Carpentry

 the art and trade of cutting, working, and joining timber. The term includes both structural
timberwork in framing and items such as doors, windows, and staircases.
 defined as the art of working with timber in order to construct and maintain buildings,
furniture, and other objects.

Terminologies in Carpentry
 "A" BRACE
A temporary brace shaped like the letter A used to hold a wall in place until another wall can be built.
Normally only used in the beginning stages of wall framing.
 Balloon wall
In carpentry terms any wall that is taller than a normal 8' or 9' wall such as a two-story foyer or stair
opening. Another place these are usually used in modern carpentry are for a gable wall with a cathedral
ceiling contained in that room.
 Barge rafter
The fascia board on a gable end also known as a fly rafter. I've also heard people use this term when
they nail a board down for a lay down valley as in roof framing.
 Bearing wall
Any wall framing that carries a roof, ceiling, or floor load from above.
 Birdsmouth
The triangular shaped cutout that allows the rafter to sit on the top plate correctly the two cuts to form
this are known as level and plumb cuts. Used in roof framing.
 Bottom plate
Sometimes called a sole plate this is the lowest horizontal framing member in any wall.
 Cat's paw
A specialty pry bar designed just for digging in and pulling embedded nails. A very useful tool, every
rookie should carry one just in case the boss needs it. A slang carpentry term for a nail puller.
 Ceiling joist
The horizontal framing members spanning the top plates to which the finished ceiling material and
rafters are nailed.
 Cheek cut
A beveled cut on either end of a hip or valley rafter allowing it to sit properly against or on other
framing members.
 Conventional roof framing
The way grandpa did it, and is still used today on more complex roofs. Every single component of the
roof is figured and cut on the job site then hoisted up {usually by hand } and assembled by the
carpenters.
 Cripples
Framing members that run vertically below and or above windows, doors, under headers, also known as
jack studs, or trimmers.
 Crown
The bow or curve of a board when it is viewed on edge, as a general rule these framing members should
be installed crown up.
 Custom home
Normally a one of a kind single family dwelling, usually towards the higher end of the price range.
 Gable
The most common form of roof where the rafters on either side are the same length, pitch, and meet in
the middle of the span.
 Girder
Normally a 2 or 3 part member used to support a hip roof system when using trusses.

 HAP
An acronym, height above plate. This carpentry term is used to describe the stand or height of any rafter
at the backside of the birdsmouth, or outside edge of the building.
 Header
A beam running horizontally above window, door, or other opening to support the structural members
above it.
 Hip rafter
The main support for the jack rafters in a hip roof, normally running at a 45 degree angle from the
common rafters.
 Jack rafter
A rafter that spans from the top plate to the hip rafter or from valley rafter to ridge also hip to valley.
 Joist
Structural members that run horizontally and supports the ceiling or floor.
 Journeyman
Traditionally a carpentry term used to describe a carpenter who has completed their apprenticeship in
the local union, but also anyone who has many years experience and is considered to have paid their
dues in the trade.

 King rafter
Carpentry term used to describe a common rafter when it is placed on the end of the ridge board to set
the ridge to the proper length in a hip roof configuration. It is the same size as a common rafter in a
conventional hip roof.
 King stud
In carpentry terms usually the stud running from top to bottom plate on either side of a window or door.

 Landing
In carpentry terms platform between two flights of stairs to allow for a change of direction.
 Layout
The marking of where different framing members are located on wall plates, sill plates, ridge boards etc.
this is sometimes called detailing.
 Level
On a horizontal plane. Or a basic carpentry tool.
 Lull
This is just a large rough terrain forklift used to move and access material around much more efficiently
on the job site. This machine can easily become your best friend. especially when roof framing.
 Melamine
plywood is a thermally fused, resin saturated paper finish over a particle board core. It is highly resistant
to stain and abrasion. Normally used in the cabinet building industry.
 Miter cut
An angled cut on the end of any board.
 Non-bearing wall
Any wall which does not support any weight such as floor framing, roof framing, or ceiling joists.
 On center O.C.
The measurement from the center of one structural member to another.
 Peak
In roof framing the highest point of the common rafters.
 Pettibone
Basically this is just a large rough terrain forklift used to move and access material around much more
efficiently on the job site. This machine can easily become your best friend. especially when roof
framing.
 Plate
The top and bottom plate in a wall.
 Plumb
On a vertical plane, or up and down, as in when someone says "level that wall" the correct carpentry
term is plumb that wall.
 Plumb and line
The act of straightening and bracing the wall framing just prior to the placing of floor,ceiling, or roof
framing.
 Plumb bob
A pointed metal tool used in carpentry to find a point directly below another. Can be hung from a string
to plumb a wall, though not used very much nowadays, it is still useful for plumbing tall balloon and
gable walls.

