Chapter2 Summary

LEBANESE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
ELE201: Electrical Circuit I

Chapter 2: Resistive Circuits
2.1: Ohm’s Law:

Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistance is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it. The resistance,
measured in ohms, is the constant of proportionality between the
voltage and current.
A circuit element whose electrical characteristic is primarily resistive is

called a resistor and is represented by the symbol shown in Fig. 2.1a.
The mathematical relationship of Ohm’s law is illustrated by the

equation
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 ≥ 0
or, equivalently, by the voltage–current characteristic shown in Fig.

2.2a.
The symbol Ω is used to represent ohms, and therefore,

1 Ω = 1 V/A
Since a resistor is a passive element, the proper current–voltage
relationship is illustrated in Fig. 2.1a. The power supplied to the
terminals is absorbed by the resistor.
© copyright Wiley. Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis, 11 th Edition, prepared by Mohamad Najem, Ph.D.
The instantaneous power is:
2 (𝑡)
𝑣 2 (𝑡)
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 ≥ 0
𝑅
This equation illustrates that the power is a nonlinear function of either
current or voltage and that it is always a positive quantity.
Conductance, represented by the symbol G, is another quantity with

wide application in circuit analysis. By definition, conductance is the
reciprocal of resistance; that is,
1
𝐺= 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 (𝑆); 1𝑆 = 1𝐴/𝑉
𝑅
We can rewrite two additional expressions:
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐺𝑣(𝑡)
and
𝑖 2 (𝑡)
𝑝(𝑡) = = 𝐺𝑣 2 (𝑡)
𝐺
Specific values of resistance: Two specific values of resistance are very
important: R=0 and R=∞.
- Short-circuit:As the resistance is decreased and becomes smaller and

smaller, we finally reach a point where the resistance is zero and the
circuit is reduced to that shown in Fig. 2.3b; Note that in the case of a
short circuit where R = 0,
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) = 0
Although the current could theoretically be any value.
- Open-circuit: if the resistance is increased and becomes larger and

larger, we finally reach a point where it is essentially infinite and the
resistance can be replaced by an open circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.3c.
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)⁄𝑅 = 0
Therefore, the current is zero regardless of the value of the voltage

across the open terminals.
Example2.1: In the circuit below, determine the current and the power
absorbed by the resistor.
Solution:
Using Eq. (2.1), we find the current to be
I = V/R = 12/2k = 6 mA
Note that because many of the resistors employed in our analysis are
in kΩ, we will use k in the equations in place of 1000. The power
absorbed by the resistor is given by Eq. (2.2) or (2.3) as
P = VI = (12)(6 × 10−3) = 0.072 W
= I2R = (6 × 10−3)2(2k) = 0.072 W
= V2/R = (12)2/2k = 0.072 W
Example2.2: The power absorbed by the 10-kΩ resistor in the below

Figure is 3.6 mW. Determine the voltage and the current in the circuit.
Solution:
Using the power relationship, we can determine either of the
unknowns:
𝑉𝑠2 ⁄𝑅 = 𝑃
𝑉𝑠2 = (3.6 × 10−3 )(10𝐾)
𝑉𝑠 = 6 𝑉
and
𝐼2 𝑅 = 𝑃
𝐼 2 = (3.6 × 10−3 )/(10𝐾)
𝐼 = 0.6 𝑚𝐴
Furthermore, once VS is determined, I could be obtained by Ohm’s

law, and likewise once I is known, then Ohm’s law could be used to
derive the value of Vs. Note carefully that the equations for power
involve the terms I2 and V2s. Therefore, I = −0.6 mA and Vs = −6 V
also satisfy the mathematical equations and, in this case, the direction
of both the voltage and current is reversed.
Example2.3: Given the circuit in Fig. 2.4c, we wish to find the value of
the voltage source and the power absorbed by the resistance.
Solution:
The voltage is
𝐼 0.5 × 10−3
𝑉𝑠 = = = 10𝑉
𝐺 50 × 10−6
The power absorbed is then
𝐼 2 (0.5 × 10−3 )2
𝑃= = = 5 𝑚𝑊
𝐺 50 × 10−6
Or we could simply note that
R = 1 G = 20 kΩ
and therefore
Vs = IR = (0.5 × 10−3) (20k) = 10 V
and the power could be determined using P = I2R = V2s/R = VsI.
Example2.4: Given the network in Fig. 2.4d, we wish to find R and Vs.
Solution:
Using the power relationship, we find that
R = P/I2 = (80 × 10−3)/(4 × 10−3)2 = 5 kΩ
The voltage can now be derived using Ohm’s law as

