A.

A Science and Technology University School of Engineering

CHAPTER 3
STEADY STATE AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Introduction

So far, we have focused on circuits with constant sources; in this chapter we are now ready to
consider circuits energized by time-varying voltage or current sources. In particular, we are
interested in sources in which the value of the voltage or current varies sinusoidally. Sinusoidal
sources and their effect on circuit behavior form an important area of study for several reasons.
First, the generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption of electric energy occur under
essentially sinusoidal steady-state conditions. Second, an understanding of sinusoidal behavior
makes it possible to predict the behavior of circuits with non-sinusoidal sources. Third, steady-
state sinusoidal behavior often simplifies the design of electrical systems. Thus a designer can
spell out specifications in terms of a desired steady-state sinusoidal response and design the
circuit or system to meet those characteristics. If the device satisfies the specifications, the
designer knows that the circuit will respond satisfactorily to non-sinusoidal inputs.

The subsequent chapters of this book are largely based on a thorough understanding of the
techniques needed to analyze circuits driven by sinusoidal sources. Fortunately, the circuit
analysis and simplification techniques first introduced in Chapters 1 and 2 apply for circuits with
sinusoidal as well as dc sources. So, some of the material in this chapter will be very familiar to
you. The challenges in first approaching sinusoidal analysis include developing the appropriate
modeling equations and working in the mathematical realm of complex numbers.

The learning goals for this chapter are:

■ understand the basic characteristics of sinusoidal functions
■ be able to perform Phasor and inverse Phasor transformations and draw Phasor diagrams
■ know how to calculate impedance and admittance for our basic circuit elements: R, L, C
■ be able to combine impedances and admittances in series and parallel
■ be able to draw the frequency-domain circuit for a given circuit with a sinusoidal source
■ know how to apply our circuit analysis techniques to frequency-domain circuits

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Characteristics of Sinusoids
Consider a sinusoidal function by considering the sine wave
X (t) = Xm sin ωt 3.1
where x(t) could represent either v(t) or i(t). Xm is the amplitude, maximum value, or peak value;
ω is the radian or angular frequency; and ωt is the argument of the sine function. A plot of the
function in Eq. (3.1) as a function of its argument is shown in Fig. 3.1a. Obviously, the function
repeats itself every 2π radians. This condition is described mathematically as x(ωt + 2 π ) = x(ωt) or
in general for period T, as

3.2
meaning that the function has the same value at time t+T as it does at time t.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.1 Plots of a sine wave as a function of both ωt and t.

The waveform can also be plotted as a function of time, as shown in Fig. 3.1b. Note that this
function goes through one period every T seconds. In other words, in 1 second it goes through
1/T periods or cycles. The number of cycles per second, called Hertz, is the frequency f, where

3.3
Now since ωT = 2π as shown in Fig. 3.1a, we find that

3.4
which is, of course, the general relationship among period in seconds, frequency in Hertz, and
radian frequency.

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Now that we have discussed some of the basic properties of a sine wave, let us consider the
following general expression for a sinusoidal function:
3.5
In this case (ωt + θ) is the argument of the sine function, and θ is called the phase angle. A plot
of this function is shown in Fig. 3.2, together with the original function in Eq. (3.1) for
comparison. Because of the presence of the phase angle, any point on the waveform Xm
sin( ω t +θ) occurs θ radians earlier in time than the corresponding point on the waveform Xm
sin(ω t). Therefore, we say that Xmsin(ω t) lags Xm sin( ω t +θ) by θ radians. The two functions
in the figure below are out of phase.

Figure 3.2 Graphical illustration of Xm sin( ω t +θ) leading Xmsin( ω t) by θ radians.

In addition, it should be noted that adding to the argument integer multiples of either 2πradians
or 360° does not change the original function. This can easily be shown mathematically but is
visibly evident when examining the waveform, as shown in Fig. 3.2. Although our discussion has
centered on the sine function, we could just as easily have used the cosine function, since the two
waveforms differ only by a phase angle; that is,

3.7

3.8
N: B: x (t) represents v (t), or i (t) Xm represents Vm or Im

Two other trigonometric identities that normally prove useful in phase angle determination are

3.9

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3.10
Finally, the angle-sum and angle-difference relationships for sines and cosines may be useful in
the manipulation of sinusoidal functions. These relations are

3.11
EXAMPLE 3.1
Plot the waveforms for the following functions:
a) v(t) = 1 cos (ωt + 45°)
b) v(t) = 1 cos (ωt + 225°)
c) v(t) = 1 cos (ωt - 315°)

SOLUTION
Figure 3.3a shows a plot of the function v(t) = 1 cos ωt. Figure 3.3b is a plot of the function
v(t) = 1 cos (ωt + 45°)
Figure 3.3c is a plot of the function v(t) = 1cos (ωt + 225). Note that since
v(t) = 1 cos (ωt + 225°) = 1 cos (ωt + 45° + 180°) this waveform is 180° out of
phase with the waveform in Fig. 3.3b; that is,
cos (ωt + 225°) = -cos (ωt + 45°), and Fig. 3.3c is the negative of Fig. 3.3b.
Finally, since the function
v(t) = 1 cos (ωt - 315°) = 1 cos (ωt - 315° + 360°) = v(t) = 1cos (ωt + 45°)
This function is identical to that shown in Fig. 3.3b.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.3 Cosine waveforms with various phase angles

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EXAMPLE 3.2
Determine the frequency and the phase angle between the two voltages v 1(t) = 12 sin (1000 t +
60°) V and v2(t) = -6 cos (1000t + 30°) V.

SOLUTION
The frequency in Hertz (Hz) is given by the expression

Using Eq. (3.9), v2(t) can be written as

Then employing Eq. (3.7), we obtain

Now that both voltages of the same frequency are expressed as sine waves with positive
amplitudes, the phase angle between v1(t) and v2(t) is 600 – ( - 600) = 1200 ; that is v1(t) leads v2(t)
by 1200 or v2(t) lags v1(t) by 1200.

Exercise 1
1) Given the voltage v(t) = 120 cos (314t + π /¿4) V, determine the frequency of the voltage
in Hertz and the phase angle in degrees.
2) Three branch currents in a network are known to be
a) i1(t) = 2 sin (377t + 45°) A
b) i2(t) = 0.5 cos (377t + 10°) A
c) i3(t) = -0.25 sin (377t + 60°) A. Determine the phase angles by which
i1(t) leads i2(t) and i1(t) leads i3(t).

Another important characteristic of the sinusoidal voltage (or current) is its rms value. The rms
value of a periodic function is defined as the square root of the mean value of the squared
function. Hence, if v = Vm cos (ωt + ∅), the rms value of v is

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3.12
Note from Eq. 3.12 that we obtain the mean value of the squared voltage by integrating v2 over
one period (that is, from t0 to t0 + T) and then dividing by the range of integration, T. Note
further that the starting point for the integration t0 is arbitrary. The quantity under the radical sign
in Eq. 3.12 reduces to V2m/2. (See Problem 3.13) Hence the rms value of v is

3.13
The rms value of the sinusoidal voltage depends only on the maximum amplitude of v, namely,
Vm. The rms value is not a function of either the frequency or the phase angle.

Sinusoidal and Complex Forcing Functions

In this title, if we apply a constant forcing function to a network and find that the steady-state
response is also constant. In a similar manner, if we apply a sinusoidal forcing function to a
linear network, the steady-state voltages and currents in the network will also be sinusoidal. This
should also be clear from the KVL and KCL equations.

For example, if we assume that our input function is a voltage v(t) and our output response is a
current i(t), as shown in Fig. 3.4, then if v(t) = A sin(ωt+θ), i(t) will be of the form i(t) = B
sin( ωt+ ∅).The critical point here is that we know the form of the output response, and therefore
the solution involves simply determining the values of the two parameters B and ∅.

Figure 3.4 Current response to an applied voltage in an electrical network

EXAMPLE 3.3
Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.5. Let us derive the expression for the current.