Rafter
The various framing members for the roof of a building.
Raked wall
A sloping or angled wall. The top of the wall is angled to match the pitch of the roof. Used mainly in
areas with vaulted, cathedral, or barrel ceilings.
Ridge
The peak or uppermost portion of a sloped roof.
Rise
The distance that a single step, staircase, or rafter rises vertically.
Rough carpentry
Defines the tasks normally performed by the framing carpenter, such as floor framing, wall framing,
roof framing, window installation, and exterior door installation.
R.O. Rough opening
A Carpentry term defining the opening left in a framed wall for a window or door, the window
manufacturer will usually provide these for you. General rules of thumb for windows are 1/2" bigger
than the windows actual measurements to provide for slight adjustments. Interior doors are 2" bigger
than the call out on the door, an example would be 2/8=2/10, exterior doors need to be 2 & 1/2" bigger.
Run
The horizontal distance covered by one step, set of steps, or a single rafter, normally half the width of
the area covered by the roof.

Scissor truss
A roof truss with an angled ceiling already built-in, used for rooms with a cathedral or vaulted ceiling,
the pitch of the ceiling is normally half that of the roof.
Seat cut
Also known as a level cut, normally used to refer to the portion of the birdsmouth cut in a rafter that
allows it to sit flat on the top plate of the wall framing.
Shear panel
A normally framed wall sheathed with OSB or plywood to give it shear strength.
Snapping
Laying out the floor plan on the deck or slab which represents where the walls are to be placed after
framing. Then using a chalk line to represent these walls.
Spec house
Built on speculation, a developer or builder will build a house betting someone will buy it and they can
turn a profit.
Speed square
A very useful tool for almost all aspects of framing carpentry, it's many uses are way to numerous to go
into here.
Stair gauges
Small octagon shaped buttons that clamp onto a framing square to speed the marking of repeated
measurements such as stair stringers and rafter patterns.
Stand
The height the rafter is above the wall measured at the back of the birdsmouth, also called HAP (height
above plate), heel height, and throat.
Stick framing
The act of a carpenter building one board at a time as opposed to modular or panelized homes.
Stile
is a pair of steps or ladders that is accessible to pedestrians but generally inaccessible to animals. Stiles
allow access to a field or other area enclosed by a fence or wall. Unlike a gate, there is no chance of
forgetting to close it, but they may be difficult to use for some disabled individuals.
Story pole
A 2x4 with increment marks on it, usually used to represent the risers in a staircase to help find the
height of a landing.
Stringer
The main support for a staircase, which the risers and treads are attached to.
Template
In carpentry terms a pattern made to speed up the process of marking numerous identical pieces to be cut
such as rafters, stringers, studs, treads, risers, etc.
TJI
A fabricated framing member used for roof framing and floor framing. T=truss J=joist I=I-Beam
(because it is shaped like a steel I-Beam).
Trimmer
The framing member nailed to the king stud under the end of the header to support the weight from
above.
Truss
A single component of a prefabricated roof framing system, normally built off site and delivered as part
of the complete truss package.
https://www.carpentry-pro-framer.com/carpentry-terms.html
Wood is a natural building material: if used in building elements, it can play structural, functional and
aesthetic roles at the same time. The use of wood in buildings, which goes back to the oldest of times, is
now experiencing a period of strong expansion in virtue of the sustainable dimension of wood buildings
from the environmental, economic and social standpoints.