Vs = IR = (4×10−3)(5k) = 20 V
The voltage could also be obtained from the remaining power

relationships in Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3).
E2.1: Given the circuits in Fig. E2.1, find (a) the current I and the
power absorbed by the resistor in Fig. E2.1a, and (b) the voltage
across the current source and the power supplied by the source in Fig.
E2.1b.
Answer: (a) I = 0.3 mA, P = 3.6 mW; (b) Vs = 3.6 V, P = 2.16mW.
E2.2: Given the circuits in Fig. E2.2, find (a) R and VS in the circuit in
Fig. E2.2a, and (b) find I and R in the circuit in Fig. E2.2b.
Answer: (a) R = 10 kΩ, VS = 4 V; (b) I = 20.8 mA, R = 576 Ω.
E2.3: The power absorbed by Gx in Fig. E2.3 is 50 mW. Find Gx.
Answer: Gx = 500 μS.
2.2: Kirchhoff’s Law:
At this point we begin to expand our capabilities to handle more

complicated networks that result from an interconnection of two or
more of these simple elements. We will assume that the
interconnection is performed by electrical conductors (wires) that have
zero resistance—that is, perfect conductors.
Terms:
Figure 2.5: Circuit used to illustrate KCL.
- Node: A node is simply a point of connection of two or more circuit

elements (e.g. node 5).
- Loop: A loop is simply any closed path through the circuit in which no
node is encountered more than once. For example, starting from node
1, one loop would contain the elements R1, υ2, R4 and i1.
Kirchhoff’s current Law (KCL):
The first law is Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), which states that
the algebraic sum of the currents entering any node is zero. In
mathematical form the law appears as:
∑ 𝑖𝑗 (𝑡) = 0
𝑗=1
Consider node 3, in the previous Figure b).
KCL 1: the algebraic sum of the currents entering a node is zero.
i2(t) − i4(t) + i5(t) − i7(t) = 0
KCL 2: the sum of the currents leaving a node is zero.
-i2(t) + i4(t) - i5(t) + i7(t) = 0
KCL 3: the sum of the currents leaving a node is equal to the sum of
the currents entering the node.
i2(t) + i5(t) = i4(t) +i7(t)
All the representation are equivalent for stating KCL.
Example2.5: Let us write KCL for every node in the network in Fig.
2.5, assuming that the currents leaving the node are positive.
Solution:
The KCL equations for nodes 1 through 5 are

−i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t) = 0
i1(t) − i4(t) + i6(t) = 0
−i2(t) + i4(t) − i5(t) + i7(t) = 0
−i3(t) + i5(t) − i8(t) = 0
−i6(t) − i7(t) + i8(t) = 0
Example2.6: The network in Fig. 2.5 is represented by the topological

diagram shown in the figure below. We wish to find the unknown
currents in the network.
Solution:
Assuming the currents leaving the node are positive, the KCL
equations for nodes 1 through 4 are
−I1 + 0.06 + 0.02 = 0
I1 − I4 + I6 = 0
−0.06 + I4 − I5 + 0.04 = 0
−0.02 + I5 − 0.03 = 0
The first equation yields I1 and the last equation yields I5.
Knowing I5, we can immediately obtain I4 from the third equation.
Then the values of I1 and I4 yield the value of I6 from the second
equation. The results are I1 = 80 mA, I4 = 70 mA, I5 = 50 mA, and I6
= −10 mA.
Example2.7: Let us write the KCL equations for the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.7.
Solution:
The KCL equations for nodes 1 through 4 follow:
i1(t) + i2(t) − i5(t) = 0
−i2(t) + i3(t) − 50i2(t) = 0
−i1(t) + 50i2(t) + i4(t) = 0
i5(t) − i3(t) − i4(t) = 0
Example2.8: Let us find I4 and I1 in the network represented by the

