NENI WINARTI - SPEECH ACTS (Due 27 Nov)

NAMA : NENI WINARTI
NPM : 20168100039
MATKUL : SEMANTICS
“SPEECH ACTS”
A. The form of sentences and the purpose of utterances

 Sentences classification based on the forms: declarative/statement (for telling
something), imperative/question (for ask question), and
interrogative/command (for request action).
 Statements typically have subject, verb and then perhaps an object, a complement
and/or an adverbial phrase: eg. A window broke, Tom broke a window, Denise put
marmalade on her toast.
 Affirmative commands begin with the verb, which does not change; negative
commands begin with do not plus the verb. The subject, if a subject is present, may
be you or everybody, somebody, nobody: eg. Close the door, please, nobody move,
everybody wait here etc.
 The different types of questions are distinguished on the basis of the marker(s)
present.
1. One kind of question has the word order of a statement but is spoken with a
rising tune instead of a falling one. This type of question has yes and no answer,
such as: This is a joke?
2. A more common sort of question is made with inversion—putting an operator in
first place. An operator (a form of be or have or one of the modal verbs
can/could, will/would, shall/should, may/might, must, ought, dare or need),
which follows the subject in a statement, .precedes the statement in a question.
This is also has yes or no answer: eg. Are you leaving now?
3. A similar but different way of asking the same thing is to make a statement and
attach a tag question. There are two different intonations possible: rising tune is
used when the speaker is really seeking information, and a falling tune suggests
that the speaker merely wants confirmation of what he or she believes. Such as:
This is a joke, isn’t it?
4. The next type of question has inverted word order but it cannot be answered
simply “Yes” or “No.” The marker is the word or. Such as: Would you like
coffee or tea?
5. The next questions have a question word (or ‘WH-word’) but are also marked
by rising intonation. Eg. When are you leaving?, Where did she leave it?
6. Questions that have a question word and do not have a rising intonation (at least
not on the question word) ask for new information, not for repetition or
confirmation. Eg. Who found the money? , How many people came? , Why are
you leaving?
B. ANALYSIS SPEECH ACT

 Speech Acts=Doing thing with language.
 In every speech act we can distinguish three things, following Austin (1962)
1. Locutionary act: The act of performing words into utterances that make
sense in a language with correct grammar and pronunciation.
2. Illocutionary act: Intended communication action by the speaker, bound to
certain conventions.
3. Perlocutionary act: The effect that an utterance has on the thoughts,
feelings or attitudes of the listener.
C. SEVEN KINDS OF SPEECH ACTS
1. Assertive utterances
Kreidler (1998:183) states that in the assertive function speakers and writers
use language to tell what they know or believe; assertive language is
concerned with facts. The purpose is to inform. This is language concerned
with knowledge, with cognition. It deals with data, what exists or existed,
what is happening or has happened. So assertive utterances are either true or
false, and generally they can be verified or falsified.
Ex: I voted for Aaronson in the last election.
Most plastics are made from soy beans.
Cape Ann Lighthouse is a mile from the beach.
Assertive utterance devided into two, there are direct and indirect assertive.
Direct assertive utterance start with I or we and an assertive verb.
Indirect assertive utterances also include assertive verbs. Assertive verb
include allege, announce, agree, report, remind, predict, protest.
2. Performative utterances.
Speech acts that bring about the state of affairs they name are called
performative. Performative utterances are valid if spoken by someone whose
right to make them is accepted and in circumstances which are accepted as
appropriate. The verbs include bet, declare, baptize, name, nominate,
pronounce.
Ex: I bid three no-trump.
We accept your offer.
I declare this meeting adjourned.
Naturally there are strong limitations on what can be a performative utterance.
First, the subject of the sentence must be I or we; “He declares this meeting
adjourned” is not a performative utterance, as the term is used here. However,
we need to distinguish between explicit and implicit performatives. “I declare
this meeting adjourned” is an explicit performative; “This meeting is
adjourned,” if spoken by the same person, is an implicit one. Second, the verb
must be in the present tense. And, perhaps most important, the speaker must
be recognized as having the authority to make the statement and the
circumstances must be appropriate. “I pronounce you man and wife” and “I
declare this a mistrial” are valid only if spoken by an appropriate person in
socially determined situations. Thus many performatives take place in formal
settings and are concerned with official acts.
3. Verdictive utterances
Verdictives are speech acts in which the speaker makes an assessment or

judgement about the acts of another, usually the addressee. These include
ranking, assessing, appraising, condoning. Verdictive verbs include accuse,
charge, excuse, thank in the explicit frame I.... you of/for .....-ing. Since these
utterances present the speaker’s assessment of the addressee’s previous
action(s) or of what has befallen the addressee, they are retrospective.
Ex :I accuse you of putting on airs.
I congratulate you for performing so well.
4. Expressive utterances
Whereas a verdictive utterance is about what the addressee has previously
done, an expressive utterance springs from the previous actions—or failure to
act—of the speaker, or perhaps the present result of those actions or failures.
Expressive utterances are thus retrospective and speaker-involved. The most
common expressive verbs (in this sense of ‘expressive’) are: acknowledge,
admit, confess, deny, apologize.
Ex: We admit that we were mistaken.

I apologize for having disturbed you.
5. Directive Utterances
Directive utterances are those in which the speaker tries to get the addressee to
perform some act or refrain from performing an act. Thus a directive utterance
has the pronoun you as actor, whether that word is actually present in the
utterance or not.
A directive utterance is prospective; one cannot tell other people to do
something in the past. Like other kinds of utterances, a directive utterance
presupposes certain conditions in the addressee and in the context of situation.
The utterance “Lift this 500-pound weight” is not felicitous if spoken to a
person incapable of lifting 500 pounds, and “Close the door” is vapid if the
only door in the vicinity is already closed. When the utterance can be carried
out, the utterance is felicitous, and if not, it is infelicitous.
Three kinds of directive utterances can be recognized: commands, requests
and suggestions. A command is effective only if the speaker has some degree
of control over the actions of the addressee. A request is an expression of what
the speaker wants the addressee to do or refrain from doing. A request does
not assume the speaker’s control over the person addressed. Suggestions are
the utterances we make to other persons to give our opinions as to what they
should or should not do.
6. Commissive utterances
Speech acts that commit a speaker to a course of action are called commissive

utterances. These include promises, pledges, threats and vows. Commissive
verbs are illustrated by agree, ask, offer, refuse, swear, all with following
infinitives. They are prospective and concerned with the speaker’s
commitment to future action.
A commissive predicate is one that can be used to commit oneself (or refuse to
commit oneself) to some future action. The subject of the sentence is therefore
most likely to be I or we. Further, the verb must be in the present tense and
there is some addressee, whether the utterance shows it or not, since the
speaker must be making a commitment to somebody.
7. Phatic utterances
Phatic utterance is to establish rapport between members of the same society.
Phatic language has a less obvious function than the six types discussed above
but it is no less important. Phatic utterances include greetings, farewells, polite
formulas such as “Thank you,” “You’re welcome,” “Excuse me” when these
are not really verdictive or expressive.

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NAMA : NENI WINARTI

A. The form of sentences and the purpose of utterances

B. ANALYSIS SPEECH ACT

Verdictives are speech acts in which the speaker makes an assessment or

Ex: We admit that we were mistaken.

Speech acts that commit a speaker to a course of action are called commissive

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