AIR DRIED (AD) Lumber that has been dried by exposure to air, usually in a yard, without artificial
heat.
BEAM Any framing member placed to support a load.
BEVELED EDGE The chamfered, or angled edge of flooring, that creates a “V” groove when board
edges are placed together, creating a more decorative display. A beveled edge is considered to be more
of an indentation than an eased or micro-beveled edge.
BOARD FOOT (BD. FT. OR BF) The volume of a board 12″ long, 12″ wide, and 1″ thick or the
equivalent (144 cubic inches of wood).
BURL A swirl or twist in grain of the wood, which usually occurs near a knot, but is not a knot.
CHECK A lengthwise separation of the wood that usually extends across the rings of annual growth
and commonly results from stresses set up in wood during seasoning.
CONDITIONING The exposure of a material to the influence of a prescribed atmosphere for a
stipulated period of time or until a stipulated relation is reached between material and atmosphere. Also
referred to as “acclimating.”
CUP A distortion of a board in which there is a deviation from a straight line across the width of
a board.
DENSITY As usually applied to wood of normal cellular form, density is the mass of wood substance
enclosed within the boundary surfaces of a wood-plus-voids complex having unit volume. It is variously
expressed as pounds per cubic foot, kilograms per cubic meter, or grams per cubic centimeter at
specified moisture content.
DRESSED Lumber that has been trimmed and planed at the sawmill.
FIGURE The pattern produced in a wood surface by annual growth rings, rays, knots, deviation from
regular grain, such as interlocked and wavy, and irregular coloration.
GRAIN The direction, size, arrangement, appearance or quality of the fibers in sawn wood.
 CLOSE-GRAINED Wood with narrow, inconspicuous annual rings. The term is sometimes used to
designate wood having small and closely spaced pores, but in this sense the term “fine textured” is
more often used.
 COARSE-GRAINED Wood with wide conspicuous annual rings in which there is considerable
difference between springwood and summerwood. The term is sometimes used to designate wood
with large pores, such as oak, ash, chestnut and walnut, but in this sense the term “coarse textured” is
more often used.
 CROSS-GRAINED Having fibers running irregularly from a line parallel to the sides of a piece of
wood. Also referred to as “uneven” grain, cross-grained may be either diagonal, spiral, or a
combination of the two.
 CURLY-GRAINED Wood in which the fibers are distorted so that they have a curled appearance,
as in “birdseye” wood. The areas showing curly grain may vary up to several inches in diameter.
 DIAGONAL-GRAINED Wood in which the annual rings are at an angle with the axis of a piece as
a result of sawing at an angle with the bark of the tree or log. A form of cross-grain.
 EDGE-GRAINED Lumber that has been sawed so that the wide surfaces extend approximately at
right angles to the annual growth rings. Lumber is considered edge-grained when the rings form an
angle of 45° to 90° with the wide surface of the piece.
 END-GRAINED The grain as seen on a cut made at a right angle to the direction of the fibers (e.g.,
on a cross section of a tree).
 FIDDLEBACK-GRAINED Figure produced by a type of fine wavy grain found, for example, in
species of maple; such wood being traditionally used for the backs of violins.
 FINE-GRAINED Compact and smooth to the touch.
 FLAT-GRAINED Lumber that has been sawed parallel to the pith and approximately tangent to the
growth rings. Lumber is considered flat grained when the annual growth rings make an angle of less
than 45° with the surface of the piece.
 INTERLOCKED-GRAINED Grain in which the fibers put on for several years may slope in a
right-handed direction, and then for a number of years the slope reverses to a left-hand direction, and
later changes back to a right-handed pitch, and so on. Such wood is exceedingly difficult to split
radially, though tangentially it may split fairly easily.
 OPEN-GRAINED Common classification for woods with large pores, such as oak, ash, chestnut
and walnut. Also known as “coarse textured.”
 PLAINSAWN Another term for flat-grained lumber.
 QUARTERSAWN Another term for edge-grained lumber.
 SIDE-GRAINED Another term for flat-grained lumber.
 SPIRAL-GRAINED Wood in which the fibers take a spiral course about the trunk of a tree instead
of the normal vertical course. The spiral may extend in a right-handed or left-handed direction around
the tree trunk. Spiral grain is a form of cross grain.
 STRAIGHT-GRAINED Wood in which the fibers run parallel to the axis of a piece.
 VERTICAL-GRAINED Another term for edge-grained lumber.
 WAVY-GRAINED Wood in which the fibers collectively take the form of waves or undulations.
GRADE Term that defines the quality of the wood. The National Hardwood Lumber Association
(NHLA) has set a standard grading scale. There are many criteria and restrictions, including number of
cuttings, size of cuttings, and size of lumber.
 CLEAR GRADE Generic Term that refers to the highest grade such as First European Quality
(FEQ) or Firsts and Seconds (FAS). The clear cuttings of a board may not have the following
peculiarities that are considered a defect: bark pockets, bird pecks, checks, decay, rot, neither sound
or unsound knots, splits, sticker stains, wanes, worm holes, piths or grub holes.
 FIRST EUROPEAN QUALITY (FEQ) This grade refers specifically to teak, generally equal to or
even better than FAS grade and the highest grade available; free from sapwood, bee holes and loose
knots.
 FIRST EXPORT QUALITY (FEQ) This grade is typically a South American grade and a First
European Quality equivalent for woods such as ipé and cumaru, and is the highest quality available.
 FIRSTS AND SECONDS (FAS) Generally the highest NHLA grade available and it must be 83%-
100% clear-wood cuttings. Clearness is measured in large rectangular areas called cuttings and it is
graded on the best face, however both faces of the board must meet the minimum requirement for
FAS. Provides user with long, clear cuts and is best used for high quality furniture, interior joinery
and solid wood mouldings.
 FAS ONE FACE (F1F) The better face must meet all FAS requirements, while the poor face must
meet the requirements of Number 1 Common grade, thus ensuring the buyer of at least one FAS face.
 SELECT GRADE NHLA grade that has FAS quality on the good side and No. 1 Common quality
on the poor side. It is virtually the same grade as F1F except for the minimum board size required,
typically too short and narrow to be F1F for FAS. Selects are associated with the northern regions of
the USA and are frequently shipped with FAS grade lumber.
