ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks and deep gratitude to all
those people who extended their whole hearted co-operation and have helped
me in completing this project successfully.
First of all, I would like to thank Mr. R. S. Chauhan (Sr Manager, PPC), for
giving me an opportunity to do my training in this prestigious organization. I’d
also like to express my sincere gratitude towards Mr. Lakshman Singh (Asstt.
General Manager, PPC) , Mr. Sumit Joshi (Engineer, PPC) for their
guidance & help which enabled me to get the required data & information
required to finish my assignments Their inspiring suggestions and timely
guidance enabled me to perceive the various aspects of the projects in a new
light.

I would also like to thank all senior members and workers for having guided
and encouraged me throughout the duration of the project. In all I found a
congenial work environment in HBL Power Systems Ltd. and the completion of
the projects will mark a new beginning for me in the coming days .
 PROJECT SUMMARY

This report presents an overview of battery technology commonly used in

stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) systems.

Details are provided about the common types of flooded lead-acid,

valve regulated lead-acid, and nickel-cadmium cells used in PV
systems, including their design and construction, electrochemistry
and operational performance characteristics. Comparisons are given
for various battery technologies, and considerations for battery
subsystem design, auxiliary systems, maintenance and safety are
discussed.

Requirements for battery charge control in stand-alone PV systems are

covered, including details about the various switching designs,
algorithms, and operational characteristics. Daily operational profiles
are presented for different types of battery charge controllers, providing
an in-depth look at how these controllers regulate and limit battery
overcharge in PV systems.
 HBL POWER SYSTEMS LTD.

ABOUT THE COMPANY

HBL Power Systems Ltd is the pioneer in the Design, development and
manufacture of specialized batteries and DC systems in India. With over 3
decades of experience in this field, the company offers a wide range of
batteries and associated electronics providing its customers, custom built
solutions to meet critical requirements

The Group's principal activity is to manufacture and supply industrial

batteries and power electronics for use in defence, telecom and industrial
applications. It's products include lead acid batteries, nickel cadmium
batteries, silver zinc and other silver based batteries, silver zinc batteries,
power electronic rectifiers, uninterrupted power supply systems, perforated
steel strip, lithium batteries and battery materials. The Group's plants are
located at Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Haryana.
 VISION

To organize India’s engineering talent into a globally competitive business,

whether in manufacturing or in services. Our choice is for businesses with
technological barriers and / or engineering intensity. Our location at
Hyderabad makes this vision feasible, because Hyderabad has India’s largest
cluster of scientific and technical training institution providing high caliber
Human Resources.

 HBL is an acknowledged leader in the field of specialized batteries and

DC power systems in India. The company is a result of a merger in 1999
between Hyderabad Batteries Limited(1977) and Sab Nife Power Systems
Limited(1986). The company is located in Hyderabad, India.

 The product focus on batteries and electronics and consumer focus on

the five sectors gives HBL an opportunity to meet diverse consumer
needs.

 HBL is listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange and on the National Stock
Exchange.
 R
IA
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VIA
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DELEC
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SECT N
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INFRASTRUCTURE
MARKETS

 HBL has in – house manufacturing facilities that include many items

normally outsourced by manufacturers.
C
K
S
W
L
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V
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 Contrary to conventional wisdom, company policy has been to vertically
integrate, to ensure quality.

Examples – Electroplating, plastic moulding, precision fabrication of

steel cabinets, production of PCBs.

 The company has a comprehensive network of sales offices in major

cities of India and a nationwide service network of over 100 locations.

EXPORTS

About 15% of total net sales are exported to Europe, USA, The Gulf, China, SE
Asia and many other countries.

HBL has been exporting NiCad Passenger Aircraft Batteries to USA and CIS,
apart from other markets stands 3rd globally. In industrial alkaline batteries,
HBL has many prestigious consumers and stands 2 nd globally.
DIFFERENT PLANT LOCATIONS OF HBL POWER SYSTEMS
LTD.
STRATEGY

 Focus on technology intensive products

 Emphasis on in – house R & D for technology development

 Expansion through strategic alliances

 Focus on a defined consumer base.