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Figure 3.5 A simple RL circuit

SOLUTION
The KVL equation for this circuit is

Since the input forcing function is V m =cos ωt we assume that the forced response component of
the current i(t) is of the form

I(t) can be written using Eqn. 3.11 as

Note that this is of the form of the forcing function cos ωtand its derivative sin ωt . Substituting
this form for i(t) into the preceding differential equation yields

Evaluating the indicated derivative produces

By equating coefficients of the sine and cosine functions, we obtain

That is, two simultaneous equations in the unknowns A1and A2. Solving these two equations for
A1and A2 yields

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Therefore,

Using the last identity in Eq. (3.11), can be written as

Where A and ∅ are determined as follows:

Hence,

And therefore,

And since

Hence, the final expression for i(t) is

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The preceding analysis indicates that ∅ is zero if L=0 and hence i(t) is in phase with v(t). If R=0,
∅ =–90°, and the current lags the voltage by 90°. If L and R are both present, the current lags the
voltage by some angle between 0° and 90°.

The above example illustrates an important point: solving even a simple one-loop circuit
containing one resistor and one inductor is very complicated compared to the solution of a single
loop circuit containing only two resistors. Imagine for a moment how laborious it would be to
solve a more complicated circuit using the procedure employed in Example 3.3. To circumvent
this approach, we will establish a correspondence between sinusoidal time functions and
complex numbers. We will then show that this relationship leads to a set of algebraic equations
for currents and voltages in a network (e.g., loop currents or node voltages) in which the
coefficients of the variables are complex numbers.

A relationship between time-varying sinusoidal functions and complex numbers is indicated by

Euler’s equation,

3.14
This complex function has a real part and an imaginary part:

3.15
Where Re(.) and Im(.) represent the real part and the imaginary part, respectively, of the function
in the parentheses. Recall that j =√ −1.

Now suppose that we select as our forcing function in Fig. 3.4 the non-realizable voltage

3.16
Because of Euler’s identity eqn. 3.16 can be written as

3.17

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The current response can be written as

3.18
Where I M cos ( ωt + ∅ ) is the response due to V M cos ωt and jI M sin ( ωt +∅ ) is the response due to
jV M sin ωt . This expression for the current containing both a real and an imaginary term and can
be written via Euler’s equation as

3.19

EXAMPLE 3.4
Determine the current in the RL circuit examined in Example 3.3. However, V M cos ωt , will be

substituted by V M e jωt.

SOLUTION
The forced response will be of the form

Only I M and ∅ are unknown. Substituting v(t) and i(t) into the differential equation for the
circuit, we obtain

Taking the indicated derivative, we obtain

Dividing each term of the equation by the common factor e jωt yields

V M is an algebraic equation with complex coefficients. This equation can be written as

Converting the right-hand side of the equation to exponential or polar form produces the
equation

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Hint

The magnitude and phase of the current are

However, since our actual forcing function was V M cos ωt rather than V M e jωt ,our actual response
is the real part of the complex response:

Note that this is identical to the response obtained in the previous example by solving the
differential equation for the current i(t).

EXAMPLE 3.5
Find the current i L in the circuit shown in Fig.3.6a.

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Fig.3.6a. The circuit for Example 3.5 in which the current i L is desired

SOLUTION
Apply Thevenin equivalent as seen through the inductor. The circuit is indicated below in
Fig.3.6b.

Fig.3.6b. The Thevenin equivalent circuit is desired at the terminal a and b.

Determine the Thevenin resistance by shorting the AC source and as seen through terminal a and
b.
(25 x 100)
R T h= Ω=20 Ω
25+100
Determine the Thevenin voltage across terminal a-b.
(10 cos 103 t V )100 Ω
V T h= =8 cos 10 3 t V
(25+100) Ω
The simplified circuit is shown in Fig.3.6c.

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Fig. 3.6c. The simplified Thevenin equivalent circuit

Apply the given equation to determine i L.

8
iL= 2
√20 + ¿¿ ¿

i L =222 cos ( 103 t−56.30 ) mA

The voltage and current waveforms are plotted in Fig. 3.7 below.

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Fig.3.7. Voltage and Current waveforms on a dual axis plot, generated using MATLAB
t = (0:1:8e-3);
v = 8*cos(1000*t);
i = 0.222*cos(1000*t – 56.3*pi/180);
plotyy(t,v,t,i);
xlabel(‘time(s)’);

EXERCISE
Let v s=40 cos 800 t V in the circuit of Fig. 3.8. Use Thevenin’s theorem where it will do the most
good, and find the value at t = 0 for
a) i l b) v L c) i R d) i s

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PHASORS
Once again let us assume that the forcing function for a linear network is of the form
v(t) =V M e jwt
Then every steady-state voltage or current in the network will have the same form and the same
j (ωt +∅ )
frequency ω; for example, a current i(t) will be of the form i(t )=I M e .

As we proceed in our subsequent circuit analyses, we will simply note the frequency and then
drop the factor e jwt since it is common to every term in the describing equations. Dropping the
term e jwt indicates that every voltage or current can be fully described by a magnitude and phase.
For example, a voltage v(t) can be written in exponential form as
v ( t )=V M cos (ωt +θ¿)=ℜ ¿ ¿]
Or as a complex number

Since we are working with a complex forcing function, the real part of which is the desired
answer, and each term in the equation will contain e jwt , we can drop Re(.) and e jwt and work only
with the complex number V M < θ. This complex representation is commonly called a Phasor. In a
completely identical manner a voltage v ( t )=V M cos (ωt +θ¿)=ℜ ¿ ¿ and a current
i ( t )=I M cos ⁡(ωt + ∅)=ℜ¿ are written in Phasor notation as V M < θ and I M < ∅respectively. Note
that it is common practice to express Phasor with positive magnitudes.
Table 3.1. Phasor representation
TIME DOMAIN FREQUENCY DOMAIN
A cos (ωt ± θ) A<± θ
A sin(ωt ± θ) A<± θ−900

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EXAMPLE 3.6
Transform the time domain v ( t )=100 cos(400 t−300 ) volts in to the frequency domain.

SOLUTION

The time domain expression is already in the form of a cosine wave with a phase angle. Thus,
suppressing ¿ 400 rad /s ,
V =100<−300 Volts
EXAMPLE 3.7
1. Convert the following voltage functions to Phasor.
a) V 1 ( t )=12 cos (377 t−4250 ¿ )V ¿
b) V 2 ( t )=18sin (2513 t + 4.20¿ )V ¿
2. Convert the following Phasor to the time domain if the frequency is 400 Hz.

SOLUTION
1. a) V 1=12 /- 4250
b) V 2 = 18 / 4.20 - 900 = 18 / - 85.80
2. Given
f = 400 Hz
ω=2 πf =2∗3.14∗400=2512 rad / sec ¿ 800 π
V 1=10 cos (2512t +200 ¿ )V ¿
V 2=12 cos (2512t−60 0¿ )V ¿

EXERCISE
1. Transform each of the following functions of time into Phasor form:
a) – 5 sin (580t−110 0 ¿ )¿
b) 3 cos ¿ ¿

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c) 8 cos (4 t−300 ¿)+ 4 sin( 4 t−1000 ) ¿

PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR R, L AND C CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

As we proceed in our development of the techniques required to analyze circuits in the sinusoidal steady state, we
are now in a position to establish the phasor relationships between voltage and current for the three passive elements
R, L, and C.

Resistor
The resistor provides the simplest case. In the time domain, as indicated by the fig 3.8a, the
defining equation is
v(t)=Ri (t)
Now let us apply the complex voltage

and assume the complex current response

So that

Dividing throughout by e jωt , we find

Or in polar form,

But Vm /θ and Im /∅ merely represent the general voltage and current phasors V and I. Thus,
V = RI
The voltage – current relationship in Phasor form for a resistor has the same form as the
relationship between the time-domain voltage and current. The defining equation in Phasor form
is illustrated in Fig.3.8b. the angle θ and ∅ are equal, so that the current and voltage are always in
phase.