 NUMBER 1 COMMON (NO. 1C) NHLA grade which must be 67% clear on both faces of the
board. It is often referred to as Cabinet grade because of its adaptability to the standard sizes of
kitchen cabinet doors in the USA. There are little to no natural defects such as worm holes or reverse
fiber on either face. There are little to no machine defects such as planer chatter or hit and miss.
Some pin knots are allowed with no dead knots.
 NUMBER 2A COMMON (NO. 2AC) NHLA grade which must be 50% clear on the poorest face of
the board. It is often referred to as Economy grade because of its price and suitability for a wide
range of furniture parts. It is also the grade of choice for the US hardwood flooring industry. Expect
natural defects such as worm holes, reverse fiber, and more pin knots with no dead knots. Machine
defects are often limited to one face.
 PRIME GRADE This grade is used by the import market to denote the highest grade available
reclaimed woods. One face and one edge of boards within specification will be free from defects but
are permitted features of: live knots of any size and unlimited color variation, wide and long boards
may also have splits up to 2mm wide with a maximum length of 10% of the board, and/or 1 to 3
plugged nail holes up to 25mm diameter.
GREEN Freshly sawn lumber, or lumber that has received no drying; unseasoned.
GREEN CERTIFICATION Landowners who actively manage their woods can apply for green
certification. Several agencies perform reviews and issue certification for the Forest Stewardship
Council (FSC), including: the non-profit Smartwood, the for-profit SCS (Scientific Certification
Systems) and BM TRADA. These agencies charge to ensure that land is properly and sustainably
managed and that loggers employ best management practices (BMP) to cut wood on certified woodlots.
To maintain its green certification status from landowner to consumer, lumber mills must also be
certified in chain of custody arrangements, that is, they ensure that certified logs are stored and milled
separately from non-certified logs.
HECTARE A measure of area equaling 2.471 acres.
HIDDEN FASTENER SYSTEM A pre-fabricated piece of hardware used to connect deck planks so
that the face of the wood is not disturbed with screws or nails for a clean aesthetic. The fastener is
typically placed in the groove on the edge of the plank, then screwed into the joist to hold the board in
place and to automatically space it from the next board.
HARDWOOD Any close-grained wood from deciduous trees. Generally one of the botanical groups of
trees that have broad leaves in contrast to the conifers or softwoods. The term has no reference to the
actual hardness of the wood.
HEARTWOOD The wood extending from the pith to the sapwood, the cells of which no longer
participate in the life processes of the tree. Heartwood is generally darker than sapwood, but the two are
not always clearly differentiated.
JANKA HARDNESS A scale that measures of the relative hardness of wood. The test measures the
force required to push a steel ball with a diameter of 11.28 millimeters (0.444″) into the wood to a depth
of half the ball’s diameter (the diameter was chosen to produce a circle with an area of 100 square
millimeters). In the United States, the measurement is in pounds-force. It is one of the best measures of
the ability of a wood species to withstand denting and wear. It is also a good indicator of how hard a
species is to saw or nail.
KILN DRIED (KD) Lumber that has been dried in a kiln with the use of artificial heat; seasoned.
Freshly cut green lumber may be sold green, air dried, or dried in a kiln to accelerate removal of the
moisture in the wood. Drying wood in a kiln is an art to ensure that the wood dries evenly to retain its
strength and aesthetic properties. Different species dry at different rates. Kiln dried lumber commands a
higher price than green or air dried lumber.
LINEAR FOOT (LN. FT. OR LF) System of measuring length.
L.T.L. (LESS THAN LOAD) An LTL shipment is when there is less than a truck load of product to be
shipped at one time.
LUMBER Solid wood that has been sawn to a particular size. The product of the saw and planing mill
not further manufactured than by sawing, resawing, passing lengthwise through a standard planing
machine, crosscutting to length, and matching.
 BOARDS Lumber that is nominally less than 2″ thick and 2″ or more wide. Boards less than 6″ wide
are sometimes called strips.
 EASED LUMBER Part of the edge detail where the corner of the board is rounded with a radius cut,
typically performed on boards to be used as exterior decking.
 MATCHED LUMBER Lumber that is edge dressed and shaped to make a close tongue-andgrooved
joint at the edges or end when laid edge to edge or end to end.
 NET (DRESSED) SIZE The dimensions of lumber after being surfaced with a planing machine. The
net size is usually 1/2″ to 3/4″ less than the nominal or rough size. A 2″ x 4″ stud, for example,
actually measures about 1-1/2″ x 3-1/2″.
 NOMINAL SIZE As applied to timber or lumber, the size by which it is known and sold in the
market often differs from the actual size.
 PATTERNED LUMBER Lumber that is shaped to a pattern or to a molded form in addition to
being dressed, matched, or shiplapped, or any combination of these workings.
 ROUGH LUMBER Lumber that has not been dressed (surfaced) but which has been sawn, edged,
and trimmed.
 SHIPLAPPED LUMBER Lumber that is edge dressed to make a lapped joint.
 SURFACED LUMBER Lumber that is dressed by running it through a planer. Lumber that is
Surfaced Four Sides (S4S) means that all four faces of the board have been dressed. Boards can also
be Surfaced One Side (S1S) or Surfaced Two Sides (S2S).
 TIMBERS Lumber that is nominally 5″ or more in the least dimensions. Timbers may be used as
beams, stringers, posts, caps, sills, girders, etc.
MICRO-BEVEL A finished edge that refers to a very slight round or angular cut edge of a flooring
plank. Micro-bevel edges give definition to the flooring plank and help reduce uneven plank height. The
micro-bevel is meant to help hide minor irregularities.
MILLWORK Building materials made of finished wood that have been specially manufactured by a
plant or mill. Millwork includes moulding and trim, doors and windows and their frames, staircases,
cabinets and other specialty items.
MINERAL STREAK An olive to greenish-black or brown discoloration.
MOISTURE CONTENT (M.C.) The weight of water contained in wood expressed as a percentage of
the weight of the oven dry wood. Most hardwoods in the United States are produced to standards
developed by the National Hardwood Lumber Association (NHLA). No single moisture content,
however, is specified for hardwoods because the uses are more specialized. The moisture content must
