Laboratory Guide For Electronics 1 Basic

Laboratory Guide for
Electronics I
Basic Components
Prepared by
Francisco Glover, S.J.
Version 1.1
Electronic and Communication Engineering

Ateneo de Davao University
June, 2001

Preface
This present text is a laboratory guide for introductory electronics,
and is designed to accompany eleven laboratory modules. The 27
experiments contained here are loosely connected with Chapters 1 through
9 of the 7th edition of Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by
Boylestad & Nashelsky, although the sequence of the chapters has been
modified
Three different preferences for the conduct of a laboratory course in

electronics may be noted:
1] The students are given the components, a breadboard and hook-

up wire and are to construct the circuit starting from scratch.
2] The entire laboratory is done by computer simulation, using
programs such as Electronic Workbench, PSpice or Tina.
3] Each circuit is a hard-wired visual circuit with all components
accessible.
Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages, and

perhaps a mixture of all three methods might be the best choice. The
present manual is written for use with a specific set of modules, developed
at the Ateneo de Davao University. This manual and its associated
modules are a part of a larger project to cover most of the advanced
courses required for a degree in Electronic and Communication
Engineering . The original vision for the project stems from Engr. R. U.
Espina, Coordinator of the Ateneo ECE program. He has provided
continuing assistance and consultation. The project would not have been
possible without the gracious support of Mrs. Perla Funa, College Dean,
and Dra. Nenita Maluluan, Chair of the Engineering Division.
Acknowledgement is also due to Rafael Gaid, Nelson Pelotan and Vincent
Pera, ECE students at the Ateneo, for their invaluable assistance in
design, construction and evaluation of this material. From the Physics
Department staff design and construction work was provided by Romulo
Pepeña, and logistic support by Judith Perias.
June, 2001
i
Electronics I
1: Oscilloscope Measurements
2: Ohm’s Law {EL1-A}
3: Diode Characteristics {EL1-B}
4: Diode Load Line {EL1-B}
5: Half- and Full-wave Rectifiers {EL1-C}
6: Bridge Rectifiers {EL1-C}
7: Zener Voltage Regulator {EL1-D}
8: Clippers {EL1-E}
9: Clampers {EL1-E}
10: Voltage Multiplier {EL1-F}
11: BJT Charactistics {EL1-G}
12: BJT Biasing: Fixed Bias {EL1-H}
13: BJT Biasing: Voltage Divider {EL1-H}
14: BJT Biasing: Collector Feedback {EL1-H}
15: BJT Biasing: Common Base {EL1-H}
16: BJT Biasing: Emitter Follower {EL1-H}
17: N-channel JFet Characteristics {EL1-I }
18: FET Biasing: Self Bias {EL1-J}
19: FET Biasing: Voltage Divider {EL1-J}
20: BJT Small Signal: AC, ro and re {EL1-H}
21: BJT Small Signal: Fixed Bias {EL1-H}
22: BJT Small Signal: Voltage Divider Bias {EL1-H}
23: BJT Small Signal: Collector Feedback Bias {EL1-H}
24: BJT Small Signal: Emitter Follower Bias {EL1-H}
25: FET Small Signal: gm and rd {EL1-J}
26: FET Small Signal: Self Bias {EL1-J}
27: FET Small Signal: Source Follower {EL1-J}
ii
Electronics I
Experiment #1 : Oscilloscope Measurements
Materials: Oscilloscope, multimeter, function generator, power supply
Basically an oscilloscope is a measuring instrument that displays a

voltage vs. time graph of an input signal. Many different models are commercially
available, from basic to extremely advanced. Although the controls differ from
model to model, all models have certain controls in common, which are briefly
described below. As with any graph, we are free to select the origin, and the
range along the vertical and horizontal axes; the following controls let us do this:
Vertical axis: Voltage is displayed in the vertical direction:

Vertical Position: Moves the entire display up or down
Vertical Gain:
Discrete: Sets vertical amplifier gain to fixed values in volts/cm
Variable: Adjusts the vertical amplifier gain in a continuous manner;
Set to maximum or CAL when making measurements
Input: AC Ground DC
AC: Input passes through a capacitor, removing any constant voltage
Ground: Input signal disconnected from vertical amplifier
DC: Input signal connected directly to vertical amplifier
Dual Channel: If the oscilloscope is a dual channel model, two separate

traces may be displayed. In this case there are two sets of vertical
controls, for channel A and B, along with a selector for A, B, Both,
A+B, A-B
Horizontal axis: Time is displayed along the horizontal axis.

Horizontal Position: Moves the entire display left or right.
Horizontal Time Base:
Discrete: Sets horizontal sweep speed in mSec/cm or Sec/cm
Variable: Adjusts sweep speed in a continuous manner;
Set to maximum or CAL when making measurements
Triggering: Determines when the horizontal sweep begins

Mode:
Auto: Trace visible even if no input signal.
Normal: Trace begins, depending on Trigger Source
Trigger source: Channel A, Channel B, Line voltage, External source
1
Trigger character:
Signal Level: + or - : Sweep starts if input greater than or less than
some selected value
Signal Slope: + or - : Sweep starts if signal is increasing or
decreasing
Trace controls:
Brightness: sets intensity level of trace
Focus: makes trace sharp or fuzzy
Rotation: makes trace horizontal (earth’s magnetic field can tip trace)
Test point: Reference signal, 1000 Hz square wave, 1.0 volt, peak-to-peak
Procedure:
1: With the oscilloscope model you are using, identify and adjust each of the
controls noted above.
2: DC Voltage Measurement: Set the vertical gain to 1.0 volt/cm, and the input
to DC. Move the trace to the bottom line of the screen. Connect the power
supply to the input and vary this input from 2.0 to 10.0 volts, in 1.0 volt
steps, as measured from the oscilloscope screen. Also with a digital
multimeter measure and record the minimum and maximum input voltages
that correspond to the same voltage level as viewed on the oscilloscope
screen. This is an indication of the precision of the oscilloscope
measurement. (Current may be measured simply by passing it through a
known resistor, measuring the voltage drop, and applying Ohm’s law.)
3: AC Voltage Measurement: Set the vertical gain to 2.0 volt/cm, and the input
to AC. Set the function to 500 Hz, sine wave and connect this, in parallel
with the multimeter, to the oscilloscope input. Vary the function generator
output from 2.0 to 16.0 volts, peak-to-peak, in 2.0 volt steps. Record the
oscilloscope peak-to-peak readings and the AC multimeter RMS readings
and calculate Vp-p (2-3/2) and %-difference { 200% x |A-B|/(A+B) }
AC multimeters normally have poor high-frequency response. Repeat

the above measurements for 5,000 Hz and 50,000 Hz and note any
differences.
2
4: Time base Measurements: Set the function generator to square wave and
the time base variable to CAL. Use the following settings to compare
accuracy of the sweep speed:
Sweep speed Function Generator

10 mSec / cm 50.0 Hz
1 mSec / cm 500 Hz
100 μSec / cm 5,000 Hz
10 μSec / cm 50.0 kHz
5: Triggering: Set the oscilloscope time base to 1 mSec / cm and CAL. Set the
function generator to 500 Hz, sine wave, and adjust amplitude display to 8.0
Vp-p. The display should appear as shown. Adjust the Trigger Level and
Slope as shown, and record the screen display:
Level Slope
0V –
+2.0V +
–2.0V +
–2.0V –
3
Data Sheet: Electronics I Experiment # 1
Oscilloscope Measurements
Name:______________________________ Date:______
DC Voltage Measurement:
Oscilloscope Multimeter Multimeter
Setting Minimum Maximum
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
AC Voltage Measuremen Vp-p VRMS Vp-p (2-3/2) %-Diff

500 Hz 2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
5.00 kHz 50.0 kHz

Vp-p VRMS Vp-p (2-3/2) %-Diff Vp-p VRMS Vp-p (2-3/2) %-Diff
2.0 2.0
4.0 4.0
6.0 6.0
8.0 8.0
10.0 10.0
12.0 12.0
14.0 14.0
16.0 16.0
4
Time Base Measurements:
Sweep speed Over / Under
Function Generator
10 mSec / cm 50.0 Hz
1 mSec / cm 500 Hz
5,000 Hz
50.0 kHz
Triggering: Sketch oscilloscope display
Level = 0 Slope = negative Level = +2.0 Slope = positive
Level = -2.0 Slope = positive Level = -2.0 Slope = negative
5
Electronics I
Experiment #2: Ohm’s Law
Materials: Module EL-1-A, power supply, two multimeters
The ratio of the potential difference or voltage, V,

across a circuit element to the current, I, through it is
defined as the element’s resistance. The ratio of the
change in potential difference, V, across a circuit
element to the change in current, I, through it is
defined as the element’s dynamic resistance.
If a graph of current vs. voltage shows a straight line

passing through the origin, the resistance and dynamic
resistance are constant and equal. In all other cases
they may not be equal and depend on the selected point
on the graph line.
In this experiment you are to investigate the

current-voltage relationship for several circuit elements.
Procedure:
1: Use a full-size sheet of graph paper to make a current vs. voltage graph for R1.
Plot as many points as are needed to draw a smooth graph line. Limit the voltage
(horizontal ) range to 10.0 volts. Select the current (vertical) scale to give
optimum resolution. For 3.0, 6.0 and 9.0 volts determine the resistance and
dynamic resistance of the R1.
2: Repeat step 1 for each of the other elements on the module.
6
2 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law
Name:______________________________ Date:______
For R1: (include full-size current-voltage graph )
Voltage Current Resistance Dynamic Resistance

3.00
6.00
9.00

3.00
6.00
9.00

3.00
6.00
9.00

3.00
6.00
9.00
7
2 Ohm’s Law
Electronics I
Experiment #3: Diode Characteristics
Materials: Module EL-1-B, power supply, two multimeters
In this experiment, you are to look

at the behavior of four different
diodes. You apply a known
voltage across the diode and
measure the resulting current,
which depends both on the size of
the voltage and its polarity. Too
large a voltage may destroy a
diode. For this reason three of the
diodes to be used, ZD1, ZD2, and LED have a resistor in series to limit the
current. The current through the resistor and diode is the same; however
measure the voltage across the diode alone. Also, for some diodes the voltage
range of interest is 2 volts and below. Since the regulated power supply used
may not extend this low, it can be attached to the voltage divider (potentiometer).
Notice that for the zener diodes the voltage is applied in the reverse direction.
Procedure:
1: For each diode, draw a graph of current (vertical axis) against voltage
(horizontal axis). Do not use current in excess of 30 milliamperes (only 20 mA for
the LED). The number of pairs of values you use depends on the shape of the
graph; where the slope is changing, measure more data pairs. Individual data
points are not to be connected by straight lines; rather a smooth curve is to be
drawn, representing the best fit of the data presented. For each graph select a
horizontal scale that is most appropriate to the voltage range.
2: For the diode, D, compute the DC (static) and AC (dynamic) resistance at

current levels of 2, 10, 20, 30 mA.
3: For the LED compute the power at current levels of 2, 10, and 20 mA.
3: Diode characteristics 8
Diode Characteristics
1: Attach full-size graphs of current vs. voltage for D, ZD1, ZD2, and LED.
2: Static and dynamic diode resistance
I (mA) V (mV) R=V/I I (mA) V (mV) r= V/ I

