling on them. 1% of 10,000 J is
100 J, so paddy has 100 J of energy available in them as food.
2. Paddy is eaten up by mice. Now according to the 10% law, 10% of 100 J is 10 J
of energy which is available in mice.
3. The mice will transfer 10% of its 10 J energy to the snake. Thus, the food
energy available to the snake will be 10% of 10 J, which is 1 J.
4. 10% of 1 J will be transferred to hawk which will be 0.1 J.
22. (a) What is meant by ‘environment’ ?

(b) What type of substances are the major pollutants of the environment? Name
two such substances.
(c) Name the organisms whose uncontrolled activities are damaging the
environment.
(d) Explain why, it is better to use paper bags than plastic bags.
Answer:
(a)The physical and biological world together is called environment.
(b) The non- biodegradable wastes pollutes the environment like plastic and
polythene bags.
(c) Human beings are the only organisms which change the natural environment to
fulfill their needs. The uncontrolled activities of human beings are damaging the
balanced and healthy environment.
(d) Paper bags should be used for shopping because these are biodegradable
whereas plastic bags are non- biodegradable.
23. (a) Define an ecosystem. Give examples of any two ecosystems.

(b) List the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem.
Solution:
(a) An eco-system is a self-contained unit of living things(plants, animals and
decomposers), and their non-living environment (soil, air and water). Example – a
grass land and a forest.
(b)
1. Biotic component – The biotic components of the ecosystem is a community of
organisms which is made up of many different inter-dependent populations. It
includes – producers, consumers and decomposers.
2. Abiotic components – The abiotic components of the ecosystem (non-living
components) include the physical environment like soil, water and air along with the
in organic substances like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water and phosphorous.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

1. Organisms of a higher trophic level which feed on several types of organisms belonging to
a lower trophic level constitute the:
(a) food web (b) ecological pyramid
(c) ecosystem (d) food chain
2. Flow of energy in an ecosystem is always:
(a) unidirectional (b) bidirectional (c) multidirectional (d) no specific direction
3. Disposable plastic plates should not be used because:
(a) they are made of materials with light weight
(b) they are made of toxic materials
(c) they are made of biodegradable materials
(d) they are made of non-biodegradable materials
4. Depletion of ozone is mainly due to:
(a) chlorofluorocarbon compounds (b) carbon monoxide
(c) methane (d) pesticides
5. Organisms which synthesise carbohydrates from inorganic compounds using radiant
energy are called
(a) decomposers (b) producers (c) herbivores (d) carnivores
6. In an ecosystem, the 10% of energy available for transfer from one trophic level to the next
is in the form of
(a) heat energy (b) light energy
(c) chemical energy (d) mechanical energy
7. What will happen if deer is missing in the food chain given below?
Grass → Deer → Tiger
(a) the population of tiger increases (b) the population of grass decreases
(c) tiger will start eating grass
(d) the population of tiger decreases and the population of grass increases.
8. The decomposers in an ecosystem:
(a) convert inorganic material to simpler forms
(b) convert organic material to inorganic forms
(c) convert inorganic materials into organic compounds
(d) do not breakdown organic compounds
9. In a food chain, the third trophic level is always occupied by:
(a) carnivores (b) herbivores (c) decomposers (d) producers
10. An ecosystem includes:
(a) all living organisms
(b) non-living objects
(c) both living organisms and non-living objects
(d) sometimes living organisms and sometimes non-living objects
11. Which of the following limits the number of trophic levels in a food chain?
(a) decrease in energy at higher trophic levels (b) deficient food supply
(c) polluted air (d) water
12. In the given food chain suppose the amount of energy at fourth trophic level is 5 kJ, what
will be the energy available at the producer level?
Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk
(a) 5 kJ (b) 50 kJ (c) 500kJ (d) 5000kJ
13. Biotic components of an ecosystem include:
(a) producers (b) consumers (c) decomposers (d) all of these
14. Microorganisms (Bacteria and Fungi) of a food chain are:
(a) producers (b) consumers (c) decomposers (d) none of these
15. Excessive growth of algae in water causes:
(a) Bio-magnification (b) eutrophication (c) pollution (d) all of these.
16. Which of the following is biodegradable pollutant?
(a) DDT (b) Mercury (c) Sewage (d) Asbestos
17. Acid rain is caused by:
(a) SO2 SO3 (b) SO2, CO (c) CO, NH3 (d) SO2, NH3
18. In every food chain plants are :
(a) producers (b) decomposers (c) consumers (d) none of these
19. Amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next in a food chain is :
(a) 1.5% (b)10% (c) 15% (d)20%
20. Greenhouse effect is caused due to the :
(a) decrease in CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
(b) increase in CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
(c) depletion of ozone layer
(d) all of these.

answer as:
1. Assertion: The trophic level in a food chain should be limited.

Reason: There is a loss of energy as we go from one trophic level to the next, this
limits the number of trophic levels in a food chain.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
2. Assertion : The use of chemicals like CFCs have endangered the ozone layer.
Reason :
The ozone layer protect against the ultraviolet rays of the sun, this
could damage the environment.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
3. Assertion: The waste we generate may be biodegradable or non-
biodegradable.
Reason: The disposal of the waste use generate is causing serious
environment problems.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
4. Assertion: The green plants in a terrestrial ecosystem capture about 1% of the
energy of sunlight that falls on their leaves and convert it into food energy.
Reason: An average oI10% of the food eaten is turned into its own body and
made available for the next level of consumers.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
5. Assertion: Harmful chemicals are washed into the soil or into the water
bodies. From the soil these are absorbed by the plants along with water and
mineral and from the water bodies these are taken up by aquatic animals and
plants.
Reason: This is one of the ways in which they enter the food chain. As these
chemicals are not degradable, these get accumulated progressively at each
trophic level.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a)
15. OUR ENVIRONMENT: WORKSHEET 1
1. Which of the following organism is likely to have maximum concentration of DDT :
Algae, fish, water flea, frog, bird
2. What is the role of bacteria and fungi in an ecosystem?
3. What are trophic levels?
4. How much energy is transferred to the next trophic level in a food chain?
5. Which trophic level has the highest concentration of toxic substances in a food chain?
6. Mention some sources of CFC‘s.
7. Distinguish between a food chain & a food web
8. What would happen if there are no decomposers on earth?
9. What is a food chain? Write a five step food chain found in grass land with frog as
one of the members. What will happen to organisms at different trophic levels if
all the frogs are removed?
10. The number of malaria patients increased tremendously when a large number of
frogs were exported from the village .What could be the cause for it? Explain with
the help of a food chain.
11. What are the problems caused by the non-biodegradable wastes that we generate?
12. Food chains generally consist of only 3 or 4 trophic levels. Why is it so?

1. Shivang and his friends visited a town while they were on excursion. They were
served tea in cups of clay or Kulhad. Shivang asked for disposable plastic cups and
said Kulhad a dirty crockery and not safe for his health.3 (i) Do you agree Shivang
was right. (ii) Do you like disposable plastic cups? Give reasons in support of your
answer.
2. Why is lake considered to be natural ecosystem?
3. Give any two ways in which biodegradable substances would affect the
environment.
4. "Human beings occupy the top level in any food chain." What are the consequences
of this on our body?
5. "Improvements in our lifestyle have resulted in greater amounts of waste
generation." Give two examples to support the given statement. Suggest one change
that we can incorporate in our lifestyle in order to reduce non-biodegradable waste.
6. The following organisms form a food chain. Insect, hawk, Grass, Snake, Frog. Which
of these will have highest concentration of non-biodegradable chemicals? Name the
phenomenon
7. Which compounds are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer?
8. What will be the amount of energy available to the organisms of the 2nd trophic level
of a food chain, if the energy available at the first trophic level is 10,000 joules?
9. The depletion of ozone layer is a cause of concern. Why?
10. In the following food chain, 100J of energy is available to the lion. How much energy
was available to the producer? Plant Deer Lion
11. When plants are eaten by primary consumers, a great deal of energy is lost as heat to
the environment and some energy goes in carrying out various life processes. State
the average percentage of energy lost in this manner.
12. List two changes in habit that people must adopt to dispose non-iodegradable waste
for saving the environment.