be specified by the buyer and agreed to by the seller; a 10-12% moisture content specification is
common.
MOULDING A trim piece of millwork used either strictly for decoration or for both decoration and to
finish a joint.
NET TALLY Otherwise known as a dried tally. The board footage of lumber figured when the board is
seasoned.
OLD GROWTH A forest of mature or over mature timber that is beyond its peak growing period.
PIN KNOT A knot which does not exceed 1/8″ in average diameter.
PITH The small soft core occurring in the structural center of the log.
PLAIN-SAWN Plain-sawn hardwood boards are produced by cutting tangentially to a tree’s growth
rings, creating the familiar “flame-shaped” or “cathedral” pattern. This method also produces the most
lumber from each log, making plain-sawn lumber a cost effective design choice.
PLYWOOD Sheets of wood consisting of three or more sheets of wood glued and bonded by heat and
pressure with the grain of each sheet running perpendicular to adjacent layers.
POCKET An excessive local accumulation of resin or gum in the wood.
PRE-GROOVED A milling process, typically used in exterior decking, where both edges of the board
contain a slot (groove) designed to receive a hidden fastener system.
PROFILE The shape of the wood, as seen from a side view.
QUARTER-SAWN Quarter-sawing means cutting a log radially (90-degree angle) to the growth rings
to produce a “vertical” and uniform pattern grain. This method yields fewer and narrower boards per log
than plain sawing, boosting their cost significantly. Quarter-sawn boards are popular for decorative
applications.
REFORESTATION The natural or artificial restocking of an area with forest trees.
RESAWING The process of sawing lumber in two lengthwise, parallel to the wide face. It is usually,
though not always, done through the middle of the board, producing two equal sized boards, each
approximately half the thickness of the original. Resawing changes the thickness of the lumber but not
its width.
RIPPING The process of sawing lumber in two lengthwise perpendicular to the wide face. Ripping
changes the width of the lumber but not its thickness.
SAPWOOD The living wood of pale color near the outside of the log.
SEASONING Removing moisture from green wood to improve its serviceability.
SHRINKAGE The contraction of wood fibers caused by drying below the fiber saturation point
(usually around 25-27% M.C.). Values are expressed as a percentage of the dimension of the wood
when green.
SOFTWOOD Any soft, light-textured wood of a coniferous tree.
SPECIES A commercial name assigned to tree.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY As applied to wood, the ratio of the ovendry weight of a sample to the weight of
a volume of water equal to the volume of the sample at a specified moisture content (green, air-dry, or
ovendry). This term applies to the wood’s ability to float or sink in water.
SPLIT A lengthwise separation of the wood, due to the tearing apart of wood cells.
SUSTAINED HARVEST A level of harvest that does not exceed annual growth, so that at least as
much is available for harvest in 50 years as today.
TONGUE-AND-GROOVE (T&G) A method of fitting similar pieces of wood together, edge to edge,
used mainly with flooring and paneling. Each piece has a slot (the groove) cut all along one edge, and a
thin, deep ridge (the tongue) on the opposite edge. The tongue projects a little less than the groove is
deep. The tongue is inserted into the groove and thus two pieces fit together closely.
VENEER Thin sheets of wood of a specified thickness that are peeled, sliced, or sawn from logs for use
in plywood, paneling and furniture.
WARP Warp is any variation from a true or plane surface. Warp includes bow, crook, cup and twist, or
any combination thereof.
WEATHERING The mechanical or chemical disintegration and discoloration of the surface of wood
caused by exposure to light, the action of dust and sand carried by winds, and the alternate shrinking and
swelling of the surface fibers with the continual variation in moisture content brought by changes in the
weather. Weathering does not include decay.
WOOD FLOORING Most wood flooring is made of hardwoods, such as oak, maple and pecan, as well
as many other exotic imported species. Wood flooring can come in many sizes and varieties, including
pre-finished or unfinished.
 DISTRESSED WOOD FLOORING A heavy artificial texture in which the floor has been scraped,
scratched, or gouged to give it a worn antique look.
 END MATCHED A common milling procedure whereby the ends of individual pieces of flooring
have a tongue milled on one end and a groove milled on the opposite end. When the individual strips
or planks are butted together, the tongue of one piece engages the groove of the next piece.
 ENGINEERED WOOD FLOORING This type of flooring should not be confused with laminate
wood flooring. Engineered flooring is produced by adhering layers of plastic laminate veneer with
real wood. The main difference between this type of wood and laminate flooring is that laminate
flooring contains no actual wood.
 HAND HEWN FLOORING This flooring offers an Old World, lived-in appearance, which is
created by a simple draw-knife craftsman technique that puts waves into the face of the board. As a
result, the solid floor face gives a unique impression of age and character. Hewing is an old method
of cutting wood, whereby the craftsman turns the log on its side, and chips off pieces of wood until
the wood is down to the marked line.
 LAMINATE WOOD FLOORING An assembly made by bonding layers of veneer or lumber with
an adhesive.
 PARQUET FLOORING A “tile” composed of individual slats held in place by a mechanical
fastening or other means such as paper backing. A square may or may not possess tongues and
grooves to interlock, and is not necessarily regular in dimension.
 PLANK FLOORING Unlike strip flooring, the widths of plank flooring can vary. Typical
thicknesses are 1/2″ or 3/4″ and a range in widths from 3″ to 8″.
 SOLID WOOD FLOORING Typically tongue and groove flooring that is milled from one thick
piece of wood that can be sanded and refinished numerous times.
 STRIP FLOORING This type of flooring is denoted by the thickness and width of the wood planks.
Strip flooring normally has a set width, and typically ranges in thickness from 5/16″ to 3/4″ thick.
Being the most popular wood flooring, it is made of long, narrow (usually around 3″ wide), tongue-
and-groove boards that are normally end-matched.
 UNFINISHED Flooring that must be sanded and finished after installation.
YIELD The proportion of the log converted into lumber.
http://www.eastteak.com/all-resources/glossary-wood-woodworking-terms/