topological diagram in the figure below.
Solution:
This diagram is redrawn in Fig. 2.8;
node 1 is enclosed in surface 1, and nodes 3 and 4 are enclosed in

surface 2. A quick review of the previous example indicates that we
derived a value for I4 from the value of I5. However, I5 is now
completely enclosed in surface 2. If we apply KCL to surface 2,
assuming the currents out of the surface are positive, we obtain
I4 − 0.06 − 0.02 − 0.03 + 0.04 = 0
or
I4 = 70 mA
which we obtained without any knowledge of I5. Likewise for surface
1, what goes in must come out and, therefore, I1 = 80 mA. The reader
is encouraged to cut the network in Fig. 2.6 into two pieces in any
fashion and show that KCL is always satisfied at the boundaries.
E2.4: Given the networks in Fig. E2.3, find (a) I1 in Fig. E2.4a and (b)
IT in Fig. E2.4b.
Answer: (a) I1 = –50 mA; (b) IT = 70 mA.
E2.5: Find (a) I1 in the network in Fig. E2.5a and (b) I1 and I2 in the
circuit in Fig. E2.5b.
Answer: (a) I1 = 6 mA; (b) I1 = 8 mA and I2 = 5 mA.
E2.6: Find the current ix in the circuits in Fig. E2.6.
Answer: (a) ix = 4 mA; (b) ix = 12 mA.
Kirchhoff’s voltage Law (KVL):
Kirchhoff’s second law, called Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), states that
the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop is zero. As was the
case with Kirchhoff’s current law, we will defer the proof of this law
and concentrate on understanding how to apply it.
In applying KVL, we must traverse any loop in the circuit and sum to
zero the increases and decreases in energy level. We will adopt a
policy of considering a decrease in energy level as positive and an
increase in energy level as negative. As we move around a loop, we
encounter the plus sign first for a decrease in energy level and a
negative sign first for an increase in energy level.
Finally, we employ the convention Vab to indicate the voltage of point a
with respect to point b: that is, the variable for the voltage between
point a and point b, with point a considered positive relative to point b.
Since the potential is measured between two points, it is convenient to
use an arrow between the two points, with the head of the arrow
located at the positive node.
In general, the mathematical representation of Kirchhoff’s voltage law
is
N
∑ vj (t) = 0
j=1
where vj(t) is the voltage across the jth branch (with the proper
reference direction) in a loop containing N voltages.
Example2.9: Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.9. If VR1 and VR2 are
known quantities, let us find VR3.
Solution:
Starting at point a in the network and traversing it in a clockwise
direction, we obtain the equation
+VR1 − 5 + VR2 − 15 + VR3 − 30 = 0
which can be written as
+VR1 + VR2 + VR3 = 5 + 15 + 30 = 50
Now suppose that VR1 and VR2 are known to be 18 V and 12 V,

respectively. Then VR3 = 20 V.
Example2.10: Consider the network in figure below.
Let us demonstrate that only two of the three possible loop equations
are linearly independent.
Solution:
Note that this network has three closed paths: the left loop, right loop,
and outer loop. Applying our policy for writing KVL equations and
traversing the left loop starting at point a, we obtain
VR1 + VR4 − 16 − 24 = 0
The corresponding equation for the right loop starting at point b is

VR2 + VR3 + 8 + 16 − VR4 = 0
The equation for the outer loop starting at point a is