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Fig.3.8. Voltage – Current relationships for a resistor

EXAMPLE 3.8
If the voltage v ( t )=24 cos (377 t+ 750) V is applied to a 6 Ω resistor as shown in Fig. 3.8a, we
wish to determine the resultant current.

SOLUTION
Since the phasor voltage is,

The phasor current is,

I in the time domain is i(t) = 4 cos (377t + 75°) A

EXERCISE
The current in a 4 Ω resistor is known to be I = 12 /600 .Express the voltage across the resistor as
a time function if the frequency of the current is 4 kHz.

INDUCTOR
Let us now turn to the inductor. The time-domain representation is shown in Fig. 3.9a, and the
defining equation, a time-domain expression, is

After substituting the complex voltage and complex current equation, we have

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Taking the indicated derivatives:

And dividing the above equation by e jωt :

We obtain the desired Phasor relationship

The Phasor relationship is indicated in Fig.3.9b. Note that the angle of the factor jωL is exactly
+90 0 and this indicate that I lag V by an angle of 90 0 in a purely inductive circuit.

Fig.3.9. Voltage – Current relationships for an inductor

EXAMPLE 3.9
The voltage v ( t )=12 cos(377 t +200 ) V is applied to a 20-mH inductor as shown in Fig. 3.9a.
Find the resultant current.

SOLUTION
The Phasor current is

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EXERCISE
The current in a 0.05 H inductor is I = 4 /- 300 A. If the frequency of the current is 60 Hz,
determine the voltage across the inductor.

CAPACITOR
The voltage–current relationship for our last passive element, the capacitor, as shown in Fig.
3.10a, is

Once again employing the complex voltage and current, we obtain

d
I M e j (ωt +θ )=C V M e j(ωt+θ
i V )
dt
which reduces to
I M e j θ = jωC V M e j θ
i V

In phasor notation this equation becomes

I = jωCV
The phasor relationship is shown in Fig. 3.10b.

Note that the voltage and current are 90° out of phase. The above equation states that, the
current leads the voltage by 90° or the voltage lags the current by 90°. The phasor diagram and
the sinusoidal waveforms for the capacitor circuit are shown in Figs. 3.10c and d, respectively.

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Fig.3.10. Voltage–current relationships for a capacitor

Table 3.2. Comparison of time-domain and frequency-domain voltage-current expressions

EXAMPLE 3.10
The voltage v ( t )=100 cos(314 t+15 0) V is applied to a 100-μF capacitor as shown in Fig. 3.10a.
Find the current.

SOLUTION
The resultant phasor current is

Therefore, the current written as a time function is

i ( t )=3.14 cos(314 t +1050 ) A

EXERCISE
The current in a 150 μF capacitor is I = 3.6 /- 300 A. If the frequency of the current is 60 Hz,
determine the voltage across the capacitor.

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

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We have examined each of the circuit elements in the frequency domain on an individual basis.
We now wish to treat these passive circuit elements in a more general fashion. We define the
two-terminal input impedance Z, also referred to as the driving point impedance, in exactly the
same manner in which we defined resistance earlier. Later we will examine another type of
impedance, called transfer impedance.

Impedance is defined as the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I:

at the two terminals of the element related to one another by the passive sign convention, as
illustrated in Fig. 3.11. Since V and I are complex, the impedance Z is complex and

Since Z is the ratio of V to I, the units of Z are ohms. Thus, impedance in an ac circuit is
analogous to resistance in a dc circuit. In rectangular form, impedance is expressed as

where R(ω ¿ is the real, or resistive component and X(ω ¿ is the imaginary, or reactive
component. In general, we simply refer to R as the resistance and X as the reactance. It is
important to note that R and X are real functions of ω and therefore Z(ω) is frequency
dependent. Z is a complex number; however, it is not a phasor, since phasors denote sinusoidal
functions.
Z/θz = R + j X
Therefore,
Z=√ R 2+ X 2
X
θ z=tan−1
R
Where,
R=Z cos(θ z )
X =Z sin(θ z )

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For the individual passive elements the impedance is as shown in Table 3.3. However, just as it
was advantageous to know how to determine the equivalent resistance in dc circuits, we want to
learn how to determine the equivalent impedance in ac circuits.

Table 3.3. Passive element impedance

PASSIVE ELEMENT IMPEDANCE
R Z=R
L Z= jωL= jXL=ωL /90 0 , XL=ωL
C 1 −1 −1
Z= = jXC= /90 0 , XL=
jωC ωC ωC

KCL and KVL are both valid in the frequency domain. We can use this fact, as was done in the
previous Chapter for resistors, to show that impedances can be combined using the same rules
that we established for resistor combinations. That is, Z1 , Z 2 , Z 3 ,… … . , Z n if are connected in
series, the equivalent impedance Z s is

and if Z1 , Z 2 , Z 3 ,… … . , Z n are connected in parallel, the equivalent impedance is given by

EXAMPLE 3.11
Determine the equivalent impedance of the network shown in Fig. 8.10 if the frequency is f = 60
Hz. Then compute the current i(t) if the voltage source is v ( t )=100 cos(314 t+15 0) V. Finally,
calculate the equivalent impedance if the frequency is f=400 Hz.

Fig.3.11. Series ac circuit

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SOLUTION
The impedances of the individual elements at 60 Hz are

Since the elements are in series,

The current in the circuit is given by

or in the time domain, i ( t )=0.96 cos(377 t +91.220 ) A.

If the frequency is 400 Hz, the impedance of each element is

The total impedance is then

At the frequency f = 60 Hz, the reactance of the circuit is capacitive; that is, if the impedance is
written as R + j X, X<0. However, at f = 400 Hz the reactance is inductive since X>0.

EXERCISE
1. Find the current i(t) in the network below.

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2. Determine the equivalent impedance of the network shown in the fig. below, given an
operating frequency of 5 rad/sec.

3. With reference to the network given below. Find the input impedance Z¿ measured
between terminals: a) a and g; b) b and g; c) a and b.

4. Find the current i(t) in the circuit (a) and (b) shown below.

5. Find the time-domain node voltages v1 (t) and v 2(t) in the circuit shown below.

6. Use nodal analysis on the circuit shown below to find V 1 and V 2.

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7. Obtain expressions for the time-domain currents i 1 and i 2 in the circuit given below.

Fig. (a) A time-domain circuit containing a dependent source. (b) The corresponding frequency-
domain circuit

ADMITTANCE
Another quantity that is very useful in the analysis of ac circuits is the two-terminal input
admittance, which is the reciprocal of impedance; that is,

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1 I
Y= =
Z V
The units of Y are Siemens, and this quantity is analogous to conductance in resistive dc circuits.
Since Z is a complex number, Y is also a complex number.
Y =Y M /θy
which is written in rectangular form as
Y =G+ jB
where G and B are called conductance and susceptance, respectively.
1 1
Y =G+ jB= =
R+ j X Z
we can show that

and in a similar manner, we can show that

EXAMPLE 3.12
Calculate the equivalent admittance Y Pfor the network in Fig. 3.12 and use it to determine the
current I if VS = 60/45° V.

Fig. 3.12. Parallel circuit

Solution

Therefore,

And hence,

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EXERCISE
1. Find the current I in the network below.

2. Consider the network shown in Fig. below. The impedance of each element is given in
the figure. Calculate the equivalent impedance of the network Zeq at terminals A–B.

3. Find Z for the network given below.

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AC POWER ANALYSIS
The Learning goals for this sub - topic are:
 know how to calculate instantaneous and average power in ac circuits
 be able to calculate the maximum average power transfer for a load in an ac circuit
 know how to calculate the effective or rms value for a periodic waveform
 know how to calculate real power, reactive power, complex power, and power factor in ac
circuits
 understand how to correct the power factor in ac circuits
 understand the importance of safety and the consequences of ignoring it when working
with power

INSTANTANEOUS POWER
We can compute the instantaneous power supplied or absorbed by any device as the product of
the instantaneous voltage across the device and the instantaneous current through it.