The three primary components of a tree are the roots, trunk, and crown.
Roots: Roots are the tree’s anchor and hold the tree erect. They absorb water and minerals from the
earth, which are transported through straw-like vessels up through the trunk of the tree to the crown.
Trunk: The trunk, also called the bole, connects the roots to the crown and is usually thought to be the
portion without limbs. You can use wood from any part of a tree for carving; however, most carving
wood comes from the trunk of the tree.
Crown: The crown consists of the limbs, branches, twigs, and leaves of the tree. Food, called sap, is
produced in the leaves through the process of photosynthesis.
Internal Wood Structures
The roots, trunk, and crown are the visible components of a tree, but studying a tree’s internal
characteristics gives us a better understanding of the tree’s structure.
Pith: At the very center of the tree is the pith, which is the oldest part of the tree. The pith, together with
the tree’s first few annual rings, is called juvenile wood. The pith area has a greater tendency to crack
than the rest of the wood in a tree.
Try to avoid carving pieces of wood that include the pith. If you do carve wood containing the pith,
design the piece so the pith doesn’t show from the viewing angle.
Annual Rings: Radiating out from the pith are the annual rings. Each ring has two components: early
wood (also called spring wood) and late wood (also called summer wood).
Early wood grows at the beginning of the tree’s growing season—the tree’s period of active growth.
This wood is made up of large cells with thin walls. As the season progresses, the growth activity slows
down and the cells become smaller with thicker walls; this is late wood. Late wood is normally darker
than early wood because it has a higher concentration of cellulose. You will normally see one annual
ring for each year of the tree’s growth. The rings can vary in width because of weather and other
conditions during the growing season.
When a tree is cut into boards or blocks for carving or turning, the beautiful figure you see is created by
the annual rings.
Cambium Layer: The cambium layer is located between the bark and the wood. This is where cell
division takes place, and when the cells divide, they become either wood cells or bark cells.
If a tree is cut in the spring or summer, when active cell division is taking place, you’ll feel a slippery,
slimy area just under the bark—this is the cambium layer. During this active growth period, the bark and
wood are loosely bonded together, so when the wood is dried, there is a very good chance the bark will
fall off. During the fall or winter, when there is very limited cell division taking place, the wood and
bark will be tightly bonded together. If you want to create a
carving where the bark remains intact
on the wood, the tree must be harvested in the fall or winter.
Bark: The bark is the tree’s protective covering—its skin. Bark is made up of living and dead cells,
which keep moisture and gases contained in the tree. Bark also helps the tree resist attacks by insects
and micro-organisms and protects the tree from damaging weather conditions.
Heartwood and Sapwood: As a tree grows, there comes a time when the entire trunk of the tree is not
required to supply water to the leaves. When this occurs, the vessels in the center of the tree fill with
extractives, minerals, and tannins. This filled area then becomes what is known as heartwood.
Vessels and Rays: Looking at the cross-section of a hardwood tree under a microscope is like looking
into the end of a large bundle of straws.
http://woodcarvingillustrated.com/blog/2017/09/18/anatomy-of-wood/
Hardwoods
Name Description Uses
Beech A straight grained European Furniture, toys, malletts,
hardwood. Hard and resistant to woodwork benches, bench
damage. Not durable for hooks, broom heads, science
exterior use. Fairly easy to work bench legs.
with because it is resistant to Can be steam bent, can also be
splitting and the grain is even. worked green to make the
Light in colour(pinkish). traditional bentwood cafe
chairs.
Oak A very strong European Quality furniture, beams in
hardwood. Light brown in buildings, ships and boats. The
colour but often stained dark. English wooden warships which
Distinctive open grain. Harder fought against the French and
to work than beech.
 Spanish were constructed
almost entirely from Oak.
Ash A strong open grained European Furniture, tool handles, sports
hardwood. Fairly easy to work. equipment, ladders. Veneers are
Pale cream colour but made from ash making use of its
sometimes stained black. interesting grain. Can be bent.
Has been used to make carriage
and car chassis. Water
unfortunately stains it quite
quickly.
Mahogany Mild working rain forest Indoor furniture, boat building,
hardwood. Reddish brown in plywood, bar and shop fitting.
colour. Originally a South Window frames and sills.
American timber but many other Veneers.
species with a similar
appearance from other tropical
countries have been called
mahogany. An endangered
species.
Jelutong A creamy yellow colour. Model making. Pattern making.
Plantation grown in Malaysia, Can be used for joinery but is
this timber is very even grained not durable.
with latex ducts the only defect
(which can be ignored and
easily filled. Extremely easy to
work with.
Teak and Iroko Durable oily wood. Golden Garden furniture, boat building,
brown to dark brown in colour. laboratory furniture and other
Resistant to moisture and scientific equipment.
chemical attack. Does not burn
easily.
Real teak comes from Burma.
Iroko is a teak substitute which
comes from Africa. Other
timbers with a similar
appearance have become
common.
Name Description Use
Pine -scots pine (Red Deal) A European softwood. Straight Construction work such as roof
grained. Easy to work but knots trusses and joists. Popular for
cause problems. Cheap and DIY work. If used outside it
widely available. Very pale must be treated. Pressure
cream darkening to light brown treating with preservative -
with age and exposure to the air. tanalising will protect pine for
Deal is a word used to cover a 10 to 15 years. e.g decking and
wide range of softwoods fence posts.
including spruce and Douglas
fir.
Parana pine A rain forest softwood. Grown Main use is staircase
in South America. Virtually manufacture. Also used for
knot free and straight grained. furniture and doors.
Strong and tough. Pale yellow
in colour with streaks of
red/brown and sometimes
purple.
Manufactured Boards
 Manufactured or man made boards - are made from wood products and have new/different
properties to the wood they were made from. Board sizes are 8ft x 4 ft (2440 x 1220 mm). The
main types of manufactured boards are :-