1.90
0.2
2.10
9.50
1.00
10.50
19.50
1.00
20.50
29.50
1.00
30.50
3: LED Power consumption:
I (mA) V (V) Power (mW)

2.00
10.00
20.00
3: Diode characteristics 9
Electronics I
Experiment #4: Diode Load Line
Materials: Module EL-1-B, two multimeters
Prior experiments considered

current-voltage graphs for various
resistors and diodes. Here we connect
to a fixed voltage source a series
combination of a resistor and diode.
Since in series, each element carries the
same current while the sum of their
voltage drops just equals the fixed
voltage.
It is convenient to superimpose on the diode graph an inverted copy of the resistor graph.
The line of the inverted resistor graph is the load
line, and the point of intersection is the Q-point. At
the Q-point the resistor and diode currents are the
same; the diode voltage is VQ, the resistor voltage
is VS-VQ so their total is VS as expected. This
load line technique for a series combinations of two
elements across a fixed voltage will occur again in
the analysis of transistors.
Procedure:
1: For diode D construct a current-voltage
graph. Limit the current to 10 mA and use a full
sheet of graph paper for an enlarged scale Set
resistor R to 1000 and Vs to 10.00 volts and
connect the diode and resistor, R, in series (if
necessary by-pass the input potentiometer).
Measure and record VQ and IQ. From a load line on
your graph compare these values of VQ and IQ with
the experimental results. Repeat for R = 2000
and R = 4000
2: Repeat step 1 for zener diode ZD2 . Bypass the

series resistor connected to this zener diode.
3: Repeat step 1 for LED. Bypass the series resistor

connected to this LED.
4: Diode Load Line 10

Diode Load Line
Name:______________________________ Date:______
For diode D: (attach current-voltage graph)
Resistance VQ IQ measured IQ load line % Diff (for IQ)

1000
2000
4000
For zener diode ZD2: (attach current-voltage graph)
Resistance VQ IQ measured IQ load line % Diff (for IQ)

1000
2000
4000
For diode LED: (attach current-voltage graph)
4: Diode Load Line 11

Electronics I
Experiment # 5 Half- and Full-Wave Rectifiers
Materials: Module EL1-C, AC power supply, oscilloscope, multimeter
Rectifier circuits are used to

convert an alternating to a direct
voltage. Three common types are
the half-wave, full-wave and
bridge.
The half-wave circuit uses a

single diode which conducts only
during the positive half of each
cycle. Points A and C are alternately positive and negative to each other. Charge
is stored in C1 during the conduction period, and released during the non-
conduction period. The voltage appearing across the load may contain a periodic
component, the ripple voltage, the peak-to-peak value of which may be
measured with an oscilloscope (AC input ) . The direct component of the output
is measured across the load with a multimeter (DC volts). With a greater load
current (decrease in load resistance) the output voltage normally decreases.
Increasing the capacitance and the load resistance normally decreases the
ripple.
The full-wave circuit uses

two diodes connected as
shown which alternately
conduct on either half cycle.
This configuration provides a
somewhat larger output
voltage, with less ripple, than
the half-wave.
Procedure:
Connect the module board, EL1-C, to the power supply module to provide 60
Hz power. Set up each of the two circuits, and make the measurements shown
on the Data Sheets attached.

5 Half and Full-Wave Rectifiers 12
Half- and Full-wave Rectifiers
Name:______________________________ Date:______
Half-Wave: Peak-to-Peak Ripple measurement

Load = 7.9 k
R C1= 0 C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 100 C1= 100 C1=100

C2= 0 C2= 0 C2= 10 C2= 100 C2= 0 C2= 10 C2= 100
100
200
470
Half-Wave: DC output voltage

R = 470
Load C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 100 C1= 100 C1=100

C2= 0 C2= 10 C2= 100 C2= 0 C2= 10 C2= 100
7.9k
4.7k
3.2k
1.0k
Which capacitor, C1 or C2, is more effective in maintaining a high output voltage

across the load? _________
Wave forms: R = 470 Load = 7.9 k
C1 = 0 C 2 = 0 C1 = 10 C2 = 0 C1 = 10 C2 = 10

Data Sheet: Electronics I Exp. # 5 Cont.
Half- and Full-wave Rectifiers
Full-Wave: Peak-to-Peak Ripple measurement

Load = 7.9 k
R C1= 0 C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 100 C1= 100 C1=100
C2= 0 C2= 0 C2= 10 C2= 100 C2= 0 C2= 10 C2= 100
100
200
470
Full-Wave: DC output voltage

R = 470
C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 100 C1= 100 C1=100

C2= 0 C2= 10 C2= 100 C2= 0 C2= 10 C2= 100
7.9k
4.7k
3.2k
1.0k
Which capacitor, C1 or C2, is more effective in maintaining a high output voltage across the
load? _________
Wave forms: R = 470 Load = 7.9 k
C1 = 0 C2 = 0 C1 = 10 C2 = 0 C1 = 10 C2 = 10

Electronics I
Experiment #6: Bridge Rectifiers
Materials: Module EL1-C, oscilloscope, function generator, multimeter
The full-wave rectifier requires two diodes and a center tap on the
transformer secondary. The bridge rectifier considered here requires four diodes
but does not require a center-tapped transformer. During each half cycle one pair
of diodes is ON the other OFF. For real diodes this means 1.2 volt drop for the
bridge rectifier, as opposed to 0.6 volt diode drop for the full-wave.
Ripple considerations are basically the same for both bridge and full-wave.
Twice each cycle the filtering capacitor is fully recharged. The rate of discharge
depends of the effective time constant of the resistor-capacitor pair, namely, C x
(R + Load); the larger the time constant, the slower the discharge rate. The
duration of this discharge increases with the period of the signal (decreases with
the frequency). The peak-to-peak ripple voltage depends on the amount of
discharge during each half cycle, decreasing as frequency, capacitance and
resistance increase.
Note: In Experiment # 5, Half- and Full-wave Rectifiers ,we used a 60 Hz power-

line input, while here we use a function generator to provide a variety of
frequencies and wave-shapes. Either type of input may be used with any of the
rectifier types considered.
6 Bridge Rectifiers 16
Procedure:
1: With Module EL1-C, set up a bridge rectifier circuit, as shown, and
connect the function generator between points A and B. Set f = 100 Hz , R = 0
, C1 = 0, C2 = 0, Load = 7.9 k . Use, in succession a sine wave, square
wave and triangular wave. Connect the oscilloscope first across points A and B,
and then across the Load. In each case, sketch the screen display. Use the
oscilloscope DC input mode
2: Connect the oscilloscope across the load and set the other values as
Sine wave, R = 0 Ω, C1 = 10 μf, C2 = 0 . Set the frequency successively to
50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 Hz and record the peak-to-peak ripple across a load
of 1.0 k and 7.9 k . In each case, sketch the screen display. Use the
oscilloscope DC input mode
3: Set f = 50 Hz, R = 0 , C1 = 10 μf, C2 = 0 . Use, in succession, a sine,

triangular and square wave input, and sketch the screen display. . Use the
oscilloscope DC input mode.
Name:____________________________________ Date: _______
Bridge Rectifiers
Part 1: f = 100 Hz , R = 0 , C1 = 0, C2 = 0, Load = 7.9 k
Wave form across points A and B: (before rectification)
Sine wave Triangular wave Square wave

Wave form across Load: (after rectification)
Part 2: Peak-to-Peak ripple voltage:

Sine wave, R=0 , C1 = 10 μf, C2 = 0,
Load = 1.0 k Load = 7.9 k
frequency
50
100
200
400
800
Part 3: f = 50 Hz, R = 0 , C1 = 10 μf, C2 = 0
Electronics I
Experiment # 7: Zener Voltage Regulator
Materials: Module EL-1-D, power supply, two multimeters
An ideal zener diode, with

reverse bias, acts as an open
circuit for voltage between 0
and VZ, and as a short circuit
for voltages more negative
than VZ. Real zener diodes
only approximate this
condition. In this experiment
we explore the zener diode
used as a voltage regulator.
As shown, the zener diode is placed in
parallel with the load so for regulation we
select a zener with VZ equal to the desired
load voltage, VL. But to provide regulation, the
zener current, IZ, must be greater than zero
so I1 must be sufficient to turn “on” the zener
and provide the desired voltage drop across
the load.
The current-voltage graph of an ideal

zener indicates a vertical graph line at voltage –VZ, while for a real zener the
graph line near –VL is steep but not really vertical. As a first step in this
experiment we need accurate data for the ZD1, ZD2 and ZD3. The attached table
shows a typical zener relation, at 0.05 volt intervals, for current near 30 mA.
A: Design a Zener Regulator
Design a regulator to give 4.15 volts across a 1,000Ω load, from a 8.00 volt
source, using the zener data shown. Determine IL, I1, IZ and R1.
IL = VL/RL = 4.15/1000 = 0.00415 A = 4.15 mA
VZ IZ
From the table, IZ = 27.6 mA
4.05 18.4 Therefore I1 = IL + IZ = 4.15 + 27.6 = 31.8 mA
4.10 22.4 R1 = (VIN – VZ) / I1 = (8.00 – 4.15) / 0.0318 = 121
4.15 27.6 It is possible to set up such a circuit, measure the currents
4.20 34.7 and verify the results.
4.25 47.6 B: With constant VIN , determine range of RL for VL =
4.15 ± 0.10 volts:
7:Zener voltage regulator 19

From the table, IZ = 18.4 mA for VZ = 4.15 – 0.10 volts
V1 = VIN – VZ = 8.00 – 4.05 = 3.95 volts
I1 = V1 / R1 = 3.95 / 121 = 0.0326 A = 32.6 mA
IL = I1 – IZ = 32.6 – 18.4 = 14.2 mA
RL = VL / IL = 4.05 / 0.0142 = 285 = minimum load resistance
From the table, IZ = 47.6 mA for VZ = 4.15 + 0.10 volts
V1 = VIN – VZ = 8.00 – 4.25 = 3.75 volts
I1 = V1 / R1 = 3.75 / 121 = 0.0310 A = 31.0 mA
Notice that even if IL = 0 (for infinite RL) IZ can only reach 31.0 mA corresponding
to a VZ value of about 4.18 volts. Therefore the upper limit load is RL = .
C: With constant RL, determine range of VIN for VL = 4.15 ± 0.10 volts:
IL = VL / RL = (4.15 – 0.10) / 1000 = 4.05 / 1000 = 0.00405 A = 4.05 mA
From the table, IZ = 18.4 mA for VZ = 4.15 – 0.10 volts
I1 = IL + IZ = 4.05 + 18.4 = 22.5 mA
V1 = I1 R1 = (.0225)(121) = 2.72 volts
VIN = V1 + VZ = 2.72 + 4.05 = 6.77 volts = minimum for VIN
IL = VL / RL = (4.15 + 0.10) / 1000 = 4.25 / 1000 = 0.00425 A = 4.25 mA
From the table, IZ = 47.6 mA for VZ = 4.15 + 0.10 volts
I1 = IL + IZ = 4.25 + 47.6 = 51.9 mA
V1 = I1 R1 = (.0519)(121) = 6.28 volts
VIN = V1 + VZ = 6.28 + 4.25 = 10.53 volts = maximum for VIN
Procedure:
1: For each zener, ZD1, ZD2 and ZD3, make a separate table of current-voltage in the
neighborhood of 30 mA. Measure the current at “IR”, leave “IL” open, and measure the voltage
directly across the diode.
2: For each zener:
A: Design a Zener Regulator, with RL = 1000 Ω, VIN = 8.00 volts
B: With constant VIN , determine range of RL for ± 0.10 volt change in load
voltage, and verify results by direct measurement.
C: With constant RL determine range of VIN for ± 0.10 volt change in load
voltage, and verify results by direct measurement.
Note: In making any current measurement, you must take into account the input resistance of
the ammeter range used.