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 3.13. In general, the steady-state voltage and current for the
network can be written as
v ( t )=V M cos (ωt +θ v )
i ( t )=I M cos (ωt +θi )
The instantaneous power is then
p ( t ) =v ( t )∗i(t )
p ( t ) =V M cos (ωt +θv )∗I M cos(ωt+ θi)
p ( t ) =V M I M cos(ωt+θ v )∗cos(ωt+ θi)
Employing the following trigonometric identity,
1
cos ∅1∗cos ∅ 2= [cos (∅ 1−∅2 )+ cos(∅ 1+ ∅2 )]
2
We find that the instantaneous power can be written as
VMIM
p (t)= [cos (θv −θ i)+cos (2 ωt+ θv +θi )]
2

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Note that the instantaneous power consists of two terms. The first term is a constant (i.e., it is
time independent), and the second term is a cosine wave of twice the excitation frequency.

Fig.3.13. simple ac network

Figure 3.14 The instantaneous power p(t) entering a circuit

EXAMPLE 3.12
The circuit in Fig. 3.13 has the following parameters: v ( t )=4 cos( ωt+ 600 ) and Z = 2 /300 Ω. We
wish to determine equations for the current and the instantaneous power as a function of time and
plot these functions with the voltage on a single graph for comparison.
Solution

Then,

The instantaneous power will be

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A plot of this function, together with plots of the voltage and current, is shown in Fig. 3.14.

Fig.3.14. Plots of v(t), i(t), and p(t) for the circuit in Example 3.12 using f = 60 Hz
AVERAGE POWER
The average power is the average of the instantaneous power over one period. The average
power is more convenient to measure. In fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for measuring
power, responds to average power. The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore
difficult to measure.

Thus, the average power is given by

The average power equation is done over T, we would get the same result if we performed the
integration over the actual period of p(t)which is T0 = T/2.

Substituting p(t)in the average power equation gives

T T
1 1
P= ∫ V I cos ( θ v −θi ) dt + T1 ∫ 12 V m Im cos ( 2ωt +θ v +θ i ) dt
T 0 2 m m 0

T T
1 1 1 1
¿ V m I m cos ( θ v −θi ) ∫ dt+¿ V m I m ∫ cos ( 2 ωt+ θv +θi ) dt ¿
2 T 0 2 T 0

The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the same constant. The second
integrand is a sinusoid. We know that the average of a sinusoid over its period is zero because
the area under the sinusoid during a positive half-cycle is canceled by the area under it during the

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following negative half-cycle. Thus, the second term in the above Eq. vanishes and the average
power becomes
1
P= V m I m cos ( θv −θi )
2
Since cos (θv − θi) = cos (θi − θv), what is important is the difference in the phases of the voltage
and current.

If the phasor forms of v(t) and i(t) are V = Vm/θv and I = Im/θi , respectively. P is calculated
using phasors V and I. To use phasors, we notice that

The real part of the above equation is the average power

Consider two special cases of the above Eq.. When θv = θi, the voltage and current are in phase.
This implies a purely resistive circuit or resistive load R, and

Where |I|2 = I × I*. The above equation shows that a purely resistive circuit absorbs power at all
times. When θv − θi = ±90◦, we have a purely reactive circuit, and

A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load (L or C) absorbs zero
average power.

EXAMPLE 3.13
Given that
v(t) = 120 cos(377t +450) V and i(t) = 10 cos(377t −100) A find the instantaneous power and the
average power absorbed by the passive linear network given in the Fig. below.

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Figure 3.15 Sinusoidal source and passive linear circuit

SOLUTION
The instantaneous power is given by
p = vi = 1200 cos (377t + 450) cos (377t – 100)
Applying the trigonometric identity
cos A*cos B = ½ [cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)]
gives
p = 600[cos (754t + 35 0) + cos 55 0]
or
p(t) = 344.2 + 600 cos(754t + 35 0) W
The average power is
1
P= V m I m cos ( θv −θi )
2

1
P= ∗120∗10 cos ¿ ¿
2

P=600cos ( 550 )

P=344.2 W

EXERCISE
1. Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z = 30 – j 70 Ω when a voltage
V = 120/00 V is applied across it.
2. Calculate the instantaneous power and average power absorbed by the passive linear network
of Fig. 3.15 if
v(t) = 80 cos(10t + 20◦) V

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i(t) = 15 sin(10t + 60◦) A

3. For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.16, find the average power supplied by the source and the
average power absorbed by the resistor.

Fig. 3.16 Simple passive circuits

4. Determine the power generated by each source and the average power absorbed by each
passive element in the circuit of Fig. 3.17.

Fig. 3.17 Simple passive circuit with a voltage and current source

MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER

In chapter two, we solved the problem of maximizing the power delivered by a power-supplying
resistive network to a load RL. Representing the circuit by its Thevenin equivalent, we proved
that the maximum power would be delivered to the load if the load resistance is equal to the
Thevenin resistance RL = RTh.

Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.18, where an ac circuit is connected to a load ZL and is represented
by its Thevenin equivalent. The load is usually represented by impedance, which may model an
electric motor, an antenna, a TV, and so forth. In rectangular form, the Thevenin impedance ZTh
and the load impedance ZL are

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Figure 3.18 Maximum average power transfer: (a) circuit with a load, (b) the Thevenin
equivalent.

The current through the load is

The average power delivered to the load is

Our objective is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is maximum. To do this we set
∂P/∂RL and ∂P/∂XL equal to zero. From the above Eq., we obtain

Setting ∂P/∂XL to zero gives

and setting ∂P/∂RL to zero results in

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Combining the above two equations leads to the conclusion that for maximum average power
transfer, ZL must be selected so that XL = −XTh and RL = RTh, i.e.

For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to the complex
conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh.

Setting RL = RTh and XL = −XTh in the given equation below, the maximum average power is

EXAMPLE 3.14
Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the average power in the circuit below. What is
the maximum average power?

SOLUTION
First we obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load terminals. To get ZTh, consider the circuit
shown in Fig. (a). We find

To find VTh, consider the circuit in Fig. (b). By voltage division,

The load impedance draws the maximum power from the circuit when

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The maximum average power is

Figure Finding the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in example 3.14

EXERCISE
1. For the circuit shown below, find the load impedance ZL that absorbs the maximum
average power. Calculate also that maximum average power.

2. In the circuit given, find the value of RL that will absorb the maximum average power.
Calculate that power.

EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE

The idea of effective value arises from the need to measure the effectiveness of a voltage or
current source in delivering power to a resistive load.

The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same average power to
a resistor as the periodic current.

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In Fig. 3.19, the circuit in (a) is ac while that of (b) is dc. Our objective is to find Ieff that will
transfer the same power to resistor R as the sinusoid i. The average power absorbed by the
resistor in the ac circuit is

The power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit is

The effective current I eff can be solved using

The effective value of the voltage is found in the same way as current; that is,

This indicates that the effective value is the (square) root of the mean (or average) of the square
of the periodic signal. Thus, the effective value is often known as the Root-Mean-Square value,
or RMS value; and we write

Figure 3.19 Finding the effective current: (a) ac circuit, (b) dc circuit

The rms value of a constant is the constant itself. For the sinusoid i(t) = Im cos ωt, the effective
or rms value is

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Similarly, for v(t) = Vm cos ωt,

The above two equations are valid for sinusoidal signals.

The average power can be written in terms of the rms values as,

Similarly, the average power absorbed by a resistor R can be written as

EXAMPLE 3.15
Determine the rms value of the current waveform in Fig. 3.20. If the current is passed through a
2 Ω resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.

Figure 3.20 periodic wave forms

SOLUTION
The period of the waveform is T = 4. Over a period, we can write the current waveform as

i ( t )= 5 t , 0<t <2
{ −10 , 2<t< 4
The rms value is

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The power absorbed by a 2 Ω resistor is

EXERCISE
1. Find the rms value of the current waveform given. If the current flows through a 9 Ω
resistor, calculate the average power absorbed by the resistor.