MDF (medium density fibreboard) made by a process which glues wood fibres together using
heat and pressure. The boards are smooth and stong. They are resistant to warping. They have
a layered structure which makes fixing to the edges difficult. MDF is a board used industrially
for the production of furniture (especially shelves and cupboards). Special fixings have been
designed to enable MDF to be joined effectively. Dowel joints can be used. The router can be
used to cut rebates and housing joints, which work well on MDF. Dust is a problem when
working with MDF, dust extraction systems should be used when machining it. Face masks can
also be used to reduce the problem.
MDF is available in a range of thicknesses, 3mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 15mm, and 18mm.

Plywood is made from layers of thin wood glued together at 90 degrees to each other, this makes
plywood very strong as it cannot split along the grain like solid timber. If waterproof glue is
used the plywood can be used in damp or even wet conditions. Marine ply can withstand sea
water. Aero ply is made from three thin layers of birch and is only one mm thick when bonded
together, this ply was designed to be used on aeroplane wings as it can be curved so effectively.
Available in a range 1mm, 2mm, 3mm, 4mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 15mm and 18mm.

Chipboard is made from softwood chips glued together. It is a very cheap material and is used
to make kitchen worktops and carcases (cupboard shells) where it is laminated with a melamine
layer to give it a decorative and hardwearing finish. Usually available as 18mm thick.

Hardboard (particle board) is also used in furniture making usually as a back to a shelving unit
or cupboard. usually available as 4 or 6mm thick.

Blockboard is used to make strong shelves. It is made from pieces of softwood in a sandwich
with a thin layer of wood top and bottom. Laminboard is similar but with thinner pieces of
wood in the sandwich.