WORK CULTURE AND VALUES

HBL VALUES

 FAIRNESS TO ALL

 INNOVATIVE SPIRIT

 CRAFTSMANSHIP

 ENTERPRENUIRIAL OPPORTUNISM

 DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIUALS

 HARMONIOUS CO – EXISTANCE
IN – HOUSE FACILITIES

 PLASTIC MOULDING DIVISION

 MACHINE SHOP

 NICKEL, LEAD AND SILVER PLATING

 PAINTSHOP AND FABRICATION

 BATTERY ACTIVE MATERIAL DIVISION

 OXIDE PLANTS

 STRIP PUNCHING

 BATTERY RECYCLING UNITS

 STATE OF THE ART ELECTRONICS FACILITY

 CLASS 10,000 CLEAN ROOM

 FULLY INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING FACILITIES

APPROVALS AND CERTIFICATES

 ISO 9001, 14001 CERTIFIED

 VIBRATION & SHOCK TESTED & CERTIFIED

 SEISMIC QUALIFIED

 TESTED AND CERTIFIED BY ETL AGAINST RELEVANT IEC

STANDARDS
SUPPORT FACILITES OFFERED BY HBL
QUALITY POLICY

To increase consumer satisfaction through continuous improvement of

products and services, this is achieved by following –

The factory is essentially a mix of man, materials, machines and methods. These
should move continuously and effectively to produce a quality product at low cost.
The most essential work in quality control is to thoroughly investigate regarding the
problems concerning quality, decide suitable counter measures and carry out
improvements accordingly.

 MAN
 MACHINE
 MATERIAL
 METHODS
ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

hbl has believed, since the very beginning that it is its employees who could

make it into an organization with a difference .Accordingly, as against the

traditional hierarchical System of management, which causes unnecessary

delays in decision-making, we have built up a flat organization with a family

type of atmosphere at our place of work.

The company is divided into different divisions according to the various

functional areas. A Divisional Manager heads each Division. Divisions are

further divided into Departments that are headed by Department Managers

who report to the respective Divisional Managers. Designations in the

company are based on the functional responsibility and not levels as in terms

of the company’s philosophy designations and functional responsibility are de-

linked from the salary levels.

The total operations of the Company are divided into Divisions like Marketing

& Sales, Engineering, Q.A. & Services, Production, Production Engineering,

Materials, Information Services, Finance, Personnel & Administration, etc.

Each division is furthering divided into Departments and headed by

Departmental Managers who is assisted by Supervisory Executives.

YBFH
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HIERARCY OF HBL POWER SYSTEMS LTD
 INTRODUCTION

This report presents fundamentals of battery technology commonly used in stand-alone

photovoltaic (PV) systems. This work is a compilation of information from several sources,
including PV system design manuals, research reports and data from component
manufacturers.

Details are provided about the common types of flooded lead-acid, valve regulated
lead-acid, and nickel-cadmium cells used in PV systems, including their design and
construction, electrochemistry and operational performance characteristics.
Comparisons are given for various battery technologies, and considerations for
battery subsystem design, auxiliary systems, maintenance and safety are discussed.

Purpose

This work was done to address a significant need within the PV industry
regarding the application of batteries in stand-alone systems. Some of the more
critical issues are listed in the following.

 Premature failure and lifetime prediction of batteries are major concerns within the PV
industry.

 Batteries experience a wide range of operational conditions in PV applications,

including varying rates of charge and discharge, frequency and depth of discharges,
temperature fluctuations, and the methods and limits of charge regulation. These
variables make it very difficult to accurately predict battery performance and lifetime
in PV systems.

 Battery performance in PV systems can be attributed to both battery design and PV

system operational factors. A battery which is not designed and constructed for the
operational conditions experienced in a PV system will almost certainly fail
prematurely. Just the same, abusive operational conditions and lack of proper
maintenance will result in failure of even the more durable and robust deep-cycle
batteries.

 Battery manufacturers’ specifications often do not provide sufficient information for

PV applications. The performance data presented by battery manufacturers is
typically based on tests conducted at specified, constant conditions and is often not
representative of battery operation in actual PV systems.

.
Scope and Objectives
 Following are some of the more important questions and issues addressed in this
report.

 What are the basic battery types and classifications?

 What are the primary differences in the design and operational characteristics of
different battery types?

 What are the principal mechanisms affecting battery failure and what are the common
failure modes?

