LECTURE NOTES

IN

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 2
LECTURE NOTES

CHAPTER 10
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Definition of terms:

Alternating Current – same way as an alternating voltage.

Alternating voltage – an emf that varies in magnitude and direction
periodically.
Sine wave – a continuous curve of all the instantaneous values of
an AC current or voltage.
Waveform – a graphical picture of voltage or current variations
over a period of time.
Sinusoids – is a mathematical function of time, which may refer to
a sinusoidal voltage, current or signals.
AC Ampere – it is the current which, passing thru a resistance of
given ohmic value, produces heat at the same rate as a DC
ampere.
Cycle – a complete change in value and direction of an alternating
quantity.
Frequency (f) – no. of cycles per second in Hertz (Hz).
Angular frequency – it specifies how often the maxima occur.
Periodic time (T) – time taken to complete one cycle.

T = 1 / f seconds

Alternation – each positive or negative half of the cycle.

Instantaneous value – the value of alternating quantity at any
instant.
Maximum value – the maximum value attained during positive or
negative half cycle.
Average value – average of all the instantaneous values of half
cycle.
 Area under the curve
In general: Ave. value =
Base
For sine wave: Ave. value = (2 / ∏) x Max. value
= 0.637 x Max. value

Effective value – is that which when applied to a given circuit

for a given time produces the same expenditure of energy
as when dc is applied to the same circuit for the same
interval time.
- also called “ Root Mean Square “ RMS value.

Area under the square curve

In general: RMS value =
Base

For sine wave: RMS value = (1 / √ 2 ) x Max. value

= 0.707 x Max. value

Form factor = RMS value / Ave. value

= 1.11 (for sine wave)
Peak factor = Max. value / RMS value
= 1.414 (for sine wave)
Phase difference – the angular difference or angular displacement
between alternating quantities.
- also called “ phase angle “.
In Phase – if two alternating quantities attains their maximum and
minimum values at the same time.
Out of phase – does not attains their maximum and minimum values
at the same time.

*Generation of Alternating EMF’s

Three ways in developing a voltage in a coil of wire:
a. changing the flux thru the coil,
b. moving a coil thru a magnetic field so that flux cutting
results;
c. altering the direction of the flux with respect to the
coil.
In accordance with Faraday’s Law;
The voltage developed (in the first method) is called an
induced emf (e),
And;

e = (N dΦ / dt) x 10-8 volts

Where:
N = number of turns in the coil
dΦ / dt = the rate at which the flux, in
Maxwells, changes thru the coil

By the second or third method, the voltage developed is said

to be a generated emf (e) and is given by the equation:

e = Blv x 10-8 volts

Where:
B = flux density, lines per square inch
l = length of the wire, in.
v = velocity of the wire, in. per sec.

Conversion of units:

–8
1 Maxwell (Mx) = 1 x 10 Weber (Wb)
8
1 Weber = 1 x 10 Maxwells
1 line = 1 maxwell

Examples:

Prob. No. 01 / 291:

Calculate the average voltage induced in a coil of 300 turns
through which the flux changes from 250,000 to 20,000 maxwells in
0.15 sec?
Sinusoidal Alternating Voltages

+Em
+e
e = Em sin ωt

0 π 2π
-e

-Em

Fig. 1: A sinusoidal voltage wave

Instantaneous voltage equation:

e = Em sin ά volts

where: e = instantaneous voltage

Em = max. voltage
ά = ωt = 2Пft in rad
ω = angular frequency in rad per sec

Frequency and Electrical Degrees

Formula:

f = PN / 120 Hz
and;
Electrical Degrees = (P / 2) x Mechanical Degrees

Where: f = frequency, Hz
P = No. of poles
N = Speed in RPM
Example No. 01/277:
The maximum value of the sinusoidal voltage wave generated in
one coil of an alternator is 12 volts. How many electrical degrees
from the zero point in the cycle (increasing positively) will the
voltage be (a) +8.5 volts, (b) –8.5 volts?

Example No. 02/277:

An alternator has 6 poles. (a) At what speed must the machine
be driven to develop 60 cycles? (b) What frequency is developed if
the speed is 1,000 rpm? 1,600 rpm?
Supplementary Problems:

1. The instantaneous voltage from a 400-hz aircraft generator

is 95-V when t = 1 ms. What is the instantaneous voltage
when t = 2 ms?
2. If the instantaneous current drawn from a 50-hz source is
–263 mA when t = 0.013 s, what is the instantaneous current
when t = 0.017 s?
3. (a) What is the freq. of a 10-pole alternator when running
at 360 rpm?
(b) At what speeds should a 6-pole alternator run to yield
25, 30, 50, and 60 cycles per second?
4. (a) How many poles are required on an alternator which runs
at 300 rpm to develop 50 cycles per second?
(b) What is the mechanical angular velocity of the machine?
(c) What is the electrical angular velocity or the angular
frequency?
5. How many turns of wire are there in a coil in which 35.7
volts are induced when the flux thru it increases uniformly
at the rate of 3x106 maxwells per second?
* The Sinusoidal Alternating Currents

When a voltage that varies sinusoidally is impressed across

a resistor of constant ohmic value, the current will be directly
proportional to the emf at every instant of time.