Zener Regulator
Name:______________________________ Date:______
For ZD1:
RL=1,000Ω, VIN=8.00 volts; Select for IZ near 30 mA: VZ = _____ IZ = ____
VZ IZ Calculated Measured %-Diff

IL
I1
R1
RL-min
RL-max
VIN-min
VIN-max
For ZD2:
RL=1,000Ω, VIN=8.00 volts; Select for IZ near 30 mA: VZ = _____ IZ = _____
IL
I1
R1
RL-min
RL-max
VIN-min
VIN-max
For ZD3:
RL=1,000Ω, VIN=8.00 volts; Select for IZ near 30 mA: VZ = _____ IZ = ______
IL
I1
R1
RL-min
RL-max
VIN-min
VIN-max

Electronics I
Experiment # 8 Clippers:
Materials: Module EL1-E, Oscilloscope, Function generator
A clipper circuit, using a

resistor and a diode, removes a
portion of the input signal. In a
series configuration (shown below)
the diode is in series with the load.
The diode must be turned ON
(conducting) to obtain an output.
In a parallel configuration the

diode is in parallel with the load.
The diode must be turned OFF
(non-conducting) to obtain an
output.
Either the positive or negative

portion of the input is removed,
depending on the orientation of
the diode
In A the diode conducts

whenever the input is positive. In
B the battery is working against
the diode, which conducts only
when the input is greater than Vb.
In C the battery is helping the
diode, so there is conduction
whenever the input is greater than
–Vb.
Procedure:
In the data sheets attached, various series and parallel clipper circuits are
shown. Wire each of these circuits on the module board, and use a 1000 Hz sine
wave as input. View two full cycles of output on an oscilloscope. Sketch the
oscilloscope display and record the pertinent data.
8 Clippers 22
Clippers
Name:______________________________ Date:______
Serial Clippers:
Data Sheet: Electronics I Exp. # 8 continued

Clippers
Name:______________________________ Date:______
Parallel Clippers:
8 Clippers 23
Data Sheet: Electronics I Exp. # 8 continued
Clippers
Name:______________________________ Date:______
Parallel Clippers
8 Clippers 24
Electronics I
Experiment # 9 Clampers:
Materials: Module EL1-E, Oscilloscope, function generator
A clamper circuit shifts the

DC level of a periodic waveform,
using a capacitor, diode and
optionally a constant voltage
source, Vb. The resistor shown in
the diagram represents an
optional circuit resistor in parallel
with the resistance of the load.
The time constant of the circuit
(product of the capacitance and
the load resistance) must be long
in comparison with the period of
the input signal, so that the
capacitor remains fully charged at
all times. The diode, always in
parallel with the load, effectively
prevents the capacitor from
discharging, making the capacitor
appear as a battery. If the
capacitor used is electrolytic, care
must be taken to observe correct
polarity. The (ideal) diode acts like a simple switch, ON or OFF depending on a
forward or reverse bias.
Procedure:
In the data sheets attached, various
clamper circuits are shown. Wire each of
these circuits on the module board, and use a
square wave as input with a period much
shorter than the circuit time constant. View
two full cycles of output on an oscilloscope.
Sketch the oscilloscope display and record
the pertinent data. Make sure you use the
oscilloscope DC input rather than the AC.
9 Clampers 25
Clampers
Name:______________________________ Date:______
9 Clampers 26
Electronics I
Experiment #10: Voltage Multipliers
Materials: Module EL1-F , function generator, oscilloscope, multimeter
Is it possible to obtain a 20 volt

output from a 5 volt AC source without
the use of a transformer? If only a small
current is needed, a voltage multiplier
can do it.
Imagine charging 4 capacitors each

to 5 volts; then connect them in series.
The combined voltage would be 20 volts,
but once you start drawing a current, this voltage drops rapidly.
Basically a voltage multiplier circuit is just such a series of capacitors, but

with provision to continually re-charge them. The diagram below shows an
exploded view of this module. Notice that units #1 and #3 are identical, while #2
and #4 are upside-down versions of #1. In each case the diode permits the
capacitor to be charged but prevents it from discharging through the diode. The
voltage reference point is the junction of the capacitor and resistor. Let’s see how
this works…
Let Vm be the
maximum amplitude of
the alternating source
voltage ( VRMS =
Vm/ 2 ) Now connect
unit #1 to the source.
Diode D1 conducts
only when point B is
positive with respect to A. At this moment we know from Kirchoff’s loop relation
that the voltage across C1 is Vm, (assuming the diode to be ideal), and V1-A =
Vm.
Next, attach unit #2. Diode D2 conducts only when point A is positive with
respect to B. Kirchoff’s loop relation now tells us that the voltage across C2 is
2Vm, since it is charged through the diode by the combined voltage of the source
and C1 ; also V2-B = 2Vm.
10 Voltage Multipliers 27
Attach unit #3. Diode D3 conducts and charges C3 only when point B is
positive. Again by Kirchoff, the voltage across C3 is 2Vm, sum of the source plus
C2 minus C1, and therefore V3-A is 3Vm. Finally attach unit #4, and by similar
reasoning we find the voltage across C4 = 2Vm and V4-B = 4Vm. The DC
output voltage between B and point V4 is four times the peak value of the AC
input voltage. If more diode-capacitor units are added, this output increases by
2Vm for each additional unit. Although the output may be very high, the voltage
across each capacitor never exceeds 2Vm and the reverse voltage across any
diode is limited to Vm . In the above analysis, the diodes are assumed to be
ideal, with zero voltage drop when conducting. The actual drop is in the
neighborhood of 0.6 volts, so all capacitor voltages will be slightly decreased.
The good news is that we can get a very high DC output from a low AC
input, with low voltage ratings for the diodes and capacitors The bad news is that
if the load resistance is not very high, a ripple appears in the output. Ripple
voltages are normally measured in peak-to-peak values, the difference between
the maximum and minimum. The capacitors are re-charged only during one-half
cycle. The ripple can be decreased by using larger capacitors which discharge
more slowly with the same load, and also by using an AC source of higher
frequency, effectively shortening the time between recharging.
Procedure:
1: Set the AC source VRMS to 3.54 volts so that Vm = 5.00 volts. Set the input
frequency to 1,000 Hz, and include all units by closing S2, S3 and S4.
2: Set all capacitor switches to 1 f. Record the DC voltage across each diode,
capacitor, and the values V1-A , V2-B, V3-A, and V4-b .
3: Repeat step 2: for 10 f .
4: Set all capacitor switches to 1 f. Use input frequencies of 400, 1000 and 4000
Hz and place load resistors ( between points B and V4 ) of 1, 10 and 100 k ,
and with an oscilloscope measure the ripple across the load.
5: Repeat step 4: for capacitor values of 10 f .
Voltage Multipliers
Name:______________________________ Date:______
D C Voltages
Cap D1 D2 D3 D4 C1 C2 C3 C4 V1-A V2-B V3-A V4-B
1 f
10 f
AC Ripple Voltage Capacitors set to 1 f

Load \ Freq 400 Hz 1000 Hz 4000 Hz
1k
10 k
100 k
AC Ripple Voltage Capacitors set to 10 f

Load \ Freq 400 Hz 1000 Hz 4000 Hz
1k
10 k
100 k
1: Is the voltage V1-B AC or DC ? Examine with an oscilloscope and explain.
2: Does the voltage V2-B change if S3 and S4 are open or closed? Explain.
3: Does the voltage V2-B change if C3 or C4 are set to 1 f or 10 f ? Explain.
Electronics I
Experiment #11: BJT Characteristics
Materials: Module EL1-G , two multimeters, power supply
A transistor is a three-terminal device, the emitter, base and

collector. For the transistor itself, apart from the external circuit
elements to which it may be connected, six parameters may be
considered: the currents in each of the three terminals, IE, IB and
IC, and the difference in potential between any pair of terminals,
VBE, VCB, and VEC. These six parameters are not all independent
of each other. If two currents are known the third is determined by
Kirchoff’s node method:
IE + IB + IC = 0. (a current leaving a node is considered as negative)
Likewise if two of the voltages are known the third is determined by
Kirchoff’s mesh method:
VBE + VCB + VEC = 0.