2. The waveform shown in Figure below is a half-wave rectified sine wave. Find the rms
value and the amount of average power dissipated in a 10 Ω resistor.

3. Find the rms value of the full-wave rectified sine wave in Fig. below. Calculate the
average power dissipated in a 6 Ω resistor.

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APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR

If the voltage and current at the terminals of a circuit are

and

or, in phasor form, V = Vm /θv and I = Im /θi , the average power is

The effective value of the average power is

We have added a new term to the equation:

The average power is a product of two terms. The product Vrms*Irms is known as the apparent
power S. The factor cos (θv − θi) is called the power factor (pf).

The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of voltage and current.

The power factor is dimensionless, since it is the ratio of the average power to the apparent
power,

The angle θv − θi is called the power factor angle, since it is the angle whose cosine is the power
factor. The power factor angle is equal to the angle of the load impedance if V is the voltage
across the load and I is the current through it. This is evident from the fact that

Alternatively, since

and

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The impedance is

The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current. It is also the
cosine of the angle of the load impedance.

EXAMPLE 3.16
A series-connected load draws a current i(t) = 4 cos(100πt + 10 0) A when the applied voltage is
v(t) = 120 cos(100πt – 20 0) V. Find the apparent power and the power factor of the load.
Determine the element values that form the series-connected load.
SOLUTION
The apparent power is

The power factor is

The pf is leading because the current leads the voltage. The pf may also be obtained from the
load impedance.

The load impedance Z can be modeled by a 25.98 Ω resistor in series with a capacitor with

or

EXERCISE

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Calculate the power factor of the entire circuit given below as seen by the source. What is the
average power supplied by the source?

COMPLEX POWER
Power engineers have coined the term complex power, which they use to find the total effect of
parallel loads. Complex power is important in power analysis because it contains all the
information pertaining to the power absorbed by a given load.
Consider the ac load in Fig. 3.21. Given the phasor form V = Vm /θv and I = Im /θi of voltage v
(t) and current i(t), the complex power S absorbed by the ac load is the product of the voltage and
the complex conjugate of the current, or

In terms of the rms value, the complex power is

The complex power maybe expressed in terms of the load impedance Z. The load impedance Z
may be written as

Thus, Vrms = Z(Irms) and substitute in S gives,

Since Z = R + j X, S becomes

Where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power; that is,

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P is the average or real power and it depends on the load’s resistance R. Q depends on the load’s
reactance X and is called the reactive (or quadrature) power.
P = Vrms Irms cos (θv − θi) Q = Vrms Irms sin (θv − θi)

The real power P is the average power in watts delivered to a load; it is the only useful power. It
is the actual power dissipated by the load. The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy
exchange between the source and the reactive part of the load. The unit of Q is the volt-ampere
reactive (VAR).

Notice that,
1. Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf)
2. Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf)
3. Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf)

Figure 3.21 (a) Power triangle, (b) impedance triangle Figure 3.22 Power triangle

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CHAPTER 4: TRANSIENT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
Now that we have considered the three passive elements (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) and
one active element (the op amp) individually, we are prepared to consider circuits that contain
various combinations of two or three of the passive elements. In this chapter, we shall examine
two types of simple circuits: a circuit comprising a resistor and capacitor and a circuit
comprising a resistor and an inductor. These are called RC and RL circuits, respectively. As
simple as these circuits are, they find continual applications in electronics, communications, and
control systems, as we shall see.

We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying Kirchhoff’s laws, as we did for
resistive circuits. The only difference is that applying Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive
circuits’ results in algebraic equations, while applying the laws to RC and RL circuits produces
differential equations, which are more difficult to solve than algebraic equations. The differential
equations resulting from analyzing RC and RL circuits are of the first order. Hence, the circuits
are collectively known as first-order circuits.

A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.

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In addition to there being two types of first-order circuits (RC and RL), there are two ways to
excite the circuits. The first way is by initial conditions of the storage elements in the circuits. In
these so called source-free circuits, we assume that energy is initially stored in the capacitive or
inductive element. The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and is gradually dissipated in
the resistors. Although source free circuits are by definition free of independent sources, they
may have dependent sources.

The second way of exciting first-order circuits is by independent sources. In this chapter, the
independent sources we will consider are dc sources. Finally, we consider four typical
applications of RC and RL circuits: delay and relay circuits, a photoflash unit, and an automobile
ignition circuit.
THE SOURCE-FREE RC CIRCUIT
A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected. The energy already
stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.

Figure 4.1 A source-free RC circuit

Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged capacitor, as shown in Fig.
4.1. Our objective is to determine the circuit response, we assume to be the voltage v(t) across
the capacitor. Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that at time t = 0, the initial
voltage is
v(0) = V0
with the corresponding value of the energy stored as

E(0) = ½ CV 2

Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Fig. 4.1,

iC + iR = 0

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By definition, iC = C dv/dt and iR = v/R. Thus,

or

This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first derivative of v is involved. To solve
it, we rearrange the terms as

Integrating both sides,

1 −1
∫ v dv=∫ RC dt
−t
ln v= + ln A
RC
Where ln A is the integration constant. Thus,
−t v
ln v−ln A= =ln
RC A
Taking powers of e produces
−t
v ( t )= A e RC
But from the initial conditions, v (0) = A = v0. Hence,
−t
v ( t )=v 0 e RC

This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay of the initial
voltage. Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical characteristics of
the circuit and not due to some external voltage or current source, it is called the natural response
of the circuit.

The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of the
circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.

The natural response is illustrated graphically in Fig. 4.2. Note that at t = 0, we have the correct
initial condition as v ( o )=V 0. As t increases, the voltage decreases toward zero. The rapidity with

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which the voltage decreases is expressed in terms of the time constant, denoted by the lower case
Greek letter tau, τ =RC.

Figure 4.2 The voltage response of the RC circuit

The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or
36.8 percent of its initial value.

This implies that at t = τ, v ( t )becomes

−t −τ
v ( t )=v 0 e RC =v 0 e RC =v 0 e−1=0.368 v 0
In terms of the time constant, v(t) can be written as
−t
τ
v ( t )=v 0 e

Observe from the above equation that the smaller the time constant, the more rapidly the voltage
decreases, that is, the faster the response. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.3. A circuit with a small
time constant gives a fast response and it reaches the steady state (or final state) quickly due to
quick dissipation of energy stored, whereas a circuit with a large time constant gives a slow
response because it takes longer to reach steady state. At any rate, whether the time constant is
small or large, the circuit reaches steady state in five time constants.

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Figure 4.3 Plot of v/v0 = e−t/τ for various values of the time constant

With the voltage v(t), we can find the current iR(t),

v ( t ) v 0 −tτ
i R ( t )= = e
R R
The power dissipated in the resistor is
v 02 −2t
p ( t ) =v i R= e τ
R
The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is
t t
v02 −2t
E R ( t ) =∫ p dt =∫ e τ dt
0 0 R

−τ v 02 −2τ t t 1 −2t
ER (t )=
R
2
e ∨ = C v 0 1−e τ , τ=RC( )
0 2

2
Notice that as t →∞, ER (∞) → ½ CV 0 , which is the same as EC (0), the energy initially stored in
the capacitor. This implies that the energy initially stored in the capacitor is eventually dissipated
in the resistor.

EXAMPLE 4.1
In Fig. 4.4 below, let vC (0) = 15 V. Find vC, vx , and ix for t > 0.

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Fig.4.4. RC circuit of example 4.1

SOLUTION
We first need to make the circuit above conform to the standard RC circuit in Fig. 4.1. We find
the equivalent resistance or the Thevenin resistance at the capacitor terminals. Our objective is
always to first obtain capacitor voltage vC. From this, we can determine vx and ix.
20 x 5
Req = =4 Ω
20+5
The equivalent circuit is as shown below, which is analogous to Fig. 4.1. The time constant is
τ =Req C=4 x 0.1=0.4 sec
Thus,
−t −t
v=v 0 e τ =15 e 0.4 V

vC =v =15 e−2.5t V
From Fig. 4.4, we can use voltage division to get vx; so
12
v x= V =0.6 ( 15 e−2.5 t ) V =9 e−2.5 t V
12+ 8
Finally,
v x 9 e−2.5 t −2.5 t
ix= = V =0.75 e A
12 12
EXERCISE
1. Refer to the circuit in Fig. below. Let vC(0) = 30 V. Determine vC, vx , and io for t ≥ 0.