 What operation and maintenance procedures are needed to maintain battery

performance and extend lifetime?

 Should pre-charging of batteries be done prior to their installation in PV systems?

 What are the consequences of undercharging and overcharging for various battery
types?

 How should a battery subsystem be electrically designed in a PV system for optimal

performance and safety?
 BATTERY TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW

To properly select batteries for use in stand-alone PV systems, it is important that system
designers have a good understanding of their design features, performance characteristics
and operational requirements. The information in the following sections is intended as a
review of basic battery characteristics and terminology as is commonly used in the design
and application of batteries in PV systems.

Batteries in PV Systems

1. In stand-alone photovoltaic systems, the electrical energy produced by the PV array

can not always be used when it is produced. Because the demand for energy does
not always coincide with its production, electrical storage batteries are commonly
used in PV systems. The primary functions of a storage battery in a PV system are
to:

2. Energy Storage Capacity and Autonomy: to store electrical energy when it is

produced by the PV array and to supply energy to electrical loads as needed or on
demand.

3. Voltage and Current Stabilization: to supply power to electrical loads at stable

voltages and currents, by suppressing or 'smoothing out' transients that may occur in
PV systems.

4. Supply Surge Currents: to supply surge or high peak operating currents to electrical
loads or appliances.

Battery Design and Construction

Battery manufacturing is an intensive, heavy industrial process involving the use of
hazardous and toxic materials. Batteries are generally mass produced, combining several
sequential and parallel processes to construct a complete battery unit. After production,
initial charge and discharge cycles are conducted on batteries before they are shipped to
distributors and consumers.

Some important components of battery construction are described below.

Cell: The cell is the basic electrochemical unit in a battery, consisting of a set of positive
and negative plates divided by separators, immersed in an electrolyte solution and
enclosed in a case. In a typical lead-acid battery, each cell has a nominal voltage of about
2.1 volts, so there are 6 series cells in a nominal 12 volt battery. Figure 1 shows a diagram
of a basic lead-acid battery cell.

Active Material: The active materials in a battery are the raw composition materials that
form the positive and negative plates, and are reactants in the electrochemical cell. The
amount of active material in a battery is proportional to the capacity a battery can deliver.
Electrolyte: The electrolyte is a conducting medium which allows the flow of current
through ionic transfer, or the transfer of electrons between the plates in a battery. In a lead-
acid battery, the electrolyte is a diluted sulfuric acid solution, either in liquid (flooded) form,
gelled or absorbed in glass mats. In flooded nickel-cadmium cells, the electrolyte is an
alkaline solution of potassium hydroxide and water. In most flooded battery types, periodic
water additions are required to replenish the electrolyte lost through gassing. When adding
water to batteries, it is very important to use distilled or de-mineralized water, as even the
impurities in normal tap water can poison the battery and result in premature failure.

Grid: In a lead-acid battery, the grid is typically a lead alloy framework that supports the
active material on a battery plate, and which also conducts current. Alloying elements such
as antimony and calcium are often used to strengthen the lead grids, and have
characteristic effects on battery performance such as cycle performance and gassing tubular
plates.
Plate: A plate is a basic battery component, consisting of a grid and active material,
sometimes called an electrode. There are generally a number of positive and negative plates
in each battery cell, typically connected in parallel at a bus bar or inter-cell connector at the
top of the plates. A pasted plate is manufactured by applying a mixture of lead oxide, sulfuric
acid, fibers and water on to the grid. The thickness of the grid and plate affect the deep cycle
performance of a battery. In automotive starting or SLI type batteries, many thin plates are
used per cell. This results in maximum surface area for delivering high currents, but not
much thickness and mechanical durability for deep and prolonged discharges. Thick plates
are used for deep cycling applications such as for forklifts, golf carts and other electric
vehicles. The thick plates permit deep discharges over long periods, while maintaining good
adhesion of the active material to the grid, resulting in longer life.

Separator: A separator is a porous, insulating divider between the positive and negative
plates in a battery, used to keep the plates from coming into electrical contact and short-
circuiting, and which also allows the flow of electrolyte and ions between the positive and
negative plates. Separators are made from micro-porous rubber, plastic or glass-wool mats.
In some cases, the separators may be like an envelope, enclosing the entire plate and
preventing shed materials from creating short circuits at the bottom of the plates.