For an NPN transistor, the direction of the base and collector
currents, IB and IC, are into the transistor; the emitter current, IE, is
directed out of the transistor. For a PNP the directions are just
opposite. From the viewpoint of the engineer, not the transistor, any
one of the three terminals may be considered as common, and
either of the other two as input side or output side.
Normally, the base current is only a tiny fraction of the emitter

current, while the emitter current is the sum of the base and
collector current . The symbols and define these relations:
IC = IE, IC = IB .
In practice is taken as 1, while will vary from transistor to transistor.
Transistor characteristics refer to a graphical presentation of the relationships between
these variables. For each configuration we consider separately the input (input voltage and
current) and output (output voltage and current) characteristics. However, since the output
(emitter or collector) current is controlled by the level on the input (base) current, a third
variable is involved with the output characteristics. A complete graphical presentation of three
variable would require a three-dimensional graph which is a bit hard to sketch. As a
compromise output current and voltage are plotted along the Y and X axes, and separate
graph lines are shown for various values of base current. The most often used display is the
common emitter.
In this experiment you are to determine the input (base-emitter) and output (collector-
emitter) characteristics of a NPN and PNP bipolar junction transistor (BJT) . The main selector
switch, marked NPN/PNP switches one of the two transistors into the circuit and disconnects
the other. It also automatically changes the polarity of the base and collector supply voltages.
11 BJT Characteristics 30
INPUT Characteristics:
A graphic input presentation displays the base current, IB , along the vertical axis and the
base-emitter voltage, VBE, along the horizontal, for zero collector-emitter voltages, VCE. The
resulting graph line is quite similar to that of a forward-biased diode. The ratio VBE / IB is the
static or DC input resistance; The ratio VBE / IB is the dynamic or AC input resistance
OUTPUT Characteristics
A graphic output presentation displays the collector current, IC, along the vertical axis and the
collector-emitter voltage, VCE, along the horizontal, for a series of fixed base current values,
IB. The product of collector current, IC, and collector-emitter voltage, VCE, equals the power
dissipated as heat within the transistor. Frequently an additional curve is displayed showing
the locus of points with a given power dissipation.
. The ratio VCE/IC is the static or DC output resistance; The ratio VCE/ IC is the
dynamic or AC output resistance. The static current gain, DC, is defined for any point as IC/IB
: The dynamic current gain, AC, is defined for any point as IC/ IB . These values may
easily be obtained from the output characteristics.
Procedure:
1: Make a plot of the input characteristics of the NPN transistor for VCE = 0 volts (IB along
vertical axis, VBE along horizontal) Do not let the base current, IB exceed 250 A . Place the
ammeter at the indicated position, A, on the module to measure IB, and the voltmeter between
the base and emitter leads. Compute the dynamic input resistance for a base current of 50
A and also 200 μA. Compare these values with the textbook expression: ri = (26mV)/IB
where IB is expressed in milliamperes. Also compute the static input resistance at the same
two points
2: Make plots of the output characteristics of the NPN transistor for values of base current, IB
= 50, 100 and 150 μA. For each curve determine at VCE = 5.00 V the dynamic output
resistance, ro = VCE / IC and also the static output resistance. Repeat these resistance
measurements at VCE = 8.0 volts.
For convenience place the voltmeter at the indicated position, V, on the module. With the
small switch to the left you can read directly VCE ; with the switch to the right the collector
current, IC, in amperes is given by the meter reading divided by 100 (shift the decimal point two
places left for amperes, shift 1 place right for milliamperes).
3: Add a curve to the graphs of step 2, showing power dissipation of 500 milliwatts.
4: Repeat steps 1 to 3 for the PNP transistor.
BJT Characteristics
Name:______________________________ Date:______
NPN transistor:
INPUT resistance:
Static: @ 50 A _______ : @ 200 A _______
Dynamic (measured): @ 50 A _______ : @ 200 A _______
Dynamic (theoretical): @ 50 A _______ : @ 200 A _______
OUTPUT resistance:
Static: @ 50 A _____ @ 100 A _____ @ 150 A _____
Dynamic : @ 50 A _____ @ 100 A _____ @ 150 A _____
CURRENT GAIN
DC ______ AC ______
[ Attach graphs of input and output characteristics]
PNP transistor:
INPUT resistance:
Static: @ 50 A _______ : @ 200 A _______
Dynamic (measured): @ 50 A _______ : @ 200 A _______
Dynamic (theoretical): @ 50 A _______ : @ 200 A _______
OUTPUT resistance:
Static: @ 50 A ______ @ 100 A ______ @ 150 A ______
Dynamic : @ 50 A ______ @ 100 A _____ @ 150 A ______
CURRENT GAIN
DC ______ AC ______
[ Attach graphs of input and output characteristics]
Electronics I
Experiment #12 : BJT Biasing: Fixed Bias
Materials: Module EL-1-H, power supply, two multimeters
For any transistor, the “common emitter characteristics” reflect the relation between the
base, emitter and collector currents and voltages at the time of manufacture, although the
actual values do vary from unit to unit. In use, the transistor is incorporated into an external
circuit, involving fixed DC voltages and currents, as well as time-varying AC voltages and
currents. The Principle of Superposition allows us to treat separately the DC and the AC
areas. Biasing refers to the DC area
The DC voltages are used to bias the transistor, that is, maintain the quiescent values
of currents and voltages with no AC or signal components present. The Q-point on the
common emitter output characteristics represents a set of values for VCE, IC, and IB. The
same transistor may be used with different external circuits (different bias configurations). The
challenge to the electronic engineer is to select the correct external components for each
configuration to maintain the desired Q-point.
Basic Fixed Bias

For each bias configuration to be studied, there is given a value for the supply voltage,
VCC , and also the Q-point, VCE, and IC . The usual analysis tool is Kirchoff’s mesh method,
for writing separate equations for the input and output sides of the circuit. For the basic fixed
bias configuration, shown above, these are:
Input side: VCC = IB RB + VBE Output side: VCC = IC RC + VCE
12 BJT Biasing – Fixed Bias 34

For the output side
the only unknown is RC
which may be determined
at once. For the input side
both RB and IB are
unknown. If the full
common-emitter output
characteristics are
available, we can determine
IB by noting which
IB=constant curve passes
through the Q-point.
Otherwise we can
determine directly the IB
current that gives the
desired Q-point values of
VCE, and IC. You can use
Module EL-1-H in the
configuration shown here to
determine the desired IB.
From this value you can also determine for this Q-point : DC = IC / IB .
The fact that differs from transistor to transistor poses a problem for the design
engineer. For a fixed VCC and RB the value of IB does not change; it is independent of .
However, if the original transistor is replaced by one with a different value, both IC and VCE
will be different, since DC = IC / IB . The Q-point has shifted! The emitter stabilized fixed bias
provides a partial solution to this difficulty.
Emitter Stabilized Fixed Bias

The emitter-base junction of any transistor is essentially just a diode. When conducting, a
small change in voltage causes a large change in current. This is clearly seen in the common-
emitter input characteristics. So, in the transistor, a slight change in VBE causes a significant
change in IB. In the emitter-stabilized configuration, the voltage of the emitter with respect to
ground, VE, equals IERE ICRE. If IC were to increase, so also VE would increase, which
would decrease VBE. This decrease would in turn lessen slightly IB and so decrease IC,
tending to push it back to it’s original value.
For the emitter-stabilized configuration Kirchoff’s equations now become:
Input side: VCC = IB(RB+βRE)+VBE Output side: VCC = IC(RC+RE)+VCE
Here we have two equations but three unknowns: RE, RC and RE. We need an additional
condition. The output equation above states that the voltage across the collector resistor,

emitter resistor and the transistor itself equals the supply voltage. Since VCE and the supply
voltage, VCC are given, we may still specify a given voltage across either of the two resistors,
or alternately, the voltage at the emitter ( with respect to ground, the negative terminal of the
supply voltage ), VE, or VC, the voltage at the collector with respect to ground. Changes in
RE change VE and VC, while the emitter-collector voltage, VCE is unchanged as long as (RC
+ RE) remains constant.
Procedure:
Basic Fixed bias:
1: Determine the value of the transistor in your module.
2: Given VCC = 12.00 volts, IC = 20.0 mA, VCE = 6.00 . Determine RB and RC. Then
configure Module EL1-H with these values of VCC, RB and RC, and measure IC and VCE and
compare these with the desired Q-point values. For RB use either R1 or R2 or both in series.
In measuring IC with the multimeter, remember that on the milliampere range the meter has a
certain input resistance which must be considered when setting the value for RC.
3: Repeat step #2 for: VCC = 12.00 volts, IC = 25.0 mA, VCE = 5.00.

Emitter Stabilized Fixed bias:
4: Given VCC = 12.00 volts, IC = 20.0 mA, VCE = 4.00 , VE = 2.00 V Determine RB ,
RE and RC. Then configure Module EL1-H with these values of VCC, RB, RE and RC, and
measure IC and VCE and compare these with the desired Q-point values.
5: Given VCC = 12.00 volts, IC = 25.0 mA, VCE = 5.00 , VE = 2.00 V Determine RB ,
RE and RC. Then configure Module EL1-H with these values of VCC, RB, RE and RC, and
measure IC and VCE and compare these with the desired Q-point values.
NOTE The stand-alone computer program, TRNSTR-1.EXE can be useful here.

BJT Biasing: Fixed Bias
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: Value of ________
2, 3: Fixed Bias, VCC = 12.0 volts
Calculated Measured Given Q-point

RB RC RE IC VCE IC VCE
20.0 mA 6.00 V
25.0 mA 5.00 V
4, 5: Emitter Stabilized Bias, VCC = 12.0 V, VE = 2.00 V
Calculated Measured Given Q-point

RB RC IC VCE IC VCE
20.0 mA 6.00 V
25.0 mA 5.00 V

Electronics I
Experiment #13: BJT Biasing: Voltage Divider
Materials: Module EL1-H , two multimeters, power supply
The voltage divider bias configuration, like the emitter-stabalized fixed bias, also
attempts to minimize the differences in from
transistor to transistor. We are given values of
the supply voltage, VCC, and the Q-point (IC
and VCE) and the emitter voltage, VE and are
required to find suitable values for the four
external resistors.
Recall the definition of as IC/IB and
from Kirchoff’s current law: IC + IB = IE . So
IE = IC(1 + 1/ ) = IC( + 1)/

Now apply Ohm’s law to the emitter resistor, RE
RE = VE / IE = (VE/IC) / ( /( +1))
The voltage across the collector resistor, RC, is
VCC – VCE – VE and so, again by Ohm,

RC = (VCC – VCE – VE)/ IC
The voltage at the midpoint of the divider
formed by R1 and R2 is VB which is determined not by R1 or R2 individually but by
their ratio. Therefore we may assign any convenient value to R1 and solve for the
corresponding value of R2.
For the upper and lower portions of the divider we have :
Upper half: (I2 + IC/ ) R1 = VCC – VCE – VE
Lower half: I2 R2 = VBE + VE
For the upper, assign any convenient value to R1 and solve for I2. Then use this value
of I2 in the lower to obtain R2.
Notice that the smaller the value you assign to R1, the larger is the value of I2 . In fact
if I2 (with a small R1) is large in comparison with IC/ , you may safely assume that IE
= IC . However, such a large I2 can put an undesirable load on the system power
supply. It is a trade-off to be made by the design engineer in selecting R1.
13: BJT Biasing: Voltage Divider 39

Procedure:
1: Measure and record the value of the transistor in your module.
2: Given the following: VCC = 12.0 V, IC = 5.00 mA, VCE = 4.00 V, VE = 2.00 V
Assume VBE = 0.52 V Set R1 = 25.0 k
Calculate values for RE, RC, R2, and I2 . Set these R values in the module and
measure I2, IC, VCE and VE . Suggestion: Connect the 1000 ohm resistor in
series with R2 and include its value with R2. The voltage across it, in millivolts, equals
the value of I2, in microamperes.
3: Repeat step 2 but change R1 to 8.0 k
4: Given the following: VCC = 12.0 V, IC = 10.00 mA, VCE = 4.00 V, VE = 4.00 V
Assume VBE = 0.52 V Set R1 = 25.0 k
Calculate values for RE, RC, R2, and I2 . Set these R values in the module and
measure I2, IC, VCE and VE .
5: Repeat step 4 but change R1 to 8.0 k

BJT Voltage Divider Bias
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: Value of ________
2, 3:
VCC = 12.0 V, IC = 5.00 mA, VCE = 4.00 V, VE = 2.00 V , VBE = 0.52 V
Calculated Measured
R1 R2 RC RE I2 mA I2 mA IC mA VCE V VE V
25.0 k
8.0 k
4, 5:
VCC = 12.0 V, IC = 10.00 mA, VCE = 4.00 V, VE = 4.00 V , VBE = 0.52 V
Calculated Measured
R1 R2 RC RE I2 mA I2 mA IC mA VCE V VE V
25.0 k
8.0 k
NOTE The stand-alone computer program, TRNSTR-1.EXE can be useful here

Electronics I
Experiment #14: BJT Biasing: Collector Feedback
Materials: Module EL1-H , two multimeters, power supply
For the input loop we obtain:

IB RB = VCB or ICRB/ = VCE - VBE
and for the output side we obtain:
VCC = VCE + IC (RC + RE) .
If IC were to increase, due to a transistor with a
different , the voltage across both the emitter
and collector resistors would increase,
decreasing VCE. This in turn would lessen the
voltage across RB, reducing the bias current, IB
and IC as well. Initially we have to know the
value in order to determine RB. Use the
method discussed in Experiment #12 to
determine this value. In computing the proper
value for RB add the 1 k series, as shown in
the diagram. The voltage, measured in
millivolts equals IB in microamps.
The supply voltage, VCC, equals the sum of the voltage drops across each element:
14: BJT Biasing Colletor Feedback 42

VCC = ICRC + VCE + VE or
RC = (VCC – VCE – VE) / IC.