1. Explain the phenomenon of 'biological magnification'. How does it affect organisms
belonging to different trophic levels particularly the tertiary consumers?
2. Differentiate between biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances with an
example each.
3. Study carefully the food chains given below:
Food chain I: grass—grasshopper—frog
Food chain II: Wheat-rat-snake-hawk
To which of the two consumers, snake or hawk will more energy (percent) be
available and why?
4. The activities of man had adverse effects on all forms of living organisms in
the biosphere. Unlimited exploitation of nature by man disturbed the delicate
ecological balance between the living and non-living components of the biosphere.
The unfavourable conditions created by man himself threatened the survival not
only of himself but also of the entire living organisms on the mother earth. One of
your classmates in an active member of ‘Eco club’ of your school which is creating
environmental awareness amongst the school students spreading the same in the
society and also working hard for preventing environmental degradation of the
surroundings. [CBSE,2016]
1. Why is it necessary to conserve our environment?
2. State the importance of green and blue dust-bins in the safe disposal of
the household waste.
5. Make an aquatic food chain up to tertiary consumer level. State the trophic level at
which concentration of pesticide is maximum and why?
6. Give an example to illustrate that indiscriminate use of pesticides may result-in
the degradation of the environment
7. Name two decomposers operating in our ecosystem
CHAPTER 16:
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Pollution of the Ganga:

The Ganga runs its course of over 2500 km from Gangotri in the Himalayas to Ganga
Sagar in the Bay of Bengal. It is being turned into a drain by more than a hundred
towns and cities in Utter Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal that pour their garbage
and excreta into it. Largely untreated sewage is dumped into the Ganga every day.
In addition pollution is caused by other human activities like bathing, washing of
clothes and immersion of ashes or unburnt matter also. And then, industries
contribute chemical effluents to the Ganga’s pollution load and the toxicity kills
fishes in large section of the river.
Ganga Action Plan
This plan was launched by Shri Rajeev Gandhi in 1985-1986. It is to improve the
water quality of Ganga by treatment, diversion and interception etc. It also includes
treatment of domestic sewage and industrial effluents before releasing them into
water bodies.
 Five R’s to save the environment:
(i)Refuse: Refuse to buy or accept products that can harm you, your company and
the environment. Use the power of your dollar to tell companies what you want and
do not want.
Think about freebies that companies give away. Now if you are going to use that pen
or reusable grocery bag, by all means take it, but if it will eventually end up in the
trash, then just say, “No.” Refuse to buy harmful products, like cleaners.
Refuse chemical solvents and use alternatives that are water based.
Refuse to receive materials from your supplies with unnecessary packaging that you
will later have to pay for to dispose.
Ask the question, “Why are we purchasing this item?” or, “Why do we need this?”
(ii) Reduce: This means ‘to use less’.
Limit the amount of time you drive, if possible walk
Use high efficiency light bulbs to conserve energy
Do not waste paper and things to reduce trash
We can save electricity by switching off unnecessary lights and fans. We can save
water by repairing leaky taps.
(iii) Recycle: This means that we can collect plastic, paper, glass and metal items and
recycle these materials to make required things instead of synthesizing or extracting
fresh plastic, paper, glass or metal. In order to recycle, we first need to segregate our
waste so that the material that can be recycled is not dumped along with other
waste.
(iv) Reuse: This is actually even better than recycling because the process of
recycling uses some energy. In the ‘reuse’ strategy, we can simply use things again
and again
(v) Repurpose: This means when a product can no more be used for the original
purpose, think carefully and use it for some other useful purpose. For example,
cracked crockery, or cups with broken handles can be used to grow small plants and
as feeding vessels for birds.
Forests and Wildlife
Forests are biodiversity hotspots. Biodiversity is defined as different types of
organism present on the earth. The main aim of conservation is to preserve the
biodiversity. The loss of biodiversity will lead to loss of ecological stability.
Stakeholders:
 They are the people living around the forests are dependent on forest and its
products.
 Forest department of the government owns the land and also control the
resources from forests.
 Industries that use forest produce .For Example Timber, Paper, Resin, Gum
medicines, Sports equipment industries.
 Wildlife and natural enthusiast who want to conserve the nature.
Bamboo is used to manufacture huts, baskets and also for food storage. Implements
used in agriculture, fishing is largely made up of wood. The government of India has
recently instituted an Amrita Devi Bishnoi national award for wildlife conservation
in the memory of an Amrita Devi Bishnoi who sacrificed her life to protect the trees
in 1731.
Steps for conservation of wildlife:
(A) Laws should be imposed to ban poaching or capturing of any animal or bird
belonging to an endangered species.
(B) The natural habitats of wild animals and birds should be preserved by
establishing National Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves throughout the
country.
(C) The Government Department should conduct periodic surveys of National
Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves to have knowledge of all the species of
wild animals and birds.
(D) More attention should be given to conserve the endangered species of wild
animals and birds to prevent their extinction.
(E) Unauthorized cutting of forest trees should be stopped
Management of Forest
Local communities have been working traditionally for conservation of forests and
trees. Magsaysay Award recipient Sunderlal Bahuguna gave momentum to the
Chipko Andolan. The Chipko Andolan was started in Reni in Garhwal. It was
started by villagers especially by women at Reni village who tried to stop the
commercial wood contractors from cutting the tree by hugging the trunk of the trees.
People Participation in the Management of Forests
The acceptance of locals who live in harmony with natural resources is vital for
forest conservation measures. In 1972, the West Bengal forest department found that
they have failed in maintaining the degraded Sal forests. Surveillance and policing
had led to complete alienation of the people which led to clashes between forest
officials and villagers. So, to overcome this, department was forced to changed the
strategy. Forest officer A.K. Banerjee involved villagers in protection of 1272 hectares
of badly degraded Sal forests in Arabari forest range of Midnapore district. In return
he allowed villagers to collect fuel wood and fodder on payment of nominal fee.
Also 25% of final harvest was given to village community.
Water for all
Water is required for fulfilling the basic needs of individuals. Human activities have
altered the availability of water in various regions. Rains in India are due to
monsoon. Common irrigation methods such as dams, canals and tanks are used in
various parts of India. These methods are maintained by local people. This helps in
storing water which can be used in agriculture. Not only in agriculture, daily needs
of the common people can be met through this water.
Management of Water Resources: It includes:
(i) Interacted water-shed plan for drinking, irrigation and industrial uses.
(ii) Flood control
(iii) Transfer of surplus water to water deficit basins by inter-linking of rivers.
(iv) Hydro geological survey to identify over-exploited areas.
(v) Artificial recharging of the ground water.
(vi) Mass awareness programmes through public or private agencies.
(vii) Dams : They are massive barriers built across rivers and streams to confine and
utilize the flow of water for human purposes such as irrigation and generation of
electricity.
• Large dams can also ensure the storage of adequate water.
• Canal system leading from dams transfer large quantity of water upto great
distances, e.g. Indira Gandhi Canal or Rajasthan brought greenery to considerable
areas.
• Purposes for building a dam: • Generation of electricity • Irrigation • Control
of flood which either stops or slows the amount of water in the river.
 Criticism about large dams:
• Social problems: They displace large number of farmers and tribals.
• Economic problems: They consume huge amount of public money without
proportionate benefit.
• Environmental problems. As they cause deforestation and loss of biological
diversity.
Water harvesting: It means capturing rainwater where it falls or capturing the runoff
water in a local area and talking measures to keep the water clean by not allowing
polluting activities to take place.
(A) Techniques of water harvesting: Water harvesting techniques are mainly
location specific. It is an age - old concept in India.
• Khadins, tanks and nadis in Rajasthan. • Bandharas and tals in Maharashtra
• Ahars and Pynes in Bihar • Kulhs in Himanchal Pradesh
• Ponds in kandi belt of Jammu. • Eris (tanks) in Tamilnadu.
• Suragams in kerala. • Kattas in Karnataka.
(B) Some of the water harvesting techniques are:
• Capturing of runoff water roof tops. • Capturing of runoff water from local
catchments. • Capturing seasonal flood water from local streams.
(C) Benefits of water harvesting:
• Provide drinking water. • Provide irrigation water. • Increase in ground water
resources. • Reduces storm water discharge, urban flood and overloading of
sewage treatment plants.
Ancient Method of Watershed Management System
Different methods of watershed management system are known since ancient times.
One of the method known as Khadins in Rajasthan which consists of a long earthen
embankment built across the lower hill slopes. The area enclosed by the
embankment is called as ‘bund’ which collects huge amount of rainwater which
flows down the slopes. Subsequently this water saturated land is used for crop
production.
(D) Advantages of ground water: • It does not evaporate. • It spreads out to
recharge wells. • It provides moisture for vegetation. • It does not provide
breeding grounds for mosquitoes. • It is relatively protected from contamination by
human and animal waste.
Coal and Petroleum
 They are the non-renewable natural resources.
 Coal is formed by the remains of the trees buried inside the earth.
 Petroleum is formed by the bacterial decomposition of dead plants and dead
animals. High pressure and temperature are needed for the formation of
petroleum.
 Both coal and petroleum are fossil fuels.
 They are getting used up at higher rate, so there are more chances that they get
exhausted soon.
Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels - Burning of fossil fuels release large amount of
carbon-dioxide, sulphur dioxide and other harmful gases. This causes air pollutions
and the harmful effects of air pollution. This also raises the earth temperature and
thus leads to global warming.
Steps to minimize the pollution from Fossil Fuels
 Reduce the use and burning of fossil fuels.
 Use of CNG in transport vehicles to reduce pollution.
 Alternative sources of energy such as Hydroelectricity, nuclear, solar, wind power
and biogas should be used.
1. Natural resources: They are those substances or materials that exist in nature which are
being exploited for supporting life and meeting the needs of human beings. These include
air, water, forests, soil, minerals, fossil fuels etc.
2. Resources: A resource is any means of supplying a material held in reserve which can be
transformed into more valuable and useful item.
3. Pollution: Any undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of
our soil, air or water which harmfully affects human lives or lives of other species.
4. Ganga Action Plan: It is a multi-crore project launched in 1985 which has been
undertaken to clean the Ganga river.
5. Biodiversity: The existence of a wide variety of species of plants, animals, microbes in a
natural habitat within a particular environment is called biodiversity.
6. Sustainable development : The development which can be maintained for a long time
that meets the need of present generation without compromising the ability and needs for
future generations without any damage to the environment.
7. Conservation of natural resources: The controlled utilisation of natural resources for the
benefit of life so that it may yield sustainable benefit to the present as well as future
generations is called conservation of natural resources
8. Watershed management: Scientific conservation of soil and water to increase biomass
production is called watershed management.
9. Rain water harvesting: The technique to capture and store rain water for future use by
making special water harvesting structures is called rain water harvesting.
10. Fossil fuels: The fuels that are obtained from dead remains of plants and animals which
got buried beneath the earth millions of years ago are called fossil fuels.
11. Silviculture: Practice of growing trees. Helpful in replenishment of forests.
12. Colifom: Group of gram negative, rod shaped bacteria found in polluted water and in
human intestine.
Euro norms refer to the permissible emission levels from both petrol and diesel vehicles,
which have been implemented in Europe. However in India, the government has adopted
the Euro norms for available fuel quality and the method of testing. Euro norms have been
given a name of Bharat-I, Bharat-IV, etc.
Refer-https ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_emission_standards
https ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_credit
The ways in which you can reduce the carbon emission levels are:
(i) Use public transport (ii) Conserve energy (iii) Manage resources in a better way (iv)
Conservation of nature and natural resources (v) Creating awareness among people
regarding need of conservation (vi) Plant more trees (vii) Reduce the carbon emissions from
industries (viii) Strictly adhere to the pollution under control norms (ix) Use devices in
industries to reduce carbon emissions (x) Proper planning and switching over to sources
that emit less carbon
Refer-
https://www.findouter.com/Asia/India/ScienceandSocialScience/Environment/EnvironmentalOrganisations
We can contribute towards the same cause by actively participating in the activities of such
organisations and creating awareness among the people of our locality and society.
Yes, the pollution levels of water can be indicated by the levels of pH of the water body.
However, certain other variables like the Coliform count, Tota1 Dissolved Solids and
Conductivity of Suspended sediment etc. can supplement the data regarding the levels of
pollution of the water.
The changes one would observe are that
(i) Forests cleared to use the land for agricultural fields.
(ii) New houses have been constructed in place of mud huts.
(iii) The non-metalled roads have replaced the metalled roads.
The destruction of forests to make agricultural fields should be minimised.
The forest produce which we use are-resins, gums, timber or wood, fruits, medicines, etc.
The persons living near a forest would use:
(i) timber-wood (ii) fruits (iii) spices (iv) wood to make paper (v) tendu leaves for making
bidis (vi) products of plantation of one species of plants (vii) resins and gums
The persons living in forest would use them for:
(i) fire-wood to be used as fuel (ii) fruits (iii) collection of honey (iv) fodder for cattle (v)
making implements for agriculture and construction (vi) medicines (vii) material for thatch
roof of their huts
(i) Tendu leaves are used for making bidis
(ii) Wood obtained from trees used in paper industry, furniture industry; wood from Salix
species for making cricket bats etc.
No, these industries are not sustainable in the long run as they are being overexploited for
human needs. So, we need to control our consumption of the products obtained from such
trees.
(a) A lot of trees and vegetation is needed to be cut down for building rest houses for
tourists in national parks. This is not good for the ecological balance of the area. Making
such rest houses in National parks increases the levels of air pollution, noise pollution, etc.
and the uncontrolled littering in such areas is a common sight these days which is very
detrimental for the animals living in the area.
(b) Grazing animals in the national parks if carried out in an uncontrolled manner can lead
to soil erosion as the grasses which bind the soil particles will not be there and so soil would
be easily washed away during rains. The water holding capacity and ability to sustain the
growth of larger trees will also be affected in absence of grass cover. Even the animals
residing in the forest would be deprived of their food if large scale overgrazing is carried
out.
(c) Tourists throwing plastic bottles/covers and other litter in national parks plays a havoc
on the nature as these substances are non-biodegradable and they take several years to get
completely degraded. The toxins which are released during their degradation further pollute
the soil of the national parks. Plastics can choke the alimentary canals of the animals
swallowing them and lead to their death. These substances also give an unpleasant look to
the area due to their littering here and there.
The use of water resources merely for entertainment of few people when a large chunk of
people from villages are suffering from chronic water shortage is very pathetic and
shameful. Such a misuse of water should be stopped and the water should be diverted to the
village for the use by the people during shortage of water. We need to manage our resources
in a way that the distribution is equitable and useful to a large section of the society rather
than catering to the needs of a few people. A big solution can he provided to the chronic
water shortages in the village if rainwater is properly channelized, wastage of water is
reduced, people are sensitised towards the need for conservation of water and the water
resources should be managed in the most efficient way to fulfil the goals of sustainable
development.
The maximum rainfall is received in the North east part of India and the western coastal
regions of India.
Mawsynram is the place where highest rainfall has been recorded till date. The area with
least amount of rainfall are the North- western parts of India which include the states like
Rajasthan, Haryana, parts of Gujarat and Punjab, so problems of water scarcity is more
prevalent in these regions. The map showing the rainfall patterns in India is shown below:
The consumption of coal and petroleum can be reduced in the following ways:
(i) More use of public transport than personal vehicles'
(ii) conserving electricity by switching off fans and lights, when not in use.
(iii) Use of solar cookers for cooking food in the areas which get good amount of sunlight.
(iv) Use alternative sources of energy like the solar energy, wind energy etc.
(v) use of biogas to generate electricity and to use as domestic fuel.
(vi) The energy efficient devices like LED's, higher Bureau of energy efficiency rating
products etc.
(vii) Save fuel by using bicycles or walking for covering short distances
(viii) An extra sweater can be worn in winters to save fuel electricity used in a heating
device.
(ix) Less use of lavish lightning and decorations in weddings and public functions.
(x) Keeping the engines of vehicles well tuned and serviced to save fuel.
Euro norms refer to the permissible emission levels from both petrol and diesel vehicles,
which have been implemented in Europe (EU-European Union). The Euro norms require
manufacturers to reduce the existing polluting Emission Levels from the exhausts in a more
efficient manner by making certain technical changes in the engines of the vehicles. The
Euro-I norms was implemented from the year 1992-93. Euro-1 norms in India are known as
India 2000 since it was implemented from 1/4/2000 in India. The changes required to be
made by manufacturers for a euro I compliant car focussed primarily on: (a) catalyser
capacity increase (b) tri metal coating in the catalyser (c) exhaust gas recirculation (d)
carburettor retuning (e) secondary air intake.
The Euro-I and Euro-II norms are given in the table below:
1. What changes can you make in your habits to become more environment friendly?
The changes that I can make in my habits to become environment friendly are
(i) To stop misuse of water
(ii) To stop misuse of electrical energy.
(iii) Maximise the use of solar energy.
(iv)To make aware others about environmental conditions
(v) To say ‘No’ to plastic bags.
(vi)To separate garbage as bio-degradable and non bio-degradable.
(vii) To compost organic wastes
(viii) To stop burning garbage
(ix) To reduce paper consumption
(x) Never litter.
(xi) To avoid chemical pesticides and other toxic substances.
(xii) To save trees
(xiii) To give emphasis on 5R’s – Refuse, Reduce, Recycle, Repurpose and Reuse.
2. What would be the advantages of exploiting resources with short-term aims?
There should be a judicious use of natural resources as they are limited in nature. We should
not exploit resources for our short term gains as this would only lead to depletion of natural
resources for the present generation as well as generations to come.
Thus, there should be a judicious use of natural resources. We should not exploit resources
for our short term gains as this would only lead to depletion of natural resources for the
present generation as well as generations to come.
3. How would these advantages differ from the advantages of using a long-term
perspective in managing our resources?
In the case of a long-time perspective in managing our resources, these resources will last for
longer period. Thus, future generation can also use them. This management ensures uniform
distribution among the people. These measures help in their conservation. It maintains the
balance in environment & they last long for many years and not just for a few years, as in the
case of a short-term perspective in conserving natural resources.
4. Why do you think there should be equitable distribution of resources? What forces
would be working against an equitable distribution of our resources?
Natural resources of the Earth must be distributed among the people uniformly so that each
and every one gets his share of the resource.
Greed, corruption, etc. Are factors which works against an equitable distribution of
resources.
5. Why should we conserve forests and wildlife?
Forests and wildlife should be preserved because of many advantages:
Helps in maintaining ecological stability.
A large number of tribes are the habitants in and around the forests. If the forests are not
conserved, then it may affect these habitants.
Without proper management of forest and wildlife, the quality of soil, the water sources,
and even the amount of rainfall may be affected.
Without forest and wildlife, life would become impossible for human beings.
6. Suggest some approaches towards the conservation of forests.
Some approaches towards the conservation of forests are as:
(a) People should encourage each other for not cutting trees.
(b) Planting of trees should be increased.
(c) Habitants of forests must not be bothered by the forest officials.
7. Find out about the traditional systems of water harvesting/management in your region.
In recent years, many parts of our country have been facing crisis of ground water
availability. There is thus a greater need of surface for water collection, storage, treatment
and supply at household level for domestic use. many indigenous water saving methods
have been used by local communities to capture whatever water falls in their land, like
digging small pits and lakes, building small earthen dams and reservoirs and setting up roof
top rain water harvesting units.
In different parts of our country, rainwater harvesting was practised in different ways.
In Madhya Pradesh, Check dams, tanks and community lift irrigation schemes were used to
overcome drought. As a result, food protection increased by 38% in between 1990 and 1995.
In Andhra Pradesh also, percolation tanks and check dams were constructed to overcome
drought. Even in Maharashtra, percolation tanks were used to convert drought-prone areas
into green lands.
In Jodhpur (Rajasthan), Gramin Vigyan vikas samiti motivated people to build storage
tanks. Water harvesting techniques are highly specific for specific areas and the benefits are
also localised. These days, rooftop rainwater harvesting is practised. It is a method of direct
collection of rainwater from rooftop of buildings, our houses as well as those of industries.
The rainwater collected can be stored for direct use or can be allowed to reach the ground
water. Once the water reaches the ground water, water table is raised. It is thus, a solution to
the problem of depleting groundwater.
8. Compare the above system with the probable systems in hilly/mountainous areas or
plains or plateau regions.
Solution: In plains, the water harvesting structures are crescent-shaped earthen
embankments. These are low, straight, and concrete.
In hilly regions, the system of canal irrigation called Kulhs is used for water harvesting. This
involves a collection of rain water in a stream, which is then diverted into man-made
channels down the hill sides.
8. Find out the source of water in your region/locality. Is water from this source available
to all people living in that area?
The source of water in our region is ground water. Water from the source is available to all
the people living in that area.
9. What changes would you suggest in your home in order to be environment friendly?
Changes that can be undertaken in our homes to be environment-friendly are listed below:
 Switch off the electrical appliances when not in use.
 Turn the taps off while brushing or bathing.
 Throw biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste into separate bins.
 Repair the leaking taps
 Food items like pickles, etc., come packed in plastic bottles. These bottles can later be
used for storing things in the kitchen.
 Construct composting pits
10. Can you suggest some changes in your school which would make it environment-
friendly?
Changes that can be undertaken in our schools to make it environment friendly are listed
below:
 Save electricity by switching off lights and fans when not required.
 Turn the taps off when not in use.
 Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes should be thrown into separate bins.
11. We saw in this chapter that there are four main stakeholders when it comes to forests
and wildlife. Which among these should have the authority to decide the management of
forest produce? Why do you think so?
The forest department of the government should have the authority to decide the
management of forest produces. This is because the forest department is the care taker of the
forest land and is responsible for any damage to the forest.
12. How can you as an individual contribute or make a difference to themanagement of (a)
forests and wildlife, (b) water resources and (c) coal and petroleum?
Forest and wildlife:
 Stop deforestation
 Stop poaching of wild animals.
 Stop the annexation of forest land for our use.
Water resources:
 Turn the taps off while not in use.
 Practice rainwater harvesting.
 Avoid the discharge of sewage and other wastes into rivers and other water
resources.
Coal and petroleum:
 Use public transport mostly
 Stop using coal as a fuel
Use alternative sources of energy such as hydro-energy and solar energy instead of
depending largely on coal and petroleum.
13. What can you as an individual do to reduce your consumption of the various natural
resources?
Natural resources such as water, forests, coal and petroleum, etc. are important for the
survival of human beings.
The ways in which we can reduce the consumption of various natural resources are as:
 Don’t waste water
 Practice rainwater harvesting
 Stop deforestation
 Use recycled paper to reduce the cutting down of trees.
 Practice car-pooling to avoid the excessive use of petroleum.
14. List five things you have done over the last one week to −
(a) Conserve our natural resources
(b) Increase the pressure on our natural resources
To conserve our natural resources:
 Walk for short distances & for long distance use public transport
 Plant trees
 Practice rain water harvesting
 Use recycled paper
 Throw biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste into separate bins
To increase the pressure on our natural resources:
 Use private transport instead of public
 Waste water
 Use non-renewable resources of energy
 Waste electricity
 Use plastics and polythene bags for carrying goods
15. On the basis of the issues raised in this chapter, what changes would you incorporate
in your life-style in a move towards a sustainable use of our resources?
Changes can be:
 Switch off electrical appliances when not in use.
 Save electricity.
 Take stairs and avoid using lifts
 Avoid cutting trees and practice forestation
 Avoid usage of plastic and polythene bags
 Use recycled paper
 Waste minimum amount of water
 Practice rainwater harvesting.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. It is important to make small check dams across the flooded gullies because they:
(i) hold water for irrigation
(ii) hold water and prevent soil erosion
(iii) recharge groundwater
(iv) hold water permanently
(a) (i) and (iv) (b) (ii)and (iii)
(c) (iii) and(iv) (d) (ii) and(iv)
2. The three R's that will help us to conserve natural resources for long term use are:
(a) recycle, regenerate, reuse (b) reduce, regenerate, reuse
(c) reduce, reuse, redistribute (d) reduce, recycle, reuse
3. Arabari forest of Bengal is dominated by:
(a) teak (b) sal (c) bamboo (d) mangrove
4. A successful forest conservation strategy should involve:
(a) protection of animals at the highest trophic level
(b) protection of only consumers
(c) protection of only herbivores
(d) comprehensive programme to protect all the physical and biological components
5. The important message conveyed by the 'Chipko Movement' is :
(a) to involve the community in forest conservation efforts
(b) to ignore the community in forest conservation efforts
(c) to cut down forest trees for developmental activities
(d) government agencies have the unquestionable right to order destruction of trees in forest
6. The pH of water sample collected from a river was found to be acidic in the range of 3.5 -
4.5, on the banks of the river were several factories that were discharging effluents into the
river. The effluents of which one of the following factories is the most likely cause for
lowering the pH of river water?
(a) soap and detergent factor
(b) lead battery manufacturing factory
(c) plastic cup manufacturing factory
(d) alcohol distillery
7. Groundwater will not be depleted due to :
(a) afforestation
(b) thermal power plants
(c) loss of forest, and decreased rainfall
(d) cropping of high water demanding crops
8. Opposition to the construction of large dams is due to:
(a) social reasons (b) economic reasons (c) environmental reasons (d) all the above.
9. Khadins, Bundhis, Ahars and Kattas are ancient structures that are examples for
(a) grain storage (b) wood storage (c) water harvesting (d) soil conservation
10. Which of the following are known as "Green gold" of a country?
(a) National parks (b) Sanctuaries (c) Forests (d) Greenhouse gases.
11. All types of papers used in daily life are produced from
(a) Wood and bamboo (b) Cotton (c) Minerals (d) None of these
12. Who amongst the following are stakeholders of forests?
(i) The people (ii) Forest Department (iii) Industrialists (iv) All of them
13. Coal and petroleum are
(a) Fossil fuels (b) Non-renewable energy resources
(c) Sources of air pollutants (d) All of these.
14. Amrita Devi Bishnoi National Award is given for
(a) Forest conservation (b) Wildlife conservation
(c) Rainwater harvesting (d) Ecological conservation
15. What is the name given for replenishment of forests ?
(a) Afforestation (b) Silviculture (c) Deforestation (d) Sericulture
ASSERTION AND RESONING QUESTIONS:

answer as:
1. Assertion : Our resources like forests, wild life, water, coal and petroleum need to be
used in a sustainable manner.
Reason : We can reduce pressure on the environment by sincerely applying the
maxim of
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle in our lives.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
2. Assertion : Management of forest resources has to take into account the interests of
various stakeholders.
Reason: The various stakeholders include:
(i) The people who are dependent on forest produce
(ii) The forest department of the Government,
(iii) The industrialist, who use various forest produce but are not dependent on the
forests in any one area
(iv) The Wild life and nature enthusiasts who want to conserve nature in its pristine
form.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
3. Assertion : The harnessing of water resources by building dams has social, economic
and environmental implications.
Reason: Alternatives to large dams exist. These are locale-specific and may be
developed so as to give local people control over their local resources.
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
4. Assertion: The fossil fuels, coal and petroleum, will ultimately be exhausted.
Reason: Because of this and because their combustion pollutes our environment, we
need to use these resources judiciously.
FINAL REVISION 1 -BIOLOGY
LIFE PROCCESS
1. State the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and name the by product. Mention
the source of this by product.
2. Write three events which occur during the process of photosynthesis.
3. Where does digestion start in our alimentary canal? Name the enzyme secreted in that
part and write its function.
4. i) Name the extensively coiled structure of alimentary canal.
ii) Compare length of the small intestine in herbivores and carnivores.
5. The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger like projections. What are they
called? List their functions.
6. (a) draw a well labelled diagram of human alimentary canal, and label the following parts:
i) Liver ii) Pancreas iii) Small intestine iv) Large intestine.
(b) What is peristaltic movement?
7. Define breathing. Explain the mechanism of breathing in human beings.
8. Explain the activity with diagram to show that carbon dioxide is essential for
photosynthesis.
9. List in tabular form the two differences between aerobic respiration. Why do we feel
cramps in our muscles during sudden physical activity?
10. How is carbon dioxide and oxygen transported in human being?
11. i) Draw the human respiratory system and label the following- lung, bronchi and
alveolar sac.
ii) During breathing cycle, what is the advantage of residual volume of air in lungs? Explain.
12. Write three points of differences between artery and vein.
13. i) Mention the site of exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells.
ii) Draw a schematic representation of transport and exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
14. Describe the process of double circulation in human beings.
15. List the three kinds of blood vessels of human circulatory system and write their
functions in tabular form.
16. Plants absorb water from the soil. Explain how does the water reach the tree top?
17. How water enter continuously into the root xylem?
18. How do leaves in plants help in excretion?
19. Major amount of water selectively reabsorbed by the tubular part of nephron in humans.
What are the factors on which the amount of water reabsorbed depends?
20. List some important functions of kidney.
21. What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
CONTROL & COORDINATION