VR1 + VR2 + VR3 + 8 − 24 = 0
Example2.11: Consider the network in Fig. 2.12a. Let us apply KVL to

determine the voltage between two points. Specifically, in terms of the
double-subscript notation, let us find Vae and Vec.
Solution:
The circuit is redrawn in Fig. 2.12b. Since points a and e as well as e
and c are not physically close, the arrow notation is very useful.
Our approach to determining the unknown voltage is to apply KVL with

the unknown voltage in the closed path. Therefore, to determine Vae
we can use the path aefa or abcdea. The equations for the two paths
in which Vae is the only unknown are
Vae + 10 − 24 = 0
and
16 − 12 + 4 + 6 − Vae = 0
Note that both equations yield Vae = 14 V. Even before calculating Vae,
we could calculate Vec using the path cdec or cefabc. However, since
Vae is now known, we can also use the path ceabc. KVL for each of
these paths is
4 + 6 + Vec = 0
−Vec + 10 − 24 + 16 − 12 = 0
and
−Vec − Va + 16 − 12 = 0
Each of these equations yields Vec = −10 V.
2.3: Single loop circuits: Voltage division
Single source
The circuit shown in Fig. 2.15 will serve as a basis for discussion. This
circuit consists of an independent voltage source that is in series with
two resistors.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to this circuit yields
−v(t) + vR1 + vR2 = 0
v(t) = vR1 + vR2
However, from Ohm’s law we know that

vR1 = R1.i(t) and vR2 = R2.i(t)
Therefore,
v(t) = R1.i(t) + R2.i(t)
Solving the equation for i(t) yields
i(t) = v(t) / (R1+R2)
Knowing the current,

𝑣(𝑡)
𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑅1 [ ]
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1
𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Multiple source/Resistance
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.18a. Here we have assumed that
the current flows in a clockwise direction, and we have defined the
variable i(t) accordingly.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law for this circuit is
+vR1 + v2(t) − v3(t) + vR2 + v4(t) + v5(t) − v1(t) = 0
or, using Ohm’s law,

(R1 + R2)i(t) = v1(t) − v2(t) + v3(t) − v4(t) − v5(t)
which can be written as

(R1 + R2)i(t) = v(t)
where
v(t) = v1(t) + v3(t) − [v2(t) + v4(t) + v5(t)]
Now consider the circuit with N resistors in series, as shown in Fig.

2.19a. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to this circuit yields
v(t) = vR1 + vR2 + ∙ ∙ ∙ + vRN = R1.i(t) + R2.i(t) + ∙ ∙ ∙ + RN.i(t)
and therefore,
v(t) = RS.i(t)
where
RS = R1 + R2 + ∙ ∙ ∙ + RN
This illustrates that the equivalent resistance of N resistors in series is

simply the sum of the individual resistances.
and hence,
i(t) = v(t)/ RS
Note also that for any resistor Ri in the circuit, the voltage across Ri is
given by the expression
vRi = (Ri/RS).v(t)
which is the voltage-division property for multiple resistors in series.
Example2.15: Given the circuit in the figure below, let us find I, Vbd,
and the power absorbed by the 30-kΩ resistor. Finally, let us use
voltage division to find Vbc.
Solution:
KVL for the network yields the equation:
10k.I + 20k.I + 12 + 30k.I − 6 = 0
60k.I = −6
I = −0.1 mA
Therefore, the magnitude of the current is 0.1 mA, but its direction is
opposite to that assumed.
The voltage Vbd can be calculated using either of the closed paths
abdea or bcdb. The equations for both cases are
10k.I + Vbd + 30k − 6 = 0
and
20kI + 12 − Vbd = 0
Using I = −0.1 mA in either equation yields Vbd = 10 V. Finally, the
power absorbed by the 30-kΩ resistor is
P = I2R = 0.3 mW
Now from the standpoint of determining the voltage Vbc, we can simply
add the sources since they are in series, add the remaining resistors
since they are in series. Then
20𝐾
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = [ ] (−6) = −2𝑉
20𝐾 + 40𝐾
Example2.16: A dc transmission facility is modeled by the approximate

circuit shown in the figure below. If the load voltage is known to be
Vload = 458.3 kV, we wish to find the voltage at the sending end of the
line and the power loss in the line.
Solution:
Knowing the load voltage and load resistance, we can obtain the line
current using Ohm’s law:
IL = 458.3k/220 = 2.083 kA
The voltage drop across the line is

Vline = (IL)(Rline)= 41.66 kV
Now, using KVL,

VS = Vline + Vload = 500 kV
Note that since the network is simply a voltage-divider circuit, we

could obtain VS immediately from our knowledge of Rline, Rload, and
Vload. That is,
𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = [ ]𝑉
𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠
and VS is the only unknown in this equation.