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2. The switch in the circuit below has been closed for a long time, and it is opened at t = 0. Find
v(t) for t ≥ 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the capacitor.

THE SOURCE-FREE RL CIRCUIT

Consider the series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in Fig. 4.5. Our goal is to
determine the circuit response, which we will assume to be the current i(t) through the inductor.
We select the inductor current as the response in order to take advantage of the idea that the
inductor current cannot change instantaneously. At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has an
initial current I0, or
i ( 0 )=I 0
With the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as
1
E ( 0 ) = L I 02
2

Fig.4.5. A source free RL circuit

Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 4.5,

V L=V R
But vL = Ldi/dt and vR = iR. Thus,
di
L + Ri=0
dt
Or

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di R
+ i=0
dt L
Rearranging terms and integrating gives
di −R
= dt
i L
i(t ) t
1 R
∫ di=∫ dt
I0 i 0 L

ln i i ( t )=
−Rt t −Rt
| I0 |
L 0
=≫ ln i(t)−ln I 0=
L
+0

Or
i( t) −Rt
ln =
I0 L
Taking the powers of e, we have
−Rt
L
i ( t )=I 0 e

This shows that the natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential decay of the initial
current. The current response is shown in Fig. 4.6. It is evident from the above equation that the
time constant for the RL circuit is
L
τ=
R

Figure 4.6 The current response of the RL circuit

With τ has the unit of second. Thus, Eq. i(t) may be written as

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−t
τ
i ( t )=I 0 e
With the current in the above equation), we can find the voltage across the resistor as
−t
τ
v R ( t ) =iR=I 0 ℜ
The power dissipated in the resistor is
−2 t
2 τ
p=v R i=I 0 ℜ
The energy absorbed by the resistor is
t t −2 t −2t
E R ( t ) =∫ p dt=∫ I 0 ℜ
0 0
2 τ
dt =
−1
2
τ I 02 ℜ τ
|0t , τ= RL
Or
1 −2 t
E R ( t ) = L I 02(1−e ¿ ¿ )¿
2 τ

Note that as t →∞, ER(∞) → ½ LI 02 , which is the same as EL(0), the initial energy stored in the
inductor. Again, the energy initially stored in the inductor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.

The key to working with a source - free RL circuit to find:

1. The initial current i(0) = I0 through the inductor.
2. The time constant τ of the circuit.

EXAMPLE 4.2
Assuming that i(0) = 10 A, calculate i(t) and ix (t) in the circuit in Fig.4.7.

Figure 4.7 For Example 4.2

SOLUTION

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There are two to solve this problem. One way is to obtain the equivalent resistance at the
inductor terminals and then use the equation i(t). The other way is to start from scratch by using
Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Whichever approach is taken, it is always better to first obtain the
inductor current.

METHOD 1
The equivalent resistance is the same as the Thevenin resistance at the inductor terminals.
Because of the dependent source, we insert a voltage source with vo = 1 V at the inductor
terminals a-b, as in Fig. 4.8(a). (We could also insert a 1-A current source at the terminals).
Applying KVL to the two loops results in

−1
2 ( i 1−i 2) +1=0 ¿ ≫i 1−i 2=
2
5
6 i 2−2 i1 −3i 1=0=≫ i2 = i 1
6
By substituting i 2 in i 1−i 2,

Figure 4.8 Solving the circuit in Fig. 4.7

i 1=−3 A , i 0=−i 1=3 A

Hence,
v0 1
Req =RTh = = Ω
i0 3
The time constant is

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1
L 2 3
τ= = = sec
R eq 1 2
3
Thus, the current through the inductor is
−t − ( 23 )t
i ( t )=i ( 0 ) e τ =10 e A ,t >0

METHOD 22
We may directly apply KVL to the circuit as in Fig. 4.8(b). For loop 1,
1 d i1
+2(i 1−i 2 )=0
2 dt
Or
d i1
+ 4 i 1−4 i2 ¿=0
dt
For loop 2,
5
6 i 2−2 i1 −3i 1=0=≫ i2 = i 1
6
Substituting i 2 gives,
d i1 2
+ i =0
dt 3 1
Rearranging terms,
d i 1 −2
= dt
i1 3
Since i 1=i, we may replace i 1 with i and integrate:

ln i i ( t ) =
−2 t
|
i( 0) 3 0
t
|
Or
i(t) −2
ln = t
i( 0) 3
Taking the power of e, we finally obtain
( 23 )t
− − ( 23 )t t>0
i ( t )=i ( 0 ) e =10 e A,
This is the same as the value obtained by method 1.

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The voltage across the inductor is

2 2
di −2 −( 3 ) t −10 −( 3 ) t
v=L =0.5 ( 10 )
dt 3( )
e =
3
e V

Since the inductor and the 2 Ω resistor are in parallel,

2
−( ) t
v
i x ( t ) = =−1.667 e 3 A , t>0
2
EXERCISE
1. Find i and vx in the circuit in given. Let i(0) = 5 A.

2. The switch in the circuit given below has been closed for a long time. At t = 0, the switch
is opened. Calculate i(t) for t > 0.

SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
Before going on with the second half of this chapter, we need to go off the point and consider
some mathematical concepts that will aid our understanding of transient analysis. A basic
understanding of singularity functions will help us to make sense of the response of first-order
circuits to a sudden application of an independent dc voltage or current source.

Singularity functions (also called switching functions) are very useful in circuit analysis. They
serve as good approximations to the switching signals that arise in circuits with switching

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operations. They are helpful in the neat, compact description of some circuit phenomena,
especially the step response of RC or RL circuits. By definition,

Singularity functions are functions that either are discontinuous or have discontinuous
derivatives.

The three most widely used singularity functions in circuit analysis are the unit step, the unit
impulse, and the unit ramp functions.

The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of t and 1 for positive values of t.

In mathematical terms,

Figure 4.9 The unit step function

The unit step function is undefined at t = 0, where it changes abruptly from 0 to 1. It is

dimensionless, like other mathematical functions such as sine and cosine. Figure 4.9 depicts the
unit step function. If the abrupt change occurs at t = t0 (where t0 > 0) instead of t = 0, the unit
step function becomes

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Figure 4.10 (a) The unit step function delayed by t0, (b) the
unit step advanced by t0

which is the same as saying that u(t) is delayed by t0 seconds, as shown in Fig. 4.10(a). If the
change is at t = −t0, the unit step function becomes

meaning that u(t) is advanced by t0 seconds, as shown in Fig. 4.10(b).

Use the step function to represent an abrupt change in voltage or current, like the changes that
occur in the circuits of control systems and digital computers. For example, the voltage

may be expressed in terms of the unit step function as

v(t) = V0u(t − t0)

If we let t0 = 0, then v(t) is simply the step voltage V0u(t). A voltage source of V0u(t) is shown in
Fig. 4.11(a); its equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.11(b). It is evident in Fig. 4.11(b) that
terminals a-b are short circuited (v = 0) for t < 0 and that v = V0 appears at the terminals for t >
0.

Figure 4.11 (a) Voltage source of V0u(t), (b) its equivalent circuit

Similarly, a current source of I0u(t) is shown in Fig. 4.12(a), while its equivalent circuit is in Fig.
4.12(b). Notice that for t < 0, there is an open circuit (i = 0), and that i = I0 flows for t > 0.

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Figure 4.12 (a) Current source of I0u(t), (b) its equivalent circuit

The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit impulse function δ(t), which we write as

The unit impulse function also known as the delta function is shown in Fig. 4.13.

Figure 4.13 The unit impulse function

The unit impulse function δ(t) is zero everywhere except at t = 0, where it is undefined.