1. What is phototropism? Describe an activity to demonstrate phototropism. Or
i) Write an activity to show phototropism and geotropism.
ii) What type of movement is shown by mimosa plant leaves when touched with a finger?
2. Define positive geotropism and negative geotropism. Give one example of each.
3. Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism.
4. Give one example, of following plants:
i) Which is (i) positively phototrophic and (ii) negatively geotropic.
ii) Which is positively hydrotropic as well as positively geotropic?
iii) Which synthesises auxin?
5. Name and state briefly one function each of any three phyto – hormones.
6. Illustrate with the help of a diagram, the effect of auxins in different parts of a plant.
7. Draw a neat diagram of human brain and label on it the following parts:
i) Mid brain ii) Pituitary gland iii) Cerebellum iv) Cerebrum Or
i) Draw a well- labelled diagram of human brain.
ii) Which is the main thinking part of brain?
8. Define reflex action. Give one example. Show with the help of a flow diagram the path of
the reflex action.
9. Write tree main functions of the nervous system.
10. Explain the feedback mechanism to regulate the action of the hormones with the help of
one suitable example.
11. Which hormone is known as emergency hormone in our body? How it helps in coping
during emergency.
12. a) An old man is advised by his doctor to take less sugar in his diet. Name the disease
from which the man is suffering. Mention the hormone due to imbalance of which he is
suffering from this disease. Which endocrine gland secretes this hormone?
b) Name the endocrine gland which secretes growth hormone. What will be effect of the
following on a person: i) Deficiency of growth hormone?
ii) Excess secretion of growth hormone.
13. Name the hormone which regulates carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism in our
body. Which gland secretes this hormone? Why is it important for us to have iodised salt in
our diet?
14. Explain how muscles change their shape?
15. For a receiving tennis player, what is the path from the stimulus to the response?
16. i) Define receptor and state their location in our body. Mention any two receptors present
in our forebrain and their functions
ii) How do nerve impulses travel in our body?
17. a) Draw the structure of a neuron and label the following on it :
i) Dendrite ii) Cell body iii) Nucleus iv) Axon
b) Name the parts of a neuron: i) Where information is acquired ii) Through which
information travels as an electrical impulse
18. i) Define reflex arc. Draw a flowchart showing the sequence of events which occur
during sneezing. ii) List four plant hormones. Write one function of each.
19. i) Define reflex action. State its significance. ii) How do plants respond to external
stimuli?
20. i) Write names of hormones secreted by pituitary gland and adrenal gland. State their
functions in the body. ii) Explain feedback mechanism for regulation of hormonal secretion
with the help of one example.
21. What are hormones? Give the name of associated glad and functions of different animal
hormones.
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
1. Define reproduction. How does it help in providing stability to the population of species?
2. In the context of reproduction of species state the main difference between fission and
fragmentation. Also give one example of each.
3. Explain the term “Regeneration” as used in relation to reproduction of organisms.
Describe briefly how regeneration is carried out in multicellular organisms like hydra.
4. What is multiple fission? How does it occur in an organism ? explain briefly. Name one
organism which exhibits this type of reproduction.
5. . i) With the help of a diagram demonstrate the process of regeneration as see in Planaria.
ii) Which type of cells are used by such multicellular organisms to regenerate?
6. Why is DNA copying an essential why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of
reproduction? What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
Or
Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?
7. Write one main difference between asexual and sexual mode of reproduction. Which
species is likely to have comparatively better chances of survival – the one reproducing
asexually or the one reproducing sexually? Justify your answer.
8. How do organisms, whether reproduced asexually or sexually maintain a constant
chromosome number through several generations? Explain with the help of suitable
example.
9. What happens when i) Planaria gets cut into two pieces? ii) A mature spirogyra filament
attains considerable length? iii) On maturation sporangia burst?
10. What is meant by pollination? Name and differentiate between the two types of
pollination.
11. What is sexual reproduction ? List its four significance.
12.Name the parts A,B and C shown in the following diagram and state one function of
each.
13. Name the parts A,B and C shown in the diagram and write their functions.
14. a) List two reasons for the appearance of variations among the progeny formed by
Sexual reproduction. b) i) Name the part marked ‘A’ in the diagram.
ii) How does ‘A’ reaches part ‘B’? iii) State the importance of the part ‘C’
(IV) what happens to the part marked ‘D’ after fertilization is over?
15. Name the reproductive parts of an angiosperm. Where are these parts located?
Explain in brief the structure of its female reproductive parts.
16. Draw a diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower exhibiting germination of pollen
of stigma and label (i) Ovary, (ii) Male germ-cell, (iii) Female – germ cell and (iv) ovule on it.
17. What are the functions of testis in the human male reproductive system? Why are these
located outside the abdominal cavity? Who is responsible for bringing about changes in
appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty?
18. What is placenta? Write any two major functions of placenta.
19. Mention the role of the following organs of human male reproductive system: (i) Testis;
(ii) Scrotum; (iii) Vas deferens; (iv) prostate glands What are two roles of testosterone?
20. What is placenta? Explain its functions in humans. Or what is placenta? State its function
in human female.
21. DNA content has the tendency to double itself during sexual reproduction due to
combining of the genetic materials from two parents. How can the problem of DNA
doubling be solved to maintain the consistency of the genetic material throughout the
species?
22. List four points of significance of reproductive health in a society. Name any two areas
related to reproductive health which have improved over the past 50 years in our country.
23. Suggest three contraceptive methods to control the size of human population which is
essential for the health and prosperity of a country. State the basic principle involved in
each.
HEREDITY & EVOLUTION