The power absorbed by the line is
Pline = (IL)2Rline= 86.79 MW
E2.10: Find I and Vbd in the circuit in Fig. E2.10.
Answer: I = −0.05 mA; Vbd = 10 V.
E2.11: In the network in the below figure, if Vab is 3 V, find Vs
Answer: Vs = 9 V.
2.4: Single-Node-Pair Circuit: Current division
Consider the below circuit. Here we have an independent current

source in parallel with two resistors.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the upper node, we obtain

i(t) = i1(t) + i2(t)
and, employing Ohm’s law, we have
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) 1 1 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = + = ( + ) 𝑣(𝑡) =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑝
Where,
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1𝑅2
𝑅𝑝 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The manner in which the current i(t) from the source divides between
the two branches is called current division and can be found from the
preceding expressions.
𝑅2
𝑖1 (𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Example2.17: Given the network in the below figure, let us find I1, I2,
and Vo.
Solution:
Applying current division, we obtain
40𝐾 + 80𝐾
𝐼1 = (0.9.10−3 ) = 0.6 𝑚𝐴
60𝐾 + (40𝐾 + 80𝐾)
60𝐾
𝐼2 = (0.9.10−3 ) = 0.3 𝑚𝐴
60𝐾 + (40𝐾 + 80𝐾)
The voltage Vo can be derived using Ohm’s law as
Vo = 80k.I2 = = 24 V
MULTIPLE-SOURCE/RESISTOR NETWORKS
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.25a. We have assumed that the
upper node is v(t) volts positive with respect to the lower node.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the upper node yields
i1(t) − i2(t) − i3(t) + i4(t) − i5(t) − i6(t) = 0
or
i1(t) − i3(t) + i4(t) – i6(t) = i2(t)+ i5(t)
The terms on the left side of the equation all represent sources that
can be combined algebraically into a single source; that is,
1 1
𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) = ( + )𝑣(𝑡)
𝑅1 𝑅2
Now consider the circuit with N resistors in parallel, as shown in the

figure below. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the upper node yields
1 1 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) = ( + ⋯ + ) 𝑣(𝑡) =
𝑅1 𝑅𝑁 𝑅𝑝
Where
1 1 1
= + ⋯+
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅𝑁
The current division for any branch can be calculated using Ohm’s law
and the preceding equations. For example, for the jth branch in the
network
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑅𝑝
𝑖𝑗 (𝑡) = = 𝑖 (𝑡)
𝑅𝑗 𝑅𝑗 𝑜
Example2.19: Given the circuit in the below figure, we wish to find the
current in the 12-KΩ load resistor.
Solution:
To simplify the network, we add the current sources algebraically and
combine the parallel resistors in the following manner:
1 1 1 1
= + + = 4𝐾𝛺
𝑅𝑝 18𝐾 9𝐾 12𝐾
and
𝐼 = 1𝑚𝐴 − 4𝑚𝐴 + 2𝑚𝐴 = −1𝑚𝐴
4𝐾
𝐼𝐿 = [ ] (−1 × 103 ) = −0.25𝑚𝐴
4𝐾 + 12𝐾
E2.13: Find the power absorbed by the 6-kΩ resistor in the network in
Fig. E2.13.
Answer: P=2.67mW.
2.5: Series and Parallel Resistor Combinations

We have shown in our earlier developments that the equivalent
resistance of N resistors in series is
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁
and the equivalent resistance of N resistors in parallel is found from
1 1 1
= + ⋯+
𝑅𝑠 𝑅1 𝑅𝑁
Example2.20: We wish to determine the resistance at terminals A-B in

the following network:
Solution:
Starting at the opposite end of the network from the terminals and
combining resistors as shown in the sequence of circuits in Fig. 2.28,
we find that the equivalent resistance at the terminals is 5 kΩ.
E2.14: Find the equivalent resistance at the terminals A-B in the
network below.
Answer: RAB= 22 kΩ.
E2.16: Find the equivalent resistance at the terminals A-B in the

network below.
Answer: RAB= 12 kΩ.
Example2.23: Given the circuit below, where I4 = ½ mA, let us find

the source voltage Vo.
Solution:
If I4 = 1/2 mA, then from Ohm’s law, Vb = 3 V. Vb can now be used
to calculate I3 = 1 mA.
Kirchhoff’s current law applied at node y yields