Next apply Ohm’s law to the emitter resistor: VE = IE RE or
RE = VE / (IC ( /( +1))
And for the feedback loop, IB RB = VCB = (VCE – VBE) or
RB = (VCE – VBE) / IC .
Procedure:
1: Measure the value of for the transistor in your module.
2: Given the following values:

VCC = 10.00 V, VE = 2.00 V, VCE = 4.00 V, IC = 10.0 mA, VBE = 0.52 V
Calculate appropriate values for RC, RE, RB, and IB. Use these resistance values
in setting up the module. Measure and record IB, VE , VCE and IC.
3: Repeat step #2 with the following values:

BJT Biasing: Collector Feedback
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: Value of ________
2:
Calculated Measured
RB RC RE IB mA IB mA IC mA VCE V VE V
3:
Calculated Measured
RB RC RE IB mA IB mA IC mA VCE V VE V

Electronics I
Experiment # 15 : BJT Biasing: Common Base
Materials: Module EL-1-H, two multimeters, power supply, 3-volt source
At first the common base

configuration may appear
strange. The signal is applied to
the emitter rather that directly to
the base. Notice the dual power
supply: VEE provides the forward
bias for the emitter-base junction,
VCC provides the reverse bias for
the base-collector junction.
Given a Q-point and the
power supply voltages, you are
to find RE and RC . Kirchoff’s
loop method is useful here:
Emitter loop: VEE = VBE + IE RE Collector loop: VCC = ICRC + VCB
VCB = VCE – VBE and assume IC ≈ IE

It is possible to solve these equations for RE and RC in terms of known given quantities. When
using Module EL-1-H, VCC is provided by the external power source while VEE is provided by a
pair of pen-light batteries, which have appreciable internal resistance. Initially measure this VEE
with no load; a correction for internal resistance can be made later;
Procedure:
1: Assume VBE = 0.50 V, set VCC to 10.00 V, measure the un-corrected VEE and select the Q-
point as IC = 5.00 mA , VCE = 5.00 V. Solve the above equations for RE and RC.
2: Use these values with Module EL-1-H, and measure the actual values of VEE and VBE in the
circuit. With these corrected values again solve the equations for RE and RC.
3: Use these new values with Module EL-1-H. Now measure and record IC and VCE and
compare these measured values with the desired Q-point.
4: Repeat steps 1 to 3, using the corrected values of VEE and VBE , but with VCC = 12.00 V
and a new Q-point as IC = 10.00 mA , VCE = 6.00 V.
NOTE: In this analysis we are not concerned with values of IB.
15: BJT Bias: Common Base 45

BJT Biasing: Common Base
Name:______________________________ Date:______
Part 1:
Q-point: IC = 5.00 mA , VCE = 5.00 V.
Supply : VCC = 10.00 V VEE (no load) = _______ Assume VBE = 0.50 V,
Compute: RE = ________ RC = _______ (configure module with these values)

Re-Measure: VEE (with load) = _______ VBE = _________
Re-Compute: RE = ______ RC = _______ (re-configure module with these values)
Q-point values Measured values % Difference

IC = 5.00 mA
VCE = 5.00 volts
Part 2:
Q-point: IC = 10.00 mA , VCE = 6.00 V.
Supply : VCC = 12.00 V VEE (no load) = _______ Assume VBE = 0.50 V,
Compute: RE = ________ RC = _______ (configure module with these values)

Re-Measure: VEE (with load) = _______ VBE = _________
Re-Compute: RE = ______ RC = _______ (re-configure module with these values)
Q-point values Measured values % Difference

IC = 10.00 mA
VCE = 6.00 volts
(Include all calculations with this report)

Electronics I
Experiment # 16 : BJT Biasing: Emitter follower
Materials: Module EL-1-H, power supply, two multimeters
The basic emitter follower is shown. Given the

supply voltage, VCC, and a definite Q-point ( VCE and IC
); you are to calculate the corresponding values for
RB and RE. The governing equations are: .
Input side: VCC = IB RB + VBE + IC RE

Output side: VCC = VCE + IC RE
Note there are three unknowns, IB, RB and RE.
Since is not given, use the method outlined in
Experiment #12 to evaluate it. At the Q-point IB = IC /
.
For this circuit, VB = VBE + VE . Since VBE is

normally quite small ( ≈ 0.5 volts ) the output emitter
voltage, VE, closely “follows” the input base voltage, VB.
This is the reason for the name “emitter follower”
This circuit is also known as a common

collector. The collector may not seem to be
common. However when viewed from the signal or
AC viewpoint, the power supply and the ground are
at the same potential, since they are connected by
the comparatively large filtering capacitors. In this
AC view the collector is common to the input and
output loops,
16: BJT Bias: Emitter Follower 48

Procedure:
1: Set VCC = 10.0 volt. Select the Q-point as : IC = 10.00 mA, VCE = 4.00 volts and
assume VBE = 0.45 volts.
2: Determine IB for this Q-point, as explained above.
3: Calculate values for RB and RE and configure the module using these values.
4: Measure the actual value of VEB and re-calculate for RB and RE.
Configure the module again with these values, and compare measured values
with the desired Q-point.
5: Repeat steps 1 to 4 for VCC = 12.00 V, IC = 20.00 mA, VCE = 6.00 volts.

BJT Biasing: Emitter follower
Name:______________________________ Date:______
Part A:
Set VCC = 10.0 volt. Assume VBE = 0.45 volts.
Select the Q-point as : IC = 10.00 mA, VCE = 4.00 volts
IB = _________ DC = _________ Corrected VEB = ____________
Q-point Measured value % difference

IC = 10.00 mA,
VCE = 4.00 volts
Part B:
Set VCC = 12.0 volt. Assume VBE = 0.45 volts.
Select the Q-point as : IC = 20.00 mA, VCE = 6.00 volts
IB = _________ DC = _________ Corrected VEB = ____________
Q-point Measured value % difference

IC = 20.00 mA,
VCE = 6.00 volts

Electronics I
Experiment # 17 : N-channel JFet Characteristics
Materials: Module EL-1-I, power supply, 3-volt source, two multimeters
The bipolar junction transistor, BJT, is a current-controlled device; the collector-emitter

current is directly proportional to the base-emitter current (the proportionality constant is ).
The field-effect transistor, FET, is a voltage-controlled device; the source-drain current is
controlled by the gate-source voltage (the proportionality factor is not linear). The source-drain
current, IDS, can be expressed in terms of the variable gate-source voltage, VGS, and two
constants: IDSS, the source-drain current with VGS=0, and VP, the minimum value of VGS that
sets IDS=0. Notice that on a graph of source-drain current ( vertical ) against gate-source
voltage (horizontal ), each of these constants lies on a separate coordinate axis. The graph
line joining these two points is not a straight line, but a segment of a parabola. The Shockley
equation expresses this relation:
IDS = IDSS ( 1 – VGS/VP )2 .
Notice the polarity of the battery in the input circuit. The gate-source junction is reverse biased
so ther is no gate current. As with the BJT, we specify an operating, or Q, point by assigning
definite values to VDS and IDS. The drain-source voltage term, VDS, does not appear in the
Shockley equation for IDS, suggesting that the drain-source current is independent of the
drain-source voltage! Over a wide voltage range this is approximately true.
17 N-channel JFet Characteristics 51

The circuit shown here is
used to measure the input and
output characteristics of a given
N-channel FET. In the diagram
the conventional current enters
the drain terminal and leaves at
the source, which at first may
seem a backwards way of
naming terminals. Recall that
we are dealing with an N-
channel device in which the
charge carriers are the negative electrons. Thus the source terminal is where the carriers
enter, the drain is where the carriers leave. A similar convention is followed for P-channel
FETs .
Procedure:
1: Draw the input characteristics. Maintain VDS at 8.0 volts. Attach the external 3.0 volt supply
where indicated. Connect a voltmeter between the gate and source terminals, for VGS, and
place a second voltmeter where shown on the diagram. The small switch lets you use this
meter to read either VDS or the source drain current, ID.
When measuring IDSS, use alligator clips to short-circuit the gate and source. When
measuring VP, use the lowest possible meter range to measure current. Display these points
on your graph: [0, IDSS], [0.3 VP, IDSS/2], [0.5 VP, IDSS/4], [VP, 0].
2: Draw the output characteristics, at 0.50 volt intervals for VGS.