1. Explain Mendel’s experiment with peas on inheritance of characters considering only one
visible contrasting character.
2. How do Mendel’s experiment show that traits are inherited independently?
3. List two differences in tabular form between dominant trait and recessive traits. What
percentage /proportion of the plants in the F2generation/progeny were round, in Mendel’s
cross between round and wrinkled pea plants?
4. In one of his experiments with pea plants Mendel observed that when a pure tall plea
plant is crossed with a pure dwarf pea plants, in the first generation,F1 only tall plants
appear. i) What happens to the traits of the dwarf plants in this case?
ii) When the F1 both tall plants and dwarf plants were present. Thy it happened? Explain
briefly.
5. How did Mendel interpret his result to show that traits may be dominant or recessive ?
Describe firefly.
6. In a monohybrid cross between tall pea plants (TT) and short pea plants (t t) a scientist
obtained only tall pea plants (Tt) in the F1 generation. However, on selfing the F1 generation
pea plants, he obtained both tall and short plants in F2 generation. On the basis of above
observations with other angiosperms also, can the scientist arrive at a law ? it yes, explain
the law. It not, give justification for your answer.
7. ‘Different species use different strategies to determine sex of a newborn individual. It can
be environmental cues or genetically determined.’ Explain the statement by giving example
for each strategy.
8. With the help of suitable examples, explain why certain traits cannot be passed on to the
next generation. What are such traits called?. i) Do genetic combination of mother play a
significant role in determining the sex of a new born ?
ii) Why do all gametes formed in human females have an X chromosomes?
9.. i) Why did Mendel choose garden pea for his experiments? Write two reasons.
ii) List two contrasting visible characters of garden pea Mendel used for his experiment.
iii) Explain in brief how Mendel interpreted his results to show that the traits may be
dominant or recessive.
10.What is speciation? Explain in brief the role of natural selection and genetic drift in this
process.
11.Explain with an example for each, how the following provides evidences in favour of
evolution in organisms: i) Homologous organs ii)Analogous organs iii) Fossils.
12.Define evolution. Why are traits acquires during life time of an individual not inherited?
13. Name three organisms which are fossilized.
14. There are two different types of organs, homologous and analogous. Differentiate
between them by giving three points.
15. List three factors that provide evidences in favour of evolution in organisms and state the
role of each in brief.
16. a) Cite the evidence on the basis of which it is concluded that birds have evolved from
reptiles.
b) Insects, octopus, Planaria and Vertebrates also possess eyes. can these animals be grouped
together on the basis of the eyes they possess. Thy or why not ? Give reason to justify your
answer.
17. i) Planaria, insects, octopus and vertebrates all have eyes. Can we group eyes of these
animals together to establish a common evolutionary origin? Justify your answer.
ii) “Birds have evolved from reptiles”. State an evidence to prove the statement.
OUR ENVIRONMENT
1) What is an ecosystem? List its two main components. We do not clean natural ponds or
lakes but an aquarium needs to be cleaned regularly. Why is it so? Explain.
2) What is meant by food chain? “the number of tropic levels in a food chain is limited.”
Give reason to justify this statement.
3) “energy flow in food chains is always unidirectional”. Justify this statement. Explain how
the pesticides enter a food chain and subsequently get into our body.
4) Give reason to justify the following:
i) The existence of decomposers is essential in a biosphere.
ii) Flow of energy in a food chain is unidirectional.
5) “Our food grains such as wheat and rice, the vegetables and fruits and even meat are
found to contain varying amounts of pesticide residues”. State the reason to explain how
and why it happens?
6) Why is only 10% of energy made available to the next trophic level when green plants are
eaten by herbivores?
7) Define the following i) Food chain, ii) Trophic level, iii) Producers, iv) Parasites,
v) Non- biodegradable substances.
8) . i) What is the full form of (a)UNEP, (b)CFCs.
ii) On what basis are organisms grouped as producers, consumers and decomposers?
iii) Write two problems that would arise if there were no decomposers in an ecosystem.
9) What is ozone? Show the reactions of formation of ozone from oxygen in the atmosphere.
10) What is ozone? How and where is it formed in the atmosphere? Explain how does it
affect an ecosystem.
11) Explain the role of UV radiation in formation of ozone with the help of a chemical
reaction. Name the pollutant and write its role in depletion of ozone layer.
12) Write the harmful effects of using plastic bags, on the environment suggest alternatives
to plastic bags.
13) In some states of our country there is a ban on the use of polythene bags for shopping.
Why? List three advantages of using jute of cloth bags over polythene bags.
14) Why is Government of India imposing a ban on the use of polythene bags? suggest two
alternatives to use these bags and explain how this ban is likely to improve th environment.
15) You have been selected to talk on “ozone layer and its protection” in the school assembly
on ‘Environment day’.
a) Why should ozone layer be protected to save the environment ?
b) List any two ways that you would stress in your talk to bring in awareness amongst your
fellow friends that would also help in protection of ozone layer as well as the environment.
16) What are the problems caused by the non-biodegradable wastes that we generate?
17) Differentiate between biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances with the help of
one example each. List two changes in habit that people must adopt to dispose non-
biodegradable waste, for saving the environment.
18) Why are green plants called producers?
MANGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
1). i) Name any two fossil fuels. Why are they so- called?
ii) Mention the role of forests in conserving the environment. How do the forests get
depleted?
2). i) Name four main components of coal and petroleum.
ii) List the benefits which Chipko movement brought to local population.
3). i) Although coal and petroleum are produced by degradation of biomass, yet we need to
conserve them. Why?
ii) List any two causes for the failure of sustained availability of ground water.
4). a) What is sustainable development? Why is it necessary?
b) What is water harvesting? List its four benefits.
5). a) In the context of conservation of natural resources, explain the terms reduce, recycle
and reuse.
b) Why is conservation of water necessary? State any four reasons.
6) Define the following terms:
(i) Coliform, (ii) Recycling, (iii) Sustainable development,, (iv)Chipko Andolan, (v)
Watershed management.
7. Eco-club of your school is organizing a debate on the topic ‘Nature’s Fury Unleashed by
Human’s Greed’ ( Uttarakhand Disaster).
i) List three arguments that you will use to convince the audience that humans are
responsible for this disaster.
ii) List any three values that will be inculcated with this debate.
8) How does the water of Ganga get polluted?
9) “Economic growth and ecological conservation should go hand in hand”. Explain why?
10) What is water harvesting? How can this technique help in the conservation of water?
11) List four advantages of properly managed watershed management.
12) List four advantages of conserving water in the form of ground water.
13) List any two advantages associated with water stored in the ground.
14) “Burning of fossil fuels results in global warming”. Give reasons to justify this statement.
15) Burning of fossil fuel is causing great environmental concern. Mention the consequences
of combustion of fossil fuels.
16) Why do we seek construction of dams? Mention any two problem faced with the
construction of large dams ?
Or
The construction of large dams leads to social and environment problems. List two problems
of each category.
FINAL REVISION 2 -BIOLOGY