http://www.the-warren.org/GCSERevision/resistantmaterials/manufacturedboards.htm
Plain Sawn
At least 95 percent of all hardwood lumber commercially produced in the U.S. is flat or plain
sawn. With this sawing method, which yields the most lumber and produces the widest possible
boards with the least log waste, growth rings are parallel to the board's surface, creating the
distinctive flame-shaped, arch or cathedral grain pattern. Of all the sawing methods, it is the most
cost effective.
Quarter Sawn
In this method, the log actually is cut into quarters, then sawn quarter by quarter. A single board
is sawn from one face. The next board is sawn from the opposite face and the sawing proceeds on
alternate faces. The growth rings are perpendicular to the board's broad face, producing a
vertical and uniform grain pattern. This sawing method, which yields fewer and narrower boards
per log, is a slower and thus more expensive process, boosting the cost of quarter sawn lumber
significantly.
Rift Sawn
In this method, the log is again cut into quarters. Each quarter is then sawn with the growth rings
at 30 to 60 degree angles to the board surface. This produces a vertical or straight grain
appearance that is easily confused with quarter-sawn. Also similar to quarter sawn, rift sawn
boards are narrower, available in limited quantities, and the sawing method produces a significant
amount of log waste.
http://www.hardwoodinfo.com/specifying-professionals/professional-
specifying/specifying/%EF%BB%BF%EF%BB%BFsawing-methods/

Different Ways of Seasoning Wood

Air Seasoning
The traditional method for drying wood, air seasoning is also the longest, taking six to nine months. To
air season wood, stack logs or planks outside on pallets in such a manner that air can circulate vertically
and horizontally through the timbers. The raised pallets also keep wood away from vegetation and damp
ground. Plank and log ends are often wrapped or sealed to prevent excessive moisture loss through these
areas. Protect the drying wood from the elements with an overhead canopy.
Kiln Seasoning
The most common and effective commercial process for drying wood is kiln seasoning, which
accelerates the process of removing moisture through the use of external energy. Drying takes two days
to one weekend, depending on the type of wood. Two methods, progressive and compartmental, are
used for kiln seasoning. In a progressive kiln, timber enters at one end and travels on a trolley through
chambers with different air conditions to progressive dry the wood. This method produces a constant
flow of seasoned timber. Wood seasoned via the compartmental process remains in a single building
where it is subjected to a program of varying conditions until the moisture content is removed. This
process is used for hard-to-dry or expensive wood.
Solar Kiln
This method combines the speed of kiln seasoning with the low energy of air drying. Solar kilns have
single-thickness windows on the south side of the structure that work as collectors to trap the sun’s
energy. Heat collectors, made from black metal are attached near the top of the window sashes. Various
methods force the heated air to circulate through the kiln to dry the wood. Some solar kilns have
insulation to retain heat at night. This process takes approximately twice as long as traditional kiln
seasoning. Because of its gentle nature, it is well suited to producing wood for furniture fabrication.
Microwave Seasoning
Microwave seasoning uses pulsed energy directed into timbers to drive out moisture in a manner that
will not cause seasoning degrade. This method also provides advantages such as high speed and high
quality and is well suited for seasoning lumber, blocks, veneer, chips, paper and wood-based composite
materials. Areas in the wood with the most moisture absorb the most energy resulting in even
temperature during the drying process and a uniform moisture content. These factors enhance quality
and reduce timber checking and warping.
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/different-ways-seasoning-wood-35487.html
THREE BASIC UNITS OF MEASURE ARE USED FOR LUMBER: 1. BOARD MEASURE - is the
term to indicate that the board foot is the unit of measurement for most lumber items. A board foot is
defined as a piece one inch thick (nominal) by one foot wide (nominal) by one foot long (actual) or its
equivalent. For instance a 2 x 6 also equals one board foot for each foot of length. Board footage is
calculated by multiplying the nominal thickness in inches (T) by the nominal width in inches (W) by the
actual length in feet (L) and dividing by 12. The formula is: T x W x L = Board ft. 12 Where: T =
nominal thickness in inches W = nominal width in inches L = length in feet 2. SURFACE MEASURE -
is the square feet on the surface of a piece of lumber. Surface measure is calculated without regard to
thickness of the piece, i.e. 2 x 12 board, one foot long equals one square foot. The formula is: W x L =
Surface Measure 12 3. LINEAL MEASURE - is the total length in feet of a board, regardless of its
thickness or width, i.e. a 2 x 14 one foot long is one lineal foot.
A board foot is actually a measure of volume. By definition, a board foot is one square foot, one inch
thick.

To calculate board footage use the following formulas:

Board footage = width in inches x length in feet x thickness in inches

Board Footage =
width in inches x length in feet x thickness in inches
12
- or -
width in inches x length in inches x thickness in
inches
144

The most common mistake made in calculating board footage is forgetting to multiply by the thickness.

4/4 multiply by 1, 5/4 multiply by 1.25, 6/4 multiply by 1.5

8/4 multiply by 2, 12/4 multiply by 3, 16/4 multiply by 4

Example 1: A 4/4 board 8 inches wide and 8 feet long has 5.33 bd.ft.

8in x 8ft x 1in = 5.33 bd.ft. - or - 8in x 96in x 1in = 5.33 bd.ft.
12 144

Example 2: An 8/4 board 7 inches wide and 10 feet long has 11.67 bd.ft.

7 x 10 x 2 = 11.67 bd.ft. - or - 7 x 120 x 2 = 11.67 bd.ft.

12 144

https://www.hardwoodstore.com/how-calculate-board-footage