N-channel JFet Characteristics
Name:______________________________ Date:______
Attach graphs of the input and output JFet characteristics

Electronics I
Experiment # 18 : FET Biasing: Self Bias
Materials: Module EL-1-J, power supply, two multimeters
As with the Bipolar Junction Transistors

(BJT), biasing implies selecting external circuit
components so that the DC (no signal) voltage
across the transistor and the current through
the transistor have definite values (Q-point).
For the BJT, this means a definite base
current determined by the transistor
characteristics; for the FET the gate-source
voltage, VGS must have a definite value, again
determined by the transistor characteristics.
In measuring the FET characteristics in

the previous experiment, two power supplies were used. For practical applications a
single power supply is preferable. In the self bias diagram above, the voltage rise, VDD
across the power supply equals the voltage drop across the transistor and the two
resistors, RS and RD. Since there is no current in the gate circuit, there is no voltage
drop across RG . Therefore VGS just equals the voltage drop across RS. (RG could be
omitted for biasing, but it is needed when a signal is applied to the gate).
Given an operating or Q-point, ID ( or IDS ) , VDS, and the supply voltage, VDD,
find values for RS, RD and RG. From the input characteristic curve, or the Shockley
2
equation, IDS = IDSS ( 1 – VGS/VP ) , we can find the required VGS . From this we
find the value of the source resistor, RS = VGS/IDS . Kirchoff’s mesh equation for the
output loop is
VDD = VDS + IDS (RS + RD)

where RD is the only unknown. And for biasing purposes RG may have any value, even
zero.
Procedure:
1: For the FET in your module EL1-J, measure VP and IDSS. You may have
measured these values in Experiment #17, using module EL1-I, but each FET has its
own characteristics. The diagram below suggests how you can use module EL1-J, with
its single voltage source, to measure VP and IDSS.
For IDSS , place a jumper between the gate and source terminals, so VGS =
zero; the value of ID is then IDSS.
53
18: FET Biasing: Self Bias
For VP, remove the jumper and place a voltmeter between the gate
and source terminals. At pinch-off, the gate must be sufficiently negative
with respect to the source to reduce to zero the drain current, ID . To do
this connect the gate to ground. Next join together in series RD and RS to
form a voltage divider between the supply voltage and ground; connect the
junction of RD and RS to the source.. Now adjust RD and RS, until the drain
current, ID , reads zero on the most sensitive current range of the
multimeter. The value of VP is the gate-source voltage, VGS
2: Use the circuit configuration shown below for the self-bias

configuration. Set VDD = 12.00 V. Take Q-point as: ID = 2.00 mA, VDS =
5.00 V; Calculate values for RS and RD . Set the module to these values,
and record the corresponding Q-point.
3: Repeat step #2 for Set VDD = 10.00 V. Take Q-point as: ID = 1.50 mA,
VDS = 6.00 V;
54
55
FET Biasing: Self Bias
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: VP = ____________ IDSS = ______________
2: VDD = 12.00 V, ID = 2.00 mA, VDS = 5.00 V;
RS = ___________ RD = ___________
Desired Measured % Difference

ID 2.00 mA
VDS 5.00 V
3: VDD = 10.00 V, ID = 1.50 mA, VSD = 6.00 V;
RS = ___________ RD = ___________

ID 1.50 mA
VDS 6.00 V
56
Electronics I
Experiment # 19 : FET Biasing: Voltage Divider
Materials: Module EL-1-J, power supply, two multimeters
In any FET,the drain current, ID (or IDS), depends on the gate-source voltage,
VGS. In the self bias configuration we have considered, VGS is provided by the voltage
drop, IDRS, across the source resistor, RS. VS, the voltage at the source terminal with
respect to ground ( the negative side of the
supply voltage, VDD) is determined by RS,
while VD, the drain terminal voltage, is
determined by RD. Normally any input signal
would be applied to the gate, and the output
taken from either source or drain.
With voltage divider biasing,

introduced here, for a given source-drain
current, ID, we may set to any value not only
the drain terminal voltage, VD, but also the
source terminal voltage, VS. The total current
provided by the supply. VDD, equals the two
separate currents, ID through the transistor,
and I12 through the two series resistors, R1
and R2. Since there is no gate current, this resistor pair acts as a voltage divider. Thus
the voltage drop across R2 is VDD R2 /(R1 + R2). From the diagram it is easy to see that
the gate-source voltage, VGS, is the difference between the source-ground voltage and
the gate-ground voltage:
VGS = ID RS - VDD R2 / (R1 + R2). [A]
Here RS can have any value greater than or equal to VGS/ID The pair of values, R1 and
R2, are selected so that [A] is satisfied. For the loop including the supply voltage and
the transistor we have
VDD = VDS + ID(RD + RS) [B]

VD = VDD – ID RD , VS = ID R S [C]
Given a value for VDD and the Q-point ( ID and VDS ), and values for VS and VD,
how do we determine R1, R2, RS and RD ?
(1) Determine VGS from the Shockley equation or the input characteristics. If the given
VS is less than this VGS then no value of RS may be found to satisfy [A], and the
problem cannot solved.
(2) From [C] determine RS and RD.
19: FET Biasing: Voltage Divider 60

(3) From [A] determine a pair of values for R1 and R2
Procedure:
1: For the FET in your module EL1-J, measure VP and IDSS.
2: Given VDD=12.00 V, VDS=5.00 V, ID=1.50 mA, VS=3.00 V, VD=8.00 V

Find suitable values for R1, R2, RS and RD.

Find suitable values for R1, R2, RS and RD.

FET Biasing: Voltage Divider
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: VP = ____________ IDSS = ______________
RS = ______ RD = _______ R1 = ______ R2 = _______

ID 1.50 mA
VDS 5.00 V
VS 3.00 V
VD 8.00 V
RS = ______ RD = _______ R1 = ______ R2 = _______

ID 0.75 mA
VDS 5.00 V
VS 1.00 V
VD 6.00 V

Electronics I
Experiment #20: BJT Small Signal: AC, ro, and re
Materials: Module EL1-H , two multimeters, function generator, power supply
A transistor may be viewed as a current valve, where the handle is the base-
emitter current for a BJT and the gate-source voltage for a FET. We have already
considered three important, and inter-related parameters for each type:
BJT: emitter-base current, IB; collector current, IC; collector-emitter voltage, VCE
FET: gate-source voltage, VGS; drain current, ID; drain-source voltage, VDS
These are not the only parameters that could have been selected (for a three terminal
device, there are three terminal currents, and three voltages between different pairs of
terminals) but they are the most common. The input and output characteristics
displays the relationships between these quantities. From these characteristic curves,
three additional values are derived for AC or signal values, which are quite important
for transistor circuit analysis. For the BJT these are:
re = emitter-base
resistance;
ro = emitter-collector
resistance;
AC = output to
input current ratio
These three parameters are calculated for a given Q-point ( VCE, IC). In each case we
are concerned with the ratio of changes about a given value for particular quantities.
To explain the method, let us select the following: VCC=12.00 V, VCE=6.00 V,
IC= 20.0 mA.
Evaluate βAC: = IC / IB
Place jumpers on Module EL1-H as shown in the diagram below, which is similar
to the Fixed Bias configuration considered in a prior experiment. Here RB is the series
combination of R1, R2 and the 1000 ohm reference resistor. This 1000 ohm reference
resistor is added to simplify measuring the base current, IB, since the voltage across it,
20: BJT Small Signal: bAC, r0, re 63

measured in millivolts, is numerically equal the current through it, measured in
microamperes. Adjust R1, R2 or both so that the collector current, IC, equals the
prescribed 20.0 mA.
Notice the voltage across the transistor, VCE plus the voltage drop across the
collector resistor, IC RC equals the supply voltage, VCC; therefore adjust the value of
RC so VCE equals the prescribed 6.00 V. Next adjust RB so that the collector current, IC
is slightly above an again slightly below the Q-point value, and record both IB and IC, as
shown in the sample data below. Notice that IC and IB are measured on different meter
ranges. Use the range that gives the most number of significant digits.
Above Below Difference AC = IC / IB

IC 22.0 mA 18.0 mA 4.0 mA
0.262 mA 0.127 ma 0.045 ma 89
IB

Evaluate ro: = VCE / IC
Use the same set-up as above. First adjust RB and RC to get back to the initial
Q-point values. Next, without changing RB, adjust RC to obtain slightly above and
below values for VCE :
Above Below Difference ro = VCE / IC
VCE 6.99 V 5.02 V 1.97 V
21.9 k
IC 20.31 mA 20.22 mA 0.09x10-3 A
Evaluate re: = VBE / IE

First restore the Q-point values. Measure the base-emitter voltage, VBE, which came to
0.605 V in the sample data used here. Next vary RB to attain values of VBE slightly
above and below this value, and record the corresponding emitter current, IE. Notice in
the diagram that the ammeter is positioned to measure the collector current, IC. Recall
that IE = IC( +1/ ), or IE IC
Above Below Difference re = VBE / IE

VBE 0.610 0.600 0.010
1.5
IE 21.70 mA 15.10 mA 6.60x10-3 A
Procedure:
1: For VCC=12.00 V, and a Q-point of VCE=6.00 V, IC= 20.0 mA, determine
the value of AC, re and ro . Compare the measured value of re with the expression:
26 mV / (IE mA)
2: Repeat step 1 for VCC=10.00 V, and a Q-point of VCE=4.00 V, IC= 25.0 mA.

BJT Small Signal: AC, ro and re
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: VCC=12.00 V, VCE=6.00 V, IC= 20.0 mA
Above Below Difference βAC = IC / IB
IC
IB

VCE
IC

VBE
IE
2: VCC=10.00 V, VCE=4.00 V, IC= 25.0 mA.

Above Below Difference βAC = IC / IB
IC
IB

VCE
IC

VBE
IE

Electronics I
Experiment #21: BJT Small Signal: Fixed Bias
Materials: Module EL1-H , two multimeters, function generator, power supply,
oscilloscope.
In Experiment #12 we considered the fixed bias configuration: the diagram there is
reproduced below:
In many practical circuits a capacitor ( 50 f … 470 f) is placed in parallel with

the emitter resistor, RE. This does not affect the DC biasing, but for the small signal
analysis this bypass capacitor effectively short-circuits the emitter resistor, so we may
take RE 0.
Recall that the three parameters , AC, ro, and re, are properties of the
transistor itself, independent of the bias configuration. Recall that re is typically in the
neighborhood of 25 while ro is some 1000 times greater. Recall, too, that for a large
and small resistor, when in series we may ignore the small resistor, when in parallel we
may ignore the large resistor. In some of the expressions that follow, we may ignore ro,
and also take +1.
It our small signal analysis we are interested in four additional parameters that
depend on both the transistor properties and also on the particular bias configuration. In
this and the following experiments, we will set-up the module for a given Q-point,
measure these four values experimentally, and compare the results with the predicted
values.
22: BJT Small Signal: Fixed Bias 67

Z i : input impedance = Vi / Ii
Z o : output impedance = Vo* / Io*
A v : voltage gain = - Vo / Vi
A i : current gain = Io / Ii
Here Vi , Ii , Vo and Io represent the input and

output signal voltages and currents. Recall the definition of Zo : Apply zero AC signal at
*
the input terminals; apply a voltage, Vo to the output terminals, and measure the
* * *
resulting current as Io ; then Zo = Vo / Io .
If there is no emitter resistor, or if it is by-passed by a

Common Emitter
large capacitor, set RE to zero in the expressions shown. We
bias stabilized
have assumed that ro is in parallel with smaller resistors and
make be neglected. The derivation of these expressions may
Z i = RB ║ (RE + re)
be found in any standard electronics textbook.
Z0 = RC
Set up the module as shown below. RB is represented
AV = – RC / (RE + re) by R1 on the module. Three variations may be had by
shorting out RE, bypassing it with a capacitor, or letting it
A i = Z i / (RE + re) stand alone.
Procedure:
Use the following values: VCC=12.00 V, VE=2.00 V, VCE=6.00 V, IC=20.0 mA
Input Signal ≈ 2 kHz.
1: Measure and record the values of AC, ro, and re, using the methods of
experiment #20.
2: Compute the appropriate values of RB, RC and RE. Then use these values to set up
the module board, EL-1-H for the Common Emitter, emitter stabilized configuration, as
shown in the diagram above. Next fine-tune these three resistors to meet the Q-point
values as closely as possible. Measure and record these final values for RB, RC and
RE.