LIFE PROCESSES
1. How would digestion of food be affected, if the bile duct is completely blocked?
2. Name the physical process which is actually responsible for the gaseous exchange
between blood and alveoli.
3. Name the structure masked as ‘x’ in the given figure and also mention the functions
of the structure.
4. Why are veins provided with valves?

5. Name two autotrophic plants which also show heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Why
do they need to switch to the later mode?
6. The diagram given below shows parts of the human respiratory system. Identify and
name the parts labelled as A-D in the figure.
7. Explain the importance of haemoglobin and villi in human beings.

8. Explain the working of lungs as organs of excretion.
9. (a) Why transport of food in plants requires living tissues and energy? (b) Name the
components of food that are transported by the living tissues.
10. Given below is a diagram showing a section through
the heart.
(a) Identify parts labelled as X,Y and Z in the figure.
(b) Among the following given blood vessels, identify
those
(i) Which carry oxygenated blood.
(ii) Which carry deoxygenated blood. ‘Pulmonary
artery, Pulmonary vein, Aorta, Venacava’
11. Our body produces various waste products as the end
products of different processes. List the waste
products, with the organs involved in their removal.
12. (a) In which form oxygen and CO2 are transported in the blood? (b) What happens to
the muscles of the diaphragm, the external intercostal muscles and the position of
diaphragm during inspiration and expiration?
(c) Why do walls of trachea not collapse, when there is less air in it?
13. Shravanth told his father that plants exude out a lot of water in the vapour form
through leaves. Define this process. What is its importance? How do stomata help in
this process?
PRACTICAL BASED QUESTIONS:

14. Trisha followed the given procedures for staining the temporary mount of leaf peel
on slide
(i) Put a single drop of glycerine on material.
(ii) Put a single drop of stain on material and wash it with water.
(iii) Cover the material with cover slip.
(iv) Observe the slide under microscope.
Arrange these procedures in the correct sequence of experiment.
15. Which type of respiration and reaction will take place in the germinating seeds in the
experimental setup showing CO2 is evolved during respiration?
16. Plants show respiration from most of their body parts. Can we use roots in the
experiment to prove that CO2 is evolved during respiration?
CONTROL AND COORDINATION
1. We suddenly pull our hand away on touching a
pointed object. Name the type of response
involved in this action.
2. Name the part of brain which takes part in reflex
movement of head in response to auditory stimuli.
3. State the main function of Cerebrospinal fluid.
4. Give the exact location of adrenal gland.
5. Name the gland which produces testosterone.
6. Label the parts(A), (B), (C) and (D) and show the direction of flow of electrical signals
in the given figure.
7. What is autonomic nervous system? Name the branches in which it is divided.
8. What are tropic movements? Name the type of tropic movements observed in plants.
9. ‘This plant hormone has its maximum concentration in fruits and seeds. ‘Name the
plant hormone. Also, mention its function.
10. Give reason for the following (a) Injury to the medulla oblongata results in death. (b)
Pituitary gland is also known as the master gland.
11. Auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support. How?
12. Answer the following
(a) Which hormone promotes cell elongation and division in plants?
(b) The effect of gibberellin is opposed due to which plant hormone?
(c) Name the hormone whose deficiency results in dwarfism.
(d) Name the endocrine gland associated with brain.
(e) Which gland secretes digestive enzymes as well as hormones?
(f) Which endocrine gland is present in females but not in males?
13. With labelled diagram, describe an activity to show that gravity changes the
direction of a plant part.
14. (a) Name the hormone which provides wide-range changes in human body and
which gland secrets this hormone? (b) Give the detailed account of the functioning of
above stated hormone.
15. Complete the following table by filling in the blanks from (i) to (x) with appropriate
terms
Gland Secretion Function/ Effect on body
Thyroid (i) (ii)
(iii) Growth hormone (iv)
(v) (vi) Promotes glucose utilisation by
the body cells
Adrenal medulla (vii) (viii)
(ix) Oestrogen (x)
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