I2 = I3 + I4 = 1.5 mA
Then, from Ohm’s law, we have Va = (1.5 × 10−3)(2k) = 3 V
Since Va + Vb is now known, I5 can be obtained:

I5 = (Va + Vb)/( 3k+1k) = 1.5 mA
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node x yields

I1 = I2 + I5 = 3 Ma
Now KVL applied to any closed path containing Vo will yield the value
of this input source.
For example, if the path is the outer loop, KVL yields
−Vo + 6k.I1 + 3k.I5 + 1k.I5 + 4k.I1 = 0
Since I1 = 3 mA and I5 = 1.5 mA,

Vo = 36 V
E2.17: Find Vo in the below network.
Answer: V0 = 2V.
E2.18: Find Vs in the circuit below.
Answer: Vs = 9V.
E2.19: Find Is in the circuit below.
Answer: Is = 0.3 mA.
E2.20: Find V1 in the circuit below.
Answer: V1 = 12 V.
E2.21: Find I0 in the circuit below.
Answer: I0 = -4 mA.
E2.22: Find V0, V1, and V2:
Answer: V0 = 3.33V, V1 = -4V, and V2 = 4V.
E2.23: Find V0, and V1:
Answer: V0 = -60V, V1 = 10V.
Example2.24: Consider the network in the figure below. Given that VDE
= Vo = 4 V, find the value of the voltage source VS and the voltage
across the current source VAD.
Solution:
By using Kirchhoff’s laws and Ohm’s law, we can calculate the desired
quantities. Since VDE = 4 V, using Ohm’s law we obtain I8 = 2 A.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node D yields

I3 + I7 = I8
Solving for I7 we obtain

I7 = −1 A
Then since
VCE = VCD + VDE = 8 + 4 = 12 V
I6 can be obtained from Ohm’s law as 4 A. Kirchhoff’s current law at
node E yields
I4 + I6 + I8 = 0
and hence I4 = −6 A. Then since
VCB = VCE + VEB = 12 + (6)(1) = 18 V
Ohm’s law yields I5 = −3 A. At node C,
I2 + I5 = I6 + I7
Solving for the only unknown I2 yields I2 = 6 A. Then
VAC = (6)(2)= 12 V
The only remaining unknown current is I1. At node A
I1 = I2 + I3= 9 A
Now Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the upper left-hand loop yields
VS − VAC − VCB = 0
Or VS = 30 V
Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the upper right-hand loop yields

VAC − VAD + 8 = 0
Or VAD = 20 V
2.6: Wye/Delta transformations
Consider the networks shown in Fig. 2.34. Note that the resistors
in Fig. 2.34a form a Δ (delta) and the resistors in Fig. 2.34b form a Y
(wye). If both of these configurations are connected at only three
terminals a, b, and c, it would be very advantageous if an equivalence
could be established between them. It is, in fact, possible to relate the
resistances of one network to those of the other such that their
terminal characteristics are the same. This relationship between the
two network configurations is called the Y-Δ transformation.
The transformation that relates the resistances R1, R2, and R3

to the resistances Ra, Rb, and Rc is derived as follows. For the two
networks to be equivalent at each corresponding pair of terminals, it is
necessary that the resistance at the corresponding terminals be equal
(e.g., the resistance at terminals a and b with c open-circuited must be
the same for both networks).
Therefore, if we equate the resistances for each corresponding