Element: In element is defined as a stack of positive and negative plate groups and
separators, assembled together with plate straps interconnecting the positive and negative
plates.

Terminal Posts: Terminal posts are the external positive and negative electrical connections
to a battery. A battery is connected in a PV system and to electrical loads at the terminal
posts. In a lead-acid battery the posts are generally lead or a lead alloy, or possibly stainless
steel or copper-plated steel for greater corrosion resistance

Cell Vents: During battery charging, gasses are produced within a battery that may be
vented to the atmosphere. In flooded designs, the loss of electrolyte through gas escape from
the cell vents it a normal occurrence, and requires the periodic addition of water to maintain
proper electrolyte levels. In sealed, or valve-regulated batteries, the vents are designed with
a pressure relief mechanism, remaining closed under normal conditions, but opening during
higher than normal battery pressures, often the result of overcharging or high temperature
operation. Each cell of a complete battery unit has some type of cell vent.

Case: Commonly made from a hard rubber or plastic, the case contains the plates,
separators and electrolyte in a battery. The case is typically enclosed, with the exception of
inter-cell connectors which attach the plate assembly from one cell to the next, terminal
posts, and vents or caps which allow gassing products to escape and to permit water
additions if required.
Battery Types and Classifications
Many types and classifications of batteries are manufactured today, each with specific
design and performance characteristics suited for particular applications. Each battery type
or design has its individual strengths and weaknesses. In PV systems, lead-acid batteries
are most common due to their wide availability in many sizes, low cost and well understood
performance characteristics. In a few critical, low temperature applications nickel-cadmium
cells are used, but their high initial cost limits their use in most PV systems. There is no
“perfect battery” and it is the task of the PV system designer to decide which battery type is
most appropriate for each application.

In general, electrical storage batteries can be divided into to major categories, primary
and secondary batteries.

Primary Batteries

Primary batteries can store and deliver electrical energy, but can not be recharged. Typical
carbon-zinc and lithium batteries commonly used in consumer electronic devices are
primary batteries. Primary batteries are not used in PV systems because they can not be
recharged.

Secondary Batteries

A secondary battery can store and deliver electrical energy, and can also be recharged by
passing a current through it in an opposite direction to the discharge current. Common lead-
acid batteries used in automobiles and PV systems are secondary batteries. Table 1 lists
common secondary battery types and their characteristics which are of importance to PV
system designers. A detailed discussion of each battery type follows.
Lead-Acid Battery Classifications
Many types of lead-acid batteries are used in PV systems, each having specific design and
performance characteristics. While there are many variations in the design and
performance of lead-acid cells, they are often classified in terms of one of the following three
categories.

SLI Batteries

Starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) batteries are a type of lead-acid battery designed
primarily for shallow cycle service, most often used to power automobile starters. These
batteries have a number of thin positive and negative plates per cell, designed to increase the
total plate active surface area. The large number of plates per cell allows the battery to
deliver high discharge currents for short periods. While they are not designed for long life
under deep cycle service, SLI batteries are sometimes used for PV systems in developing
countries where they are the only type of battery locally manufactured. Although not
recommended for most PV applications, SLI batteries may provide up to two years of useful
service in small stand-alone PV systems where the average daily depth of discharge is limited
to 10-20%, and the maximum allowable depth of discharge is limited to 40-60%.

Motive Power or Traction Batteries

Motive power or traction batteries are a type of lead acid battery designed for deep discharge
cycle service, typically used in electrically operated vehicles and equipment such as golf
carts, fork lifts and floor sweepers. These batteries have a fewer number of plates per cell
than SLI batteries, however the plates are much thicker and constructed more durably.
High content lead-antimony grids are primarily used in motive power batteries to enhance
deep cycle performance. Traction or motive power batteries are very popular for use in PV
systems due to their deep cycle capability, long life and durability of design.

Stationary Batteries

Stationary batteries are commonly used in un-interruptible power supplies (UPS) to provide
backup power to computers, telephone equipment and other critical loads or devices.
Stationary batteries may have characteristics similar to both SLI and motive power batteries,
but are generally designed for occasional deep discharge, limited cycle service. Low water
loss lead-calcium battery designs are used for most stationary battery applications, as they
are commonly float charged continuously.
 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
There are several types of lead-acid batteries manufactured. The following sections
describe the types of lead-acid batteries commonly used in PV systems.