1. How do we know that two different individuals belong to the same species?
2. In a bisexual flower in spite of the young stamens being removed artificially, the
flower produces fruit. Provide a suitable explanation for the above situation.
3. Mention the role of the head of the sperm.
4. Explain, what are unisexual and bisexual organisms, giving an example for each.
5. Suggest some of the aspects of reproductive health, which need to be given special
attention in the present scenario.
6. What type of pollination would occur by insects? Explain.
7. What do you mean by tissue culture? Briefly explain its importance.
8. Explain why fertilisation is possible only if copulation takes place during the
middle of menstrual cycle. Also, give the name of the process which gets
temporarily stopped, when a woman gets pregnant.
9. Write down the correct sequence of events in a sexually reproducing flower.
10. Name the most widely used method of contraception. Explain how does it work?
11. Distinguish between the reproduction in Hydra and Amoeba.
12. Draw a longitudinal section of a flower and label the following parts.
a) Part that produces pollen grain.
b) Part that transfers male gamete to the female gamete.
c) Part that is sticky to trap the pollen grain.
d) Part that develops into a fruit.
e) Parts of female reproductive structures.
13. a) List two advantages of growing grapes or banana plants through vegetative
propagation
b) List the parts of human male reproductive system which contribute in fluid to the
semen. State two advantages semen offer to the sperms.
c) Why is it said that ‘sexual reproduction promotes diversity of characters in the
offsprings?
PRACTICAL BASED QUESTIONS

14. Name the type of asexual reproduction in which two individuals are formed from
a single parent and the parent identity is lost. Give the name of an organism
undergoing such mode of reproduction.
15. What similarity would be seen in the slides showing binary fission in Amoeba and
budding in yeast?
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

1. Name two important factors that cause development of a new species.
2. How can the chromosomes be identified?
3. When does the process of gene flow take place?
4. Define the following terms a) Genes b) Dihybrid cross
5. Write down the ration of the progeny obtained from the following cross.
6. What is the contribution of Charles Darwin on our knowledge of evolution?

7. Why the small number of a species is a matter of worry from genetics point of view?
8. Plant A shows the growth of leaves in axillary position and plant B shows the growth
of tendrils in it. Do the leaf and tendrils of the two plants share any relationship with
each other? Explain.
9. If a round, green seeded(RRyy) pea plant is crossed with wrinkled, yellow seeded
(rrYY) pea plant, what will be the genotype of seeds produced in F1 generation?
10. Aditya is trying to observe some organisms in lab and to compare them. How can he
confirm that they share an evolutionary history?
11. What are heredity and variation? Why did Mendel select garden pea plant to
conduct his genetics experiments?
12. ‘Variations that confer advantage to an individual organism only will survive in
population’, Justify.
13. What does help scientists to reconstruct the pattern and trends that existed in the
history of life on the Earth?
14. Ovum and sperm are both female and male gametes, respectively. But what is so
intricate in sperm which makes it solely responsible for determining the sex of the
child? Explain.
15. Define the following a) Speciation b) Genetic drift c) Recessive trait d)
Evolution
e) Genetics.
OUR ENVIRONMENT
1. What is the ultimate source of energy in an ecosystem?
2. Why are plants called as producers? Which trophic level is occupied by plants in
food chain?
3. What happens when high energy ultra violet radiations act on the oxygen at the
higher level of atmosphere?
4. What is an ecosystem? Name two natural and two manmade ecosystems.
5. Consider the following food chains (a) Plants → Mice → Snakes → Hawks
(b) Plants → Mice → Hawks
If energy available at the producer level in both the food chains is 100J, in which case
will hawks get more energy as food and by what factor? Justify your answer.
6. Explain how CO2and Ozone layer of the atmosphere are important to life?
7. Write the major cause of Ozone depletion. What steps should be taken to limit the
damage to ozone layer?
8. In a class activity, two student volunteers were asked to collect a variety of items
from their fellow mates and classify them as biodegradable and non-biodegradable.
All the items have been classified except three of them. Among jute crafted bag,
sharpener and fevistick container which one is non-biodegradable?
9. Suggest few activities in daily life, which are eco-friendly?
10. Suggest one word for each of the following statements/ definitions
(a) The physical and biological world where we live in.
(b) Each level of food chain where transfer of energy takes place.
(c) The physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind and soil of an ecosystem.
11. How does study of food chain in an area or habitat help us? Give any two methods.
12. How can you help in reducing the problem of waste disposal? Give any two
methods.
13. (a) What is environmental pollution?
(b) Distinguish between biodegradable and non- biodegradable pollutants.
(c) Choose the non-biodegradable pollutants from the list given below: Sewage,
DDT, Radioactive waste, Agricultural waste.
14. (a) What are consumers? What will be the consequence of the absence of primary
consumers in an ecosystem?
(b) What will be the direction of energy transfer in each of the following cases?
(i) Grasshopper eaten by a frog
(ii) Deer feeds on grass
(iii) Deer eaten by a lion
15. What are the products of fertiliser industries? How do they affect the environment?
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
1. During the recycling of waste articles, what will be the starting step?
2. What is the name given to the main programme for the replenishment of forest?
3. Name the irrigation project in Madhya Pradesh that resulted in water logging?
4. Which is the most rapidly dwindling natural resource in the world?
5. Write about the important message conveyed by the ‘Chipko Movement’.
6. State the meaning of sustainable management or development.
7. Forest resources ought to be used judiciously. Give reason.
8. Write a short note on the water harvesting structures used in largely level terrains.
9. (a) Name the 3Rs that will help us to conserve natural resources for the long term
use.
(b) Recycling of articles results in wastage of energy and money therefore, one
should practice reuse. Justify.
(c) Write two advantages of dams.
10. Suggest a few useful ways of utilising waste water.

Bio Notes Class X

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bio Notes Class X

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bio Notes Class X

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 6: LIFE PROCESSES.

1Q: Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi-

13Q: How is the small intestine designed to absorb

(a) The mode of nutrition in amoeba is holozoic.

34Q: Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in

42Q: (a) What is meant

Assertions and Reasoning type Questions

LIFE PROCESSES: WORKSHEET2

Activity 7.1 (Textbook Page 115)

The roots of the germinating seeds will grow towards beaker A.

4. Its effects are short lived. 4. It has prolonged effects.

action of the brain is called reflex action.

36. (a) Define phototropism. Give one example of phototropism.

Multiple choice Questions

Assertions and Reasoning type Questions

1. Assertion: Nervous control is through cranial and spinal nerves.

CONTROLAND COORDINATION: WORKSHEET2

Tissue culture is a practice of propagating organisms under sterile conditions, often to

Activity 8.1 (Textbook Page 129)

1. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?

(d) Binary fission.(e) Paramecium and Leishmania.

14. How is the process of pollination different from fertilization?

Assertions and Reasoning type Questions

1. Assertion: Two modes of reproduction are sexual and asexual.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1mark each)

3. Name two type of reproduction.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (Each of 2 marks)

WORKSHEET: 4 HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTS AND LAWS OF INHERITANCE:

MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE: On the basis of the experiments performed

(b) The Principle of Dominance or Law of Dominance: When two homozygous

 Variations beneficial to a species have a greater chance of flourishing in the

Kohlrabi Swollen parts

Kale Larger leaves

1. If a trait A exists in 10% of a population of an asexually reproducing species and a trait

4. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits are inherited independently?

Therefore, it cannot be concluded whether light eye colour is dominant or recessive.

Assertions and Reasoning type Questions

1. Assertion: Variation arising during the process of reproduction can be inherited.

Key: 1.a 2.a 3.b 4.a 5.b

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1 Mark)

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 Marks)

HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION: WORKSHEET 2

HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION: WORKSHEET 3

Activity 15.1 (Text book Page 256)

18. Give two differences between

22. (a) What is meant by ‘environment’ ?

23. (a) Define an ecosystem. Give examples of any two ecosystems.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

Assertions and Reasoning type Questions

1. Assertion: The trophic level in a food chain should be limited.

15. OUR ENVIRONMENT: WORKSHEET 2

15. OUR ENVIRONMENT: WORKSHEET 3

Pollution of the Ganga:

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

ASSERTION AND RESONING QUESTIONS:

CONTROL & COORDINATION

HEREDITY & EVOLUTION