set of terminals, we obtain the equations of Ra, Rb and Rc:
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑎 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑏 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑅𝑐 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Similarly for R1, R2 and R3:
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑐
𝑅1 =
𝑅𝑏
𝑅2 =
𝑅𝑐
𝑅3 =
𝑅𝑎
Example2.25: Given the network in figure below, let us find the source
current IS.
Solution:
Note that none of the resistors in the circuit are in series or parallel.
However, careful examination of the network indicates that the 12k-,
6k-, and 18k-ohm resistors, as well as the 4k-, 6k-, and 9k-ohm
resistors each form a delta that can be converted to a wye.
Furthermore, the 12k-, 6k-, and 4k-ohm resistors, as well as the 18k-,
6k-, and 9k-ohm resistors, each form a wye that can be converted to a
delta. Any one of these conversions will lead to a solution. We will
perform a delta-to-wye transformation on the 12k-, 6k-, and 18k-ohm
resistors, which leads to the circuit in Fig. 2.35b.
The 2k- and 4k-ohm resistors, like the 3k- and 9k-ohm resistors, are
in series and their parallel combination yields a 4k-ohm resistor. Thus,
the source current is
IS = 12/(6k + 4k)= 1.2 mA
E2.24: Determine the total resistance RT in the circuit below.
Answer: RT = 34 kΩ.
E2.25: Find Vo in the network below.
Answer: V0 = 24V.
E2.26: Find I1 in the circuit below.
Answer: I1 = -1.2A.
2.7: Circuits with Dependent Sources
We will now show how to solve simple one-loop and one-node circuits
that contain dependent sources. Although the following examples are
fairly simple, they will serve to illustrate the basic concepts.
Example2.27: Let us determine the voltage Vo in the circuit below:
Solution:
Applying KVL, we obtain
−12 + 3kI1 − VA + 5kI1 = 0
Where VA = 2000I1
and the units of the multiplier, 2000, are ohms. Solving these
equations yields
I1 = 2 mA
Then Vo = (5 k)I1 = 10 V
Example2.28: Given the circuit in the figure below containing a

current-controlled current source, let us find the voltage Vo.
Solution:
Applying KCL at the top node, we obtain
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
10 × 10−3 + + − 4𝑚𝐼0 = 0
2𝑘 + 4𝑘 3𝑘
where
𝑉𝑠
𝐼0 =
3𝑘
Substituting this expression for the controlled source into the KCL
equation yields
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
10−2 + + −4 =0
6𝑘 3𝑘 3𝑘
Solving this equation for VS, we obtain
VS = 12 V
The voltage Vo can now be obtained using a simple voltage divider;

that is,
4𝑘
𝑉0 = 𝑉 = 8𝑉
2𝑘 + 6𝑘 𝑠
Example 2.29: The network in the figure below contains a voltage-

controlled voltage source. We wish to find Vo in this circuit.
Solution:
Applying KVL to this network yields
−12 + 3kI + 2Vo + 1kI = 0
Where Vo = 1kI
Hence, the KVL equation can be written as

−12 + 3kI + 2kI + 1kI = 0
Or I = 2 mA
Therefore, Vo = 1kI= 2 V
Example 2.30: An equivalent circuit for a FET common-source
amplifier or BJT common-emitter amplifier can be modeled by the
circuit shown below. We wish to determine an expression for the gain
of the amplifier, which is the ratio of the output voltage to the input
voltage.
Solution:
Note that although this circuit, which contains a voltage-controlled
current source, appears to be somewhat complicated, we are actually
in a position now to solve it with techniques we have studied up to this
point. The loop on the left, or input to the amplifier, is essentially
detached from the output portion of the amplifier on the right. The
voltage across R2 is υg(t), which controls the dependent current
source.
To simplify the analysis, let us replace the resistors R3, R4, and R5
with RL such that
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝐿 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5
Then the circuit reduces to:
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the input portion of the amplifier

yields
vi(t) = i1(t).(R1 + R2)
and
vg(t) = i1(t)R2
Solving these equations for vg(t) yields
𝑅2
𝑣𝑔 (𝑡) =
𝑣 (𝑡)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖
From the output circuit, note that the voltage υo(t) is given by the
expression
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = −𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑔 (𝑡)𝑅𝐿
Combining this equation with the preceding one yields
−𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 𝑅2
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖
Therefore, the amplifier gain, which is the ratio of the output voltage
to the input voltage, is given by
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 𝑅2
=
𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Reasonable values for the circuit parameters are R1 = 100 Ω, R2 = 1