3: Measure and record the values of Vi, Vo, Ii and Io. Measure VI and Vo as the
voltage between ground ( the negative terminal of the input power ) and Signal In or
Signal Out. First adjust Vi so that Vo = 2.00 VAC. Check the form of the output signal
with the oscilloscope to make sure there is no distortion.
Find Ii and Io by measuring the voltage drop across the 1kΩ resistor or RC, and
divide by the corresponding resistance value ( Ohm’s law!). Remember to make the
current and voltage measurements in the AC meter mode.
4: From these values of Vi, Vo, Ii and Io calculate the values of ZI, Av and AI .
5: Connect the IN side of CIN to ground. Apply an AC signal of approximately one volt
*
( Vo ) between the OUT side of Cout and ground, but passing through the 1kΩ resistor,
*
as shown in the diagram below. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current ( Io ) through
this resistor. From these values calculate Zo. It is interesting to note that the ratios Vo /
Io and Vo* / Io* are approximately equal for this configuration. This will not always be
the case (for example, the emitter follower configuration considered in Experiment #24).

6: Compute the values of ZI, Zo, Av and AI using the measured values of RB, RC , RE,
AC and re. Compare these with the results of step 4 above.
7: Connect the bypass capacitor, CE, in parallel with the emitter resistor, RE, and repeat
steps 3, 4, 5 and 6.

BJT Small Signal: Fixed Bias
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: AC _______ , ro ________, re _________
2: RB ________, RC _______, RE ________
Emitter NOT bypassed:
Vi ____, Vo ____, Vo* ____, Ii ____, Io____ , Io*____
From currents / voltages From resistances % Difference

ZI
Zo
Av
Ai
Emitter bypassed :
Vi ____, Vo ____, Vo* ____, Ii ____, Io____ , Io*____

Zi
Zo
Av
Ai

Electronics I
Experiment #22: BJT Small Signal: Voltage Divider Bias
Materials: Module EL1-H , two multimeters, function generator, power supply,
oscilloscope
In Experiment #13 we considered the voltage divider bias configuration: the diagram
there is reproduced below. For small signal analysis, this circuit is similar to the emitter
stabilized circuit of Experiment 21; however RB is taken as the parallel combination of
R1 and R2. The emitter may or may not be bypassed by a capacitor.
Common Emitter
Voltage Divider Bias
RB = R1R2 / (R1 + R2)
Z0 = RC
AV = – RC / (RE + re)
A i = Z i / (RE + re)
Procedure
Input Signal ≈ 2 kHz.
1: Measure and record the values of AC, ro, and re, using the methods of
Experiment #20.
2: Compute the appropriate values of R1, R2, RC and RE. Then use these values to set
up the module board, EL-1-H for the Common Emitter, voltage divider configuration, as
shown in the diagram below. Then fine-tune these values to satisfy the Q-point.
22: BJT Small Signal: Voltage Divider Bias 72

3: Use a 1 kHz sine wave as input signal, and set its value so that the output voltage is
approximately 2.0 volts (use an oscilloscope, if available, to check for distortion).
* *
Measure and record the values of Vi, Vo, Vo , Ii , Io and Io . Measure Vi and Vo as
the voltage between ground ( the negative terminal of the input power ) and Signal In or
Signal Out. Find Ii and Io by measuring the voltage drop across the 1kΩ resistor or RC,
* *
and divide by the corresponding resistance value ( Ohm’s law!). Measure Vo and Io
using the method explained Experiment #20. Remember to make the current and
voltage measurements in the AC meter mode.
* *
4: From these values of Vi, Vo, Vo , II, Io and Io calculate the values of ZI, Zo, Av and
AI .
5: Compute the values of ZI, Zo, Av and AI using the measured values of RB, RC , RE,
steps 3, 4 and 5.

BJT Small Signal: Voltage Divider Bias
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: AC _______ , ro ________, re _________
2: R1 ______, R2 _________, RC _______, RE ________
Vi ____, Vo ____, Vo* ____, Ii ____, Io____ , Io*____

ZI
Zo
Av
AI
Emitter bypassed :
Vi ____, Vo ____, Vo* ____, Ii ____, Io____ , Io*____

Zi
Zo
Av
Ai

Electronics I
Experiment #23: BJT Small Signal: Collector Feedback Bias
In Experiment 14 we considered collector feedback biasing. We now make a small

signal analysis of the same configuration. We may optionally bypass the emitter resistor
with a large capacitor;
Common Emitter
Collector Feedback Bias
K = 1 + b(RE + re + RC)/RF
Z0 = RC
AV = – RC / (RE + re)
A i = Z i / (RE + re)
Notice that K 1 for a very large value of the feedback resistor, RF (or RB),
and so Zi = (RE + re). This is also the value of Zi for the fixed and voltage divider
bias configurations when bias resistor, RB, is very large.
Procedure
Input Signal 2 kHz. Use the series combination of R1 and R2 as RF.
1: Measure and record the values of AC, ro, and re, using the methods of the
experiment #20.
75
23: BJT Small Signal: Collector Feedback Bias
2: Compute the appropriate values of RF, RC and RE. Then use these values to set up
the module board, EL-1-H for the Common Emitter, collector feedback configuration, as
shown in the diagram above.
* *
3: Measure and record the values of Vi, Vo, Vo , Ii, Io and Io . Measure VI and Vo
as the voltage between ground ( the negative terminal of the input power ) and Signal In
or Signal Out. Find Ii and Io by measuring the voltage drop across the 1k resistor or
RC, and divide by the corresponding resistance value ( Ohm’s law!). Measure Vo* and
Io* using the method explained Experiment #20. Remember to make the current and
voltage measurements in the AC meter mode.
4: From these values of Vi, Vo, Ii and Io calculate the values of ZI, Zo, Av and AI .
5: Compute the values of ZI, Zo, Av and AI using the measured values of RF, RC , RE,
steps 3, 4 and 5.

76
BJT Small Signal: Collector Feedback Bias
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: AC _______ , ro ________, re _________
2: RF _________, RC _______, RE ________
Vi ____, Vo ____, Vo* ____, Ii ____, Io____ , Io*____

Zi
Zo
Av
Ai
Emitter bypassed :
Vi ____, Vo ____, Vo* ____, Ii ____, Io____ , Io*____

Zi
Zo
Av
Ai
77
Electronics I
Experiment #24: BJT Small Signal: Emitter Follower Bias
In Experiment 16 we considered emitter follower biasing. We now make a small signal

analysis of the same configuration. In this configuration we do NOT bypass the emitter
resistor; otherwise the output signal would be lost.
Common Emitter
Emitter Follower
Z0 = RE + re
AV = RE / (RE + re)
A i = – Z i / (RE + re)
78
24: BJT Small Signal: Emitter Follower Bias
Procedure
Use the following values: VCC=12.00 V, VCE=6.00 V, IC=20.0 mA
Input Signal ≈ 2 kHz. Take R1 as RB.
1: Measure and record the values of AC, ro, and re, using the methods of the
experiment #20.
2: Compute the appropriate values of RB and RE. Then use these values to set up the
module board, EL-1-H for the Common Emitter, emitter follower configuration, as shown
in the diagram above.
3: Measure and record the values of Vi, Vo, Ii and Io. Measure VI and Vo as the
voltage between ground ( the negative terminal of the input power ) and Signal In or
Signal Out. Find Ii and Io by measuring the voltage drop across the 1k resistor or RE,
* *
and divide by the corresponding resistance value ( Ohm’s law!). Measure Vo and Io
* *
using the method explained Experiment #20. Note that the ratios Vo / Io and Vo / Io
are quite different for the emitter follower configuration.
Remember to make the current and voltage measurements in the AC meter mode.
4: From these values of Vi, Vo, Ii and Io calculate the values of ZI, Zo, Av and AI .
5: Compute the values of ZI, Zo, Av and AI using the measured values of RB , RE, AC
and re. Compare these with the results of step 4 above.
79
BJT Small Signal: Emitter Follower Bias
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: AC _______ , ro ________, re _________
2: RB _________, RE ________
Vi ____, Vo ____, Vo* ____, Ii ____, Io____ , Io*____

ZI
Zo
Av
Ai
80
`Electronics I
Experiment # 25 : FET Small Signal: gm and rd
Materials: Module EL-1-J, power supply, function generator, two multimeters
We considered the characteristics of the BJT in Experiment #11, and those of
the FET in Experiment #17. In Experiment #20 we considered the BJT small signal
parameters, AC, ro and re. In the present experiment we consider the FET small
signal parameters, gm and rd . The figure below displays the similarity and the
differences for the two transistor types.
For the BJT, is the ratio of the change in the output current to the change in the
controlling input current ; is dimensionless, the ratio of two currents. For the FET the
counterpart of is gm, the ratio of the change in output current to the change in the
controlling input voltage; gm has the dimensions of reciprocal ohms or siemens, and is
called transconductance.
The FET drain resistance, rd is similar to the BJT output resistance, ro,. There is
no FET counterpart to the BJT input resistance, re, since the FET has zero input or gate
current. Notice that the values of all these parameters depend on the Q-point, the
selected point on the output characteristics. They may be evaluated by the graphical
methods presented in Experiment #20.
Recall there exists an algebraic relation between VGS and IDS given by the
Shockley equation, presented in Experiment #17:
IDS = IDSS ( 1 – VGS/VP )2

which is just the equation of the FET input characteristics, shown below, in the range of
VGS from VP to zero. It has the form of a segment of a parabola.
81
25 FET Small Signal – gm and rd
Therefore we may obtain an algebraic expression for gm by differentiating the
Shockley equation with respect to VGS.
gm = dIDS / dVGS = 2 ( IDSS / |VP| )( 1- VGS / VP )
Graphical determination of gm and rd

IDSS is the drain current, IDS, for VGS = 0, and VP is the value of VGS for IDS =
0; with these two values and the above equation we can find gm for any value of VGS.
A graph of gm against VGS is a straight line in the interval from VP to zero, with a
2
positive slope of 2 IDSS / VP .
We may use a method similar to that used in Experiment #20 to determine
graphically the value of gm and rd at a particular Q-point. We measure the values a little
above and a little below the Q-point and form the ratio of their differences. Consider
sample data to illustrate the method;
Given: VDD = 10.00 V, ID = 1.00 mA, VDS = 6.00 V ; Find gm and rd
Use the circuit configuration shown below.