In mathematical expression, it implies that;

i = e / R

But e = Em sin α

Therefore: i = Em sin α / R
= Im sin α
i = Im sin 2Пft

+Im
+i
i = Im sin ωt

0 π 2π
-i

-Im

Fig.: Sinusoidal voltage and current waves in phase with each other.
*The Alternating Current Ampere

To determine the RMS and average value of the current and voltage,
use the general formula:

Area under the square curve

RMS value =
Base

And;

Area under the curve

Ave. value =
Base

1. For Sine wave

RMS value = Max value / √ 2

Ave value = (2 x Max value) / П
Derivation:

a. For the RMS value of current and voltage

That is:

Irns = Im / √ 2 ; ERms = Em+ / √ 2

 b) For the Average value of the voltage and current

That is:

Iave = 2Im / П ; Eave = 2Em / П

 2. For Triangular wave

RMS value = Max value / √ 3

Ave value = Em / 2

Derivation:

a. For IRms = Im / √ 3 and ERms = Em / √ 3

b. For Iave+ = Im / 2 and Eave = Em / 2

 3. Square wave or Rectangular wave

RMS value = Ave value = Max value

Derivation:

a. For Irms = Iave = Imax and Erms = Eave = Emax

Ex. No. 05/281
A sinusoidal voltage wave having an effective value of 120
volts is impressed across a 50-ohm resistor. Calculate the rms and
maximum values of the current.

Prob. No 09/291
Calculate the effective currents in circuits in which the
maximum values of the sinusoidal current waves are 8.4 Amp. 22.8
Amp, 65 mAmp.
Supplementary Problems:

1. What will the equation for 50-cycles current sine wave having
rms value of 20 amp?
a. i = 20 sin25πt c. i = 28.3 sin100πt
b. i = 20 sin50πt d. i = 28.3 sin50πt

2. A wire carries a current i = 3 cos314t amperes. What is the

average current over 6 second? (B.P. Apr. ’97)
a. Zero ampere c. 3.0 A
b. 1.5 A d. 0.532 A

3. The rms value of a half-wave rectified sine wave is 100 amp.

The value for full wave rectification would be _____ amperes?
a. 141.4 b. 200 c. 200/π d. 40/π

4. Select the wave that has the least value of form factor.
a. square wave
b. half-wave rectified sine wave
c. triangular wave
d. sine wave
Summation of In-Phase Sinusoidal Waves
When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are in
phase and have the same frequency they may be added to yield a
sine wave of the same frequency. The resultant wave will then have
a maximum value that is equal to the arithmetical sum of the
maximum values of the component waves.
+Em1

e1 = Em1 sin ωt
+Em2
e2 = Em2 sin ωt

0 Π 2Π

Fig.: Shows the summation of two in-phase sinusoidal waves of

current of the same frequency.
Formula:

For the resultant of the maximum values of currents and voltages:

EmR = Em1 + Em2 + Em3 + ……
And
ImR = Im1 + Im2 + Im3 + ……
For the resultant of the RMS values of the current and voltages:
ER = E1 + E2 + E3 + ……
And
IR = I1 + I2 + I3 + ……

Ex. No. 06/283

Three resistors having ohmic values that are, respectively,
9, 12.5, and 16 ohms are connected in series to a sinusoidal source
of emf whose effective voltage is 120. Calculate the current thru
the circuit and the voltage drops across the individual resistors.
Summation of Out-of-Phase Sinusoidal Waves
When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are out-
of-phase but have the same frequency, they may be added to yield
a sine wave of the same frequency.

e1 = Em1 sin ωt
e2 = Em2 sin ωt

0 Π/2 Π 2Π

Fig.: Show the summation of two out-of-phase sinusoidal waves of

voltage of the same frequency.

From the figure, the following formula may be used to

determine the magnitude of the resultant of the two sinusoidal
waves.

R = √ (A + B cosθ)2 + (B sinθ)2

Where:
A and B = rms values of component waves
θ = angular displacement between A and B, elec deg.
R = Rms value of the resultant waves
Ex. No. 08/285
Two units, connected in parallel, are energized by an ac
source. If the component currents are 12 and 16 amp, respectively,
and the corresponding sinusoidal waves are out of phase by 60 elec
deg, calculate the rms value of the total current.
Voltage and Current as Phasors

Fig.: Shows the geometrical sum of two phasors that are out-of-
phase with each other.

From the fig., considering I1 as reference phasor, the angle

ßo may be determined by using the formula:

Cos ß = (I1 + I2 cos θ) / IR

Ex. No. 09/287
The voltage drops across two series connected units A and B
are 60 and 90 volts, respectively. Assuming EA to be the reference
phasor, calculate the resultant voltage and the angle it makes
with the x-axis reference (a) if EB lags behind EA by 90o, (b) if
EB leads EA by 60o.

Prob. No. 20/292

The ff. information is given in connection with an ac source
that delivers current to three loads in parallel: IA = 20 Amp; IB
= 12 Amp and lags behind IA by 30 elec deg; IC = 32 Amp and leads
LA by 60 elec deg. Using IA as the reference phasor, determine the
resultant current and the angle between it and IA.
Supplementary Problems:

1. Two electric units are connected across a source whose

frequency is 50 cps. If the rms values of the voltage drops
across the units are 115 and 90 volts and they are out of
phase by 90 elec deg, what is the equation of the voltage
across the source?

2. Three types of electric devices A, B, and C are connected in

series across a 115-volt ac source, and the voltage drops
across the individual units are equal. If EB leads EA by 90
elec deg and EC lags behind EA by 90 elec deg, what are the
emfs across A, B, and C?

3. The equations of the currents in two parallel-connected

electric devices are i1 = 11.3 sin (377t + /4) and i2 = 8.5
sin (377t - /4). What is the rms value of the resultant
current?

4. Two electric devices A and B are connected in parallel, and

the rms current in A is 15amp. If the current in B lags
behind A by /3 radians and the line current is 23.4 amp,
determine the current in B.

5. Two loads are connected in parallel to an ac source and take

currents of 10 and 40 amp, respectively. If the sinusoidal
waves of the component currents are out of phase by 30 elec
deg, calculate the resultant current.