The unit impulse may be regarded as an applied or resulting shock. It may be visualized as a very
short duration pulse of unit area. This may be expressed mathematically as

When an impulse function has strength other than unity, the area of the impulse is equal to its
strength. For example, an impulse function 10δ(t) has an area of 10. Figure 4.14 shows the
impulse functions 5δ(t + 2), 10δ(t), and −4δ(t − 3).

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Figure 4.14 Three impulse functions

To illustrate how the impulse function affects other functions, let us evaluate the integral

Where a < t0 < b. Since δ(t − t0) = 0 except at t = t0, the integrand is zero except at t0. Thus,

Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the unit ramp function r(t); we write

Figure 4.15 The unit ramp function

The unit ramp function is zero for negative values of t and has a unit slope for positive values of
t.

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Figure 4.15 shows the unit ramp function. In general, a ramp is a function that changes at a
constant rate.

The unit ramp function may be delayed or advanced as shown in Fig. 4.16. For the delayed unit
ramp function,

and for the advanced unit ramp function,

We should keep in mind that the three singularity functions (impulse, step, and ramp) are related
by differentiation as

Or by integration as

Figure 4.16 The unit ramp function: (a) delayed by t0, (b) advanced by t0

EXAMPLE 4.3

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Express the voltage pulse from the given gate pulse in terms of the unit step. Calculate its
derivative and sketch it.

Figure 4.17. Gate pulse function

SOLUTION
The type of pulse is called the gate function. It may be regarded as a step function that switches
on at one value of t and switches off at another value of t. The gate function shown in Fig.
switches on at t = 2 s and switches off at t = 5 s. It consists of the sum of two unit step functions
as shown in Fig. 4.18(a). From the figure, it is evident that

v ( t )=10 u ( t−2 )−10 u ( t−5 )=10 ¿

Taking the derivatives of this gives

dv
=10[δ ( t−2 )−δ ( t −5 ) ]
dt

This is shown in Fig. 4.18(b). We can obtain directly from Fig. 4.17 by simply observing the
sudden increase by 10 V at t = 2 s leading to 10δ (t − 2). At t = 5 s, there is a sudden decrease by
10 V leading to −10 V δ(t − 5).

Figure 4.18 (a) Decomposition of the pulse in Fig. 4.17, (b) derivative of the pulse in Fig. 4.17.

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EXERCISE
1. Express the current pulse from the figure below in terms of the unit step. Find its integral
and sketch it.

2. Express the saw tooth function shown in Fig. below in terms of singularity functions.

STEP RESPONSE OF AN RC/RL CIRCUIT

When the dc source of an RC/RL circuit is suddenly applied, the voltage or current source can be
modeled as a step function, and the response is known as a step response.

EXAMPLE 4.4
The switch in Fig. 4.19 has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, the switch moves to B.
Determine v(t) for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1 s and 4 s.

Figure 4.19. Circuit for example 4.4

SOLUTION

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For t < 0, the switch is at position A. Since v is the same as the voltage across the 5-kΩ resistor,
the voltage across the capacitor just before t = 0 is obtained by voltage division as
v¿
Using the fact that the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously,
v ( 0 )=v ¿
Fort > 0, the switch is in position B. The Thevenin resistance connected to the capacitor is RTh =
4 kΩ, and the time constant is
τ =RT h C=4 x 103 x 0.5 x 10−3=2 sec
Since the capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc at steady state, v(∞) = 30 V. Thus,
−t
τ
v ( t )=v ( ∞ ) +[v ( 0 )−v ( ∞ ) ]e
−t
¿ 30+ ( 15−30 ) e =( 30−15 e−0.5 t ) V
2

At t = 1,
v ( 1 )=( 30−15 e−0.5 t ) V =( 30−15 e−0.5 ) V =20.902V
At t = 4,
v ( 1 )=( 30−15 e−0.5 t ) V =( 30−15 e−0.5 x 4 ) V =27.97 V

EXAMPLE 4.5
Find i(t) in the circuit in Fig. 4.20 for t > 0. Assume that the switch has been closed for a long
time.

Figure 4.20. Circuit for Example 4.5

SOLUTION
When t < 0, the 3 Ω resistor is short-circuited, and the inductor acts like a short circuit. The
current through the inductor at t = 0− (i.e., just before t = 0) is

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Since the inductor current cannot change instantaneously,

For t > 0, the switch is open. The 2 Ω and 3 Ω resistors are in series, so that

The Thevenin resistance across the inductor terminals is

For the time constant,

Thus,

Check: In Fig. 4.20, for t > 0, KVL must be satisfied; that is,

This confirms the result.

EXERCISE
1. The switch in the circuit has been closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0. Find i(t) for t > 0.

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2. At t = 0, switch 1 in Fig. below is closed, and switch 2 is closed 4 s later. Find i(t) for t > 0.
Calculate i for t = 2 s and t = 5 s.

3. Switch S1 in the circuit below is closed at t = 0, and switch S2 is closed at t = 2 s. Calculate

i(t) for all t . Find i(1) and i(3).

FIRST-ORDER OP AMP CIRCUITS

An op amp circuit containing a storage element will exhibit first-order behavior. Differentiators
and integrators are examples of first-order op amp circuits. Again, for practical reasons,
inductors are hardly ever used in op amp circuits; therefore, the op amp circuits we consider here
are of the RC type.

As usual, we analyze op amp circuits using nodal analysis. Sometimes, the Thevenin equivalent
circuit is used to reduce the op amp circuit to one that we can easily handle. The following three
examples illustrate the concepts. The first one deals with a source-free op amp circuit, while the
other two involve step responses. The three examples have been carefully selected to cover all
possible RC types of op amp circuits, depending on the location of the capacitor with respect to
the op amp; that is, the capacitor can be located in the input, the output, or the feedback loop.

EXAMPLE 4.6
1. For the op amp circuit in Fig. 4.21(a), find vo fort > 0, given that v(0) = 3 V. Rf = 80 kΩ,
R1 = 20 kΩ, and C = 5 μF.

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Figure 4.21. Op Amp circuit with input capacitor

SOLUTION
This problem can be solved in two ways:

METHOD 1
Consider the circuit in Fig. 4.21(a). Let us derive the appropriate differential equation using
nodal analysis. If v1 is the voltage at node 1, at that node, KCL gives

Since nodes 2 and 3 must be at the same potential, the potential at node 2 is zero. Thus, v1 − 0 =
v or v1 = v and the above Eq. becomes

The instantaneous voltage v ( t ) , can be

Where: V0 is the initial voltage across the capacitor. But v(0) = 3 = V0 and τ = 20 × 103 × 5 × 10−6
= 0.1. Hence,

Applying KCL at node 2 gives

Or

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Now we can find v0 as

METHOD 2
Let us now apply the short-cut method using the Eq. given below. We need to find vo(0+), vo(∞),
and τ . Since v(0+) = v(0−) = 3 V, we apply KCL at node 2 in the circuit of Fig. 4.21(b) to obtain

Or vo (0+) = 12 V. Since the circuit is source free, v (∞) = 0 V. To find τ, we need the equivalent
resistance Req across the capacitor terminals. If we remove the capacitor and replace it by a 1 A
current source, we have the circuit shown in Fig. 4.21(c). Applying KVL to the input loop yields

Then

And τ = ReqC = 0.1. Thus,

2. Determine v(t) and vo(t) in the circuit of Fig. 4.22.

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Figure 4.22. Op Amp circuit with capacitor as a feed back

SOLUTION
This problem can be solved in two ways, just like the previous example. However, we will apply
only the second method. Since what we are looking for is the step response,

What we need is to find the time constant τ, the initial value v(0), and the final value v(∞). Notice
that this applies strictly to the capacitor voltage due a step input. Since no current enters the input
terminals of the op amp, the elements on the feedback loop of the op amp constitute an RC
circuit, with

Fort < 0, the switch is open and there is no voltage across the capacitor. Hence, v(0) = 0. For t >
0, we obtain the voltage at node 1 by voltage division as

Since there is no storage element in the input loop, v1 remains constant for all t. At steady state,
the capacitor acts like an open circuit so that the op amp circuit is a non inverting amplifier.
Thus,

But

Substituting τ, v(0), and v(∞) into Eq. v(t) gives

From the above equations, we obtain

3. Find the step response vo(t) for t > 0 in the op amp circuit of Fig. 4.23. Let vi = 2u(t) V, R1 =
20 kΩ, Rf = 50 kΩ, R2 = R3 = 10 kΩ, C = 2 μF.