kΩ, gm = 0.04 S, R3 = 50 kΩ, and R4 = R5 = 10 kΩ. Hence, the gain
of the amplifier under these conditions is
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
= −165.29
𝑣𝑖 (𝑡)
Answer: V0 = 12V.
Answer: V0 = 8V.
E2.29: Find VA in the circuit below.
Answer: VA = -12V.
Answer: V1 = -32/3V.
E2.31: Find Ix in the circuit below.
Answer: Ix = -1.5mA.
E2.32: Find V0.
Answer: V0 = 16V.
E2.33: If the power supplied by the 3-A current source in the figure
below, find VS and the power supplied by the 10-V source.
Answer: Vs = 42V; -30W.

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LEBANESE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

ELE201: Electrical Circuit I

2.1: Ohm’s Law:

A circuit element whose electrical characteristic is primarily resistive is

The mathematical relationship of Ohm’s law is illustrated by the

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 ≥ 0

or, equivalently, by the voltage–current characteristic shown in Fig.

The symbol Ω is used to represent ohms, and therefore,

Conductance, represented by the symbol G, is another quantity with

- Short-circuit:As the resistance is decreased and becomes smaller and

Although the current could theoretically be any value.

- Open-circuit: if the resistance is increased and becomes larger and

Therefore, the current is zero regardless of the value of the voltage

Example2.2: The power absorbed by the 10-kΩ resistor in the below

Furthermore, once VS is determined, I could be obtained by Ohm’s

and the power could be determined using P = I2R = V2s/R = VsI.

The voltage can now be derived using Ohm’s law as

The voltage could also be obtained from the remaining power

Answer: (a) I = 0.3 mA, P = 3.6 mW; (b) Vs = 3.6 V, P = 2.16mW.

Answer: (a) R = 10 kΩ, VS = 4 V; (b) I = 20.8 mA, R = 576 Ω.

E2.3: The power absorbed by Gx in Fig. E2.3 is 50 mW. Find Gx.

Answer: Gx = 500 μS.

2.2: Kirchhoff’s Law:

At this point we begin to expand our capabilities to handle more

Figure 2.5: Circuit used to illustrate KCL.

- Node: A node is simply a point of connection of two or more circuit

Kirchhoff’s current Law (KCL):

Consider node 3, in the previous Figure b).

KCL 1: the algebraic sum of the currents entering a node is zero.

i2(t) − i4(t) + i5(t) − i7(t) = 0

KCL 2: the sum of the currents leaving a node is zero.

i2(t) + i5(t) = i4(t) +i7(t)

All the representation are equivalent for stating KCL.

The KCL equations for nodes 1 through 5 are

Example2.6: The network in Fig. 2.5 is represented by the topological

Example2.8: Let us find I4 and I1 in the network represented by the

node 1 is enclosed in surface 1, and nodes 3 and 4 are enclosed in

Answer: (a) I1 = –50 mA; (b) IT = 70 mA.

E2.6: Find the current ix in the circuits in Fig. E2.6.

Answer: (a) ix = 4 mA; (b) ix = 12 mA.

Kirchhoff’s voltage Law (KVL):

+VR1 − 5 + VR2 − 15 + VR3 − 30 = 0

which can be written as

+VR1 + VR2 + VR3 = 5 + 15 + 30 = 50

Now suppose that VR1 and VR2 are known to be 18 V and 12 V,

The corresponding equation for the right loop starting at point b is

The equation for the outer loop starting at point a is

Example2.11: Consider the network in Fig. 2.12a. Let us apply KVL to

Our approach to determining the unknown voltage is to apply KVL with

Each of these equations yields Vec = −10 V.

2.3: Single loop circuits: Voltage division

However, from Ohm’s law we know that

Knowing the current,

or, using Ohm’s law,

which can be written as

Now consider the circuit with N resistors in series, as shown in Fig.

v(t) = vR1 + vR2 + ∙ ∙ ∙ + vRN = R1.i(t) + R2.i(t) + ∙ ∙ ∙ + RN.i(t)

This illustrates that the equivalent resistance of N resistors in series is

which is the voltage-division property for multiple resistors in series.