1: Set the supply voltage to VDD = 10.00 V
2: Adjust RS to obtain the desired ID = 1.00mA
3: Adjust RD to obtain the desired VDS = 6.00 V
4: Measure and record the value of VGS
5: For gm, hold VDS constant and adjust RS so ID is slightly above and slightly
below 1.00 mA , and record the corresponding values of VGS
82
VDS maintained constant
Above Below Difference gm = ID / VGS
ID 1.10 mA 0.90 mA 0.20 ma
0.71 V 0.82 V 0.11 V 1.8X10-3 S
VGS
6: For rd, hold VGS constant and adjust RD so VDS is slightly above and slightly
below 6.00 V , and record the corresponding values of ID
Above
V Below
GS maintained Difference
constant rd = VDS / ID
VDS 7.0 V 5.0V 2.0V
ID 1.10 mA 1.00 mA 0.10 mA 20 kΩ
83
Procedure:
1: For the FET in Module EL-1-J calculate the value of VP and IDSS . In computing VP
use the most sensitive current range to determine the exact value of VGS that makes ID
= 0.
2: . Set VDD = 12.00 V. Take Q-point as: ID = 2.00 mA, VDS = 5.00 V. Use the
graphical method to determine rd.
3: With these same values use the graphical method to determine gm.
4: Compute gm using the expression from the derivative of the Shockley equation, and
compare this with the value from the graphical method.
5: Repeat steps 2 to 5 for : VDD = 10.00 V, ID = 1.50 mA, VDS = 6.00 V;
84
FET Small Signal: gm and rd
Name:______________________________ Date:______
1: VP = ____________ IDSS = ______________
2, 3: VDD = 12.00 V, ID = 2.00 mA, VDS = 5.00 V;
Above Below Difference rd = VDS / ID

VSD
ID

ID
VGS
4:
gm measured gm computed % Difference
5: VDD = 10.00 V, ID = 1.50 mA, VDS = 6.00 V;
Above Below Difference rd = VDS / ID

VSD
ID

ID
VGS
gm measured gm computed % Difference
85
Electronics I
Experiment # 26 : FET Small Signal: Self Bias
Materials: Module EL-1-J, power supply, function generator,
two multimeters
In Experiments #18 and #19 we considered separately FET self and voltage
divider bias. The DC circuits for these are repeated here.
In either case the source resistor, RS,

may be bypassed by a capacitor.
However for small signal analysis the AC equivalent circuit for both configurations may
be combined, as shown. For
self bias, RG’ represents RG;
for voltage divider bias RG’
represents the parallel
combination of R1 with R2. If
the source resistor, RS, is
bypassed by a large
capacitor, RS is replaced by
a short circuit.
Because the input and output

sides are totally separated,
the input impedance, Zi, is
RG’. By definition the output impedance, Zo, is the impedance “looking back” into the
output terminals, with the input terminals shorted. In this case the shorted input makes
VGS = 0, so the current generator, gm VGS, is effectively an open circuit. In the previous
experiment it was found that rd is usually quite large, so Zo RD. The voltage gain is
given by:
Av = - gm ( RD / (1 + gm RS))
86
27: FET Small Signal – Self Bias
Procedure:
Set VDD = 12.00 V. Take Q-point as: ID = 2.00 mA, VDS = 5.00 V. Use
the methods of Experiment #25 to determine gm and rd.
Self Bias:
1: Using the methods of Experiment # 18, determine the values for RS, RD and R2 to
satisfy the Q-point values. Configure Module EL1-J using these values.
2: Use a sinusoidal input signal, Vi, of approximately 2 kH, and adjust its amplitude so
that the output signal, Vo, equals 2.00 VAC. If necessary use R1 in series with the
function generator to reduce its amplitude. Calculate the ratio Vo / Vi and compare this
with the formula for Av given above.
3: Use CS to bypass the source resistor, RS, and repeat step 2 above.
87
Voltage Divider
1: Using the methods of Experiment # 18, determine the values for RS, RD, R1 and R2
to satisfy the Q-point values. Configure Module EL1-J using these values, and adjust
them, if necessary, to maintain the desired Q-point..
2: Use a sinusoidal input signal, Vi, of approximately 2 kH, and adjust its amplitude so
that the output signal, Vo, equals 2.00 VAC. Calculate the ratio Vo / Vi and compare
this with the formula for Av given above.
3: Use CS to bypass the source resistor, RS, and repeat step 2 above.
88
FET Small Signal: Self Bias
Name:______________________________ Date:______
VDD = 12.00 V, ID = 2.00 mA, VDS = 5.00 V.
gm _______ , rd ______
Self Bias:
RS ______, RD ______, R2 _________
Av (by formula) V0/Vi % Difference

NO Bypass
Bypass
Voltage Divider:
RS ______, RD ______, R1 _________, R2 _________
Av (by formula) V0/Vi % Difference

NO Bypass
Bypass
89
Electronics I
Experiment # 27 : FET Small Signal: Source Follower
Materials: Module EL-1-J, power supply, function generator, multimeter
The FET source follower configuration is somewhat similar to self bias. However,
RD is set to zero, RS is never bypassed, and the signal is taken from the source terminal
rather than from the drain. However the voltage gain, Av, and output impedance, Zo, are
quite different.
Av = gm RS / ( 1 + gm RS) Zo = RS / ( 1 + gm RS)
Notice that the denominator in the expression for Av is one greater than the numerator,
indicating that the voltage gain is always less that one. The output impedance, Zo, is
always less ( and sometimes much less ) than the source resistor, RS.
27: FET Small Signal: Source Follower 90

Procedure:
1: Set VDD = 12.00 V. Take Q-point as: ID = 2.00 mA. Use the
methods of Experiment #25 to determine gm.
2: Determine the value for RS to satisfy the Q-point values. Configure

Module EL1-J using this value, or adjust, if necessary, to maintain desired Q-
point.
3: Use a sinusoidal input signal, Vi, of approximately 2 kHz, and adjust its
amplitude so that the output signal, Vo, equals 0.20 VAC. Check the wave
shape with an oscilloscope, if available If necessary use R1 in series with
the function generator to reduce its amplitude. Calculate the ratio Vo / Vi
and compare this with the formula for Av given above.
4: Connect the in side of Cin to ground. Apply a sinusoidal 2 KHz , 0.20

VAC, Vo*, to the out side of Cout through resistor RD (set to any
*
convenient value) and measure the current through it, Io ( use Ohms law).
* *
From these values compute Zo = Vo / Io .
5: Set VDD = 10.00 V. Take Q-point as: ID = 1.50 mA. Use the
methods of Experiment #25 to determine gm. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for these
values.

FET Small Signal: Source Follower
Name:______________________________ Date:______
VDD = 12.00 V, ID = 2.00 mA,

gm _______________ RS _______________
Vo ________ Vi _________ Vo* ______ Io* _______
Av (by formula) Vo / Vi % Difference
Zo (by formula) Vo* / Io* % Difference
VDD = 10.00 V, ID = 1.50 mA,

gm _______________ RS _______________
Vo ________ Vi _________ Vo* ______ Io* _______
Av (by formula) Vo / Vi % Difference
Zo (by formula) Vo* / Io* % Difference

Electronic Communication Series

Electric Circuits I: Direct Current
Electric Circuits II: Alternating Current
Electronics I: Basic Components
Electronics II: Amplifiers and Oscillators
Electronics III: Operational Amplifiers
Communications I: AM and FM
Communications II: Digital Communications
Digital Logic Circuits, with Verilog HDL
Industrial Electronics
LOGO! PLC: Learning a Programmable Logic Controller
We are a university in a Third World country, the Philippines. We

believe that more than chalk and whiteboard pens are needed to train a
communication engineer for today’s world. “Hands on” is a must for every
student. Excellent student laboratory equipment is readily available on the
world markets. Yet the funding necessary for us to purchase such
equipment, and in the quantity we desired, was completely unavailable.
Our only viable option was to design and fabricate locally the materials of
which before we only dreamt. For each item of laboratory equipment
student instructional material had to be prepared, as shown in the above
listing. With a view to share with other institutions the fruit of our own
endeavors, we are making these student manuals freely available.
Permission is given to copy this material, and to suitably modify it to the
needs of a particular institution.
93

Laboratory Guide For Electronics 1 Basic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Laboratory Guide For Electronics 1 Basic

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Laboratory Guide For Electronics 1 Basic

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Laboratory Guide for

Francisco Glover, S.J.

Electronic and Communication Engineering

Ateneo de Davao University

Three different preferences for the conduct of a laboratory course in

1] The students are given the components, a breadboard and hook-

Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages, and

Basically an oscilloscope is a measuring instrument that displays a

Vertical axis: Voltage is displayed in the vertical direction:

Dual Channel: If the oscilloscope is a dual channel model, two separate

Horizontal axis: Time is displayed along the horizontal axis.

Triggering: Determines when the horizontal sweep begins

AC multimeters normally have poor high-frequency response. Repeat

Sweep speed Function Generator

AC Voltage Measuremen Vp-p VRMS Vp-p (2-3/2) %-Diff

5.00 kHz 50.0 kHz

Triggering: Sketch oscilloscope display

Level = 0 Slope = negative Level = +2.0 Slope = positive

Level = -2.0 Slope = positive Level = -2.0 Slope = negative

The ratio of the potential difference or voltage, V,

If a graph of current vs. voltage shows a straight line

In this experiment you are to investigate the

2: Repeat step 1 for each of the other elements on the module.

For R1: (include full-size current-voltage graph )

Voltage Current Resistance Dynamic Resistance

For R2: (include full-size current-voltage graph )

Voltage Current Resistance Dynamic Resistance

For R3: (include full-size current-voltage graph )

Voltage Current Resistance Dynamic Resistance

For R4: (include full-size current-voltage graph )

Voltage Current Resistance Dynamic Resistance

In this experiment, you are to look

2: For the diode, D, compute the DC (static) and AC (dynamic) resistance at

2: Static and dynamic diode resistance

I (mA) V (mV) R=V/I I (mA) V (mV) r= V/ I

3: LED Power consumption:

I (mA) V (V) Power (mW)

Prior experiments considered

2: Repeat step 1 for zener diode ZD2 . Bypass the

3: Repeat step 1 for LED. Bypass the series resistor

4: Diode Load Line 10

For diode D: (attach current-voltage graph)

Resistance VQ IQ measured IQ load line % Diff (for IQ)

For zener diode ZD2: (attach current-voltage graph)

Resistance VQ IQ measured IQ load line % Diff (for IQ)

For diode LED: (attach current-voltage graph)

4: Diode Load Line 11

Rectifier circuits are used to

The half-wave circuit uses a

The full-wave circuit uses

Data Sheet: Electronics I Experiment # 5

Half-Wave: Peak-to-Peak Ripple measurement

R C1= 0 C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 100 C1= 100 C1=100

Half-Wave: DC output voltage

Load C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 10 C1= 100 C1= 100 C1=100

Which capacitor, C1 or C2, is more effective in maintaining a high output voltage

Wave forms: R = 470 Load = 7.9 k

5 Half and Full-Wave Rectifiers 13