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Figure 4.23. Op Amp circuit with capacitor in the output side

SOLUTION
Again, we can solve this problem directly using nodal analysis. However, using the Thevenin
equivalent circuit may simplify the problem. We temporarily remove the capacitor and find the
Thevenin equivalent at its terminals. To obtain VTh, consider the circuit in Fig. 4.24(a). Since the
circuit is an inverting amplifier,

By voltage division,

Figure 4.24 Obtaining VTh and RTh across the capacitor in Fig. 4.23

To obtain RTh, consider the circuit in Fig. 4.24(b), where Ro is the output resistance of the op
amp. Since we are assuming an ideal op amp, Ro = 0, and

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Substituting the given numerical values,

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.25, the solution for v 0( t)

Where τ = RTh*C = 5×103 ×2×10−6 = 0.01. Thus, the step response for t > 0 is

Figure 4.25 Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.23

EXERCISE
1. Find v(t) and vo(t) in the op amp circuit of the following Fig.

2. Obtain the step response vo(t) for the circuit given below. Let vi = 2u(t) V, R1 = 20 kΩ,
Rf = 40 kΩ, R2 = R3 = 10 kΩ, C = 2 μF.

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SECOND-ORDER TRANSIENT CIRCUITS

Introduction

In the previous sub-topic, we considered circuits with a single storage element (a capacitor or an
inductor). Such circuits are first-order because the differential equations describing them are
first-order. In topic, we will consider circuits containing two storage elements. These are known
as second-order circuits because their responses are described by differential equations that
contain second derivatives.

Typical examples of second-order circuits are RLC circuits, in which the three kinds of passive
elements are present. Examples of such circuits are shown in Fig. 4.26(a) and (b). Other
examples are RC and RL circuits, as shown in Fig. 4.26(c) and (d). An op amp circuit with two
storage elements may also be a second-order circuit. As with first-order circuits, a second-order
circuit may contain several resistors and dependent and independent sources.

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Figure 4.26 Typical examples of second-order circuits: (a) series RLC circuit, (b) parallel RLC
circuit, (c) RL circuit, (d) RC circuit

FINDING INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES

Perhaps the major problem students’ face in handling second-order circuits is finding the initial
and final conditions on circuit variables. Students are usually comfortable getting the initial and
final values of v and i but often have difficulty finding the initial values of their derivatives:
dv/dt and di/dt. For this reason, this section is explicitly devoted to the subtleties of getting v(0),
i(0), dv(0)/dt , di(0)/dt , i(∞), and v(∞). Unless otherwise stated in this chapter, v denotes
capacitor voltage, while i is the inductor current.

There are two key points to keep in mind in determining the initial conditions.

First, as always in circuit analysis, we must carefully handle the polarity of voltage v(t) across
the capacitor and the direction of the current i(t) through the inductor. Keep in mind that v and i
are defined strictly according to the passive sign convention. One should carefully observe how
these are defined and apply them accordingly.

Second, keep in mind that the capacitor voltage is always continuous so that

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And the inductor current is always continuous so that

Where t = 0− denotes the time just before a switching event and t = 0+ is the time just after the
switching event, assuming that the switching event takes place at t = 0.

EXAMPLE 4.6
The switch in Fig. 4.27 has been closed for a long time. It is open at t = 0. Find: (a) i(0+), v(0+),
(b) di(0+)/dt , dv(0+)/dt , (c) i(∞), v(∞).

Figure 4.27 For Example 4.6

SOLUTION
(a) If the switch is closed a long time before t = 0, it means that the circuit has reached dc steady
state at t = 0. At dc steady state, the inductor acts like a short circuit, while the capacitor acts
like an open circuit, so we have the circuit in Fig. 4.28(a) at t = 0−. Thus,

Figure 4.28 Equivalent circuit of that in Fig. 4.27 for: (a) t = 0−, (b) t = 0+, (c) t →∞.

As the inductor current and the capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly,

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(b) At t = 0+, the switch is open; the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 4.28(b). The same
current flows through both the inductor and capacitor. Hence,

Since C dv/dt = iC, dv/dt = iC/C, and

Similarly, since L di/dt = vL, di/dt = vL/L. We now obtain vL by applying KVL to the loop in Fig.
4.28(b). The result is

Or

Thus

(c) Fort > 0, the circuit undergoes transience. But as t →∞, the circuit reaches steady state again.
The inductor acts like a short circuit and the capacitor like an open circuit, so that the circuit
becomes that shown in Fig. 4.28(c), from which we have

THE SOURCE-FREE SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

An understanding of the natural response of the series RLC circuit is a necessary background for
future studies in filter design and communications networks. Consider the series RLC circuit
shown in Fig. 4.29.

Figure 4.29 A source-free series RLC circuit

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The circuit is being excited by the energy initially stored in the capacitor and inductor. The
energy is represented by the initial capacitor voltage V0 and initial inductor current I0. Thus, at t
= 0,

Applying KVL around the loop in Fig. 4.29,

To eliminate the integral, we differentiate with respect to t and rearrange terms. We get

Eq.1
This is a second-order differential equation; our goal is to solve this equation

Or

From the first-order circuits we suggest that the solution is of exponential form. So we let

Where A and s are constants to be determined. Substituting the above Eq. into Eq. 1 and carrying
out the necessary differentiations, we obtain

Or

Since i = Aest is the assumed solution we are trying to find; only the expression in parentheses
can be zero:

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This quadratic equation is known as the characteristic equation of the second order differential
equation, since the roots of the equation dictate the character of i. The two roots of the above
equations are

A more compact way of expressing the roots is

Eq. 2
Where

The roots s1 and s2 are called natural frequencies, measured in nepers per second (Np/s), because
they are associated with the natural response of the circuit; ω0 is known as the resonant
frequency or strictly as the undamped natural frequency, expressed in radians per second (rad/s);
and α is the neper frequency or the damping factor, expressed in nepers per second. In terms of α
and ω0, the above equation can be written as

The two values of s indicate that there are two possible solutions for i, each of which is of the
form of the assumed solution; that is,

Thus, the natural response of the series RLC circuit is

Where the constants A1 and A2 are determined from the initial values i(0)and di(0)/dt. From Eq.
2, we can infer that there are three types of solutions:
1. If α > ω0, we have the over damped case.

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2. If α = ω0, we have the critically damped case.

3. If α < ω0, we have the under damped case.

We will consider each of these cases separately.

Over damped Case (α > ω0)

α > ω0 when C > 4L/R2. When this happens, both roots s1 and s2 are negative and real. The
response is

This decays and approaches zero as t increases. Figure 4.30(a) illustrates a typical over damped
response.

Critically Damped Case (α = ω0)

When α = ω0, C = 4L/R2 and

For this case, i ( t ) yields

A typical critically damped response is shown in Fig. 4.30(b).

Under damped Case (α < ω0)

For α < ω0, C < 4L/R2. The roots may be written as

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Where j=√ −1 and ω d= √ ω02−α 2. Both ω0 and ωd are natural frequencies because they help us
to determine the natural response; while ω0 is often called the undamped natural frequency, ωd is
called the damped natural frequency. The natural response is

Using Euler’s identities,

We get

Replacing constants (A1 + A2) and j (A1 − A2) with constants B1 and B2, we write

Figure 4.30(c) depicts a typical under damped response.

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Figure 4.30 (a) Over damped response, (b) critically damped response, (c) under damped
response.

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