Lead-Antimony Batteries

Lead-antimony batteries are a type of lead-acid battery which use antimony (Sb) as the
primary alloying element with lead in the plate grids. The use of lead-antimony alloys in the
grids has both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include providing greater
mechanical strength than pure lead grids, and excellent deep discharge and high discharge
rate performance. Lead-antimony grids also limit the shedding of active material and have
better lifetime than lead-calcium batteries when operated at higher temperatures.
Disadvantages of lead-antimony batteries are a high self-discharge rate, and as the result
of necessary overcharge, require frequent water additions depending on the temperature
and amount of overcharge.

Most lead-antimony batteries are flooded, open vent types with removable caps to permit water
additions. They are well suited to application in PV systems due to their deep cycle capability
and ability to take abuse, however they do require periodic water additions. The frequency of
water additions can be minimized by the use of catalytic recombination caps or battery designs
with excess electrolyte reservoirs. The health of flooded, open vent lead-antimony batteries can
be easily checked by measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte with a hydrometer.

Lead-Calcium Batteries

Lead-calcium batteries are a type of lead-acid battery which use calcium (Ca) as the primary
alloying element with lead in the plate grids. Like lead-antimony, the use of lead-calcium alloys
in the grids has both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include providing greater
mechanical strength than pure lead grids, a low self-discharge rate, and reduced gassing
resulting in lower water loss and lower maintenance requirements than for lead-antimony
batteries. Disadvantages of lead-calcium batteries include poor charge acceptance after deep
discharges and shortened battery life at higher operating temperatures and if discharged to
greater than 25% depth of discharge repeatedly.

Flooded Lead-Calcium, Open Vent

Often classified as stationary batteries, these batteries are typically supplied as individual 2
volt cells in capacity ranges up to and over 1000 ampere-hours. Flooded lead-calcium batteries
have the advantages of low self discharge and low water loss, and may last as long as 20 years
in stand-by or float service. In PV applications, these batteries usually experience short
lifetimes due to sulfation and stratification of the electrolyte unless they are charged properly.
Flooded Lead-Calcium, Sealed Vent

Primarily developed as 'maintenance free' automotive starting batteries, the capacity for
these batteries is typically in the range of 50 to 120 ampere-hours, in a nominal 12 volt unit.
Like all lead-calcium designs, they are intolerant of overcharging, high operating
temperatures and deep discharge cycles. They are “maintenance free” in the sense that you
do not add water, but they are also limited by the fact that you can not add water which
generally limits their useful life. This battery design incorporates sufficient reserve electrolyte
to operate over its typical service life without water additions. These batteries are often
employed in small stand-alone PV systems such as in rural homes and lighting systems, but
must be carefully charged to achieve maximum performance and life. While they are low
cost, they are really designed for shallow cycling, and will generally have a short life in most
PV applications

An example of this type of battery that is widely produced throughout the world is the Delco
2000. It is relatively low cost and suitable for unsophisticated users that might not properly
maintain their battery water level. However, it is really a modified SLI battery, with many
thin plates, and will only provide a couple years of useful service in most PV systems.

Lead-Antimony/Lead-Calcium Hybrid

These are typically flooded batteries, with capacity ratings of over 200 ampere-hours. A
common design for this battery type uses lead-calcium tubular positive electrodes and
pasted lead-antimony negative plates. This design combines the advantages of both lead-
calcium and lead-antimony design, including good deep cycle performance, low water loss
and long life. Stratification and sulfation can also be a problem with these batteries, and
must be treated accordingly. These batteries are sometimes used in PV systems with larger
capacity and deep cycle requirements. A common hybrid battery using tubular plates is the
Exide Solar battery line manufactured in the United States.

Captive Electrolyte Lead-Acid Batteries

Captive electrolyte batteries are another type of lead-acid battery, and as the name implies,
the electrolyte is immobilized in some manner and the battery is sealed under normal
operating conditions. Under excessive overcharge, the normally sealed vents open under
gas pressure. Often captive electrolyte batteries are referred to as valve regulated lead acid
(VRLA) batteries, noting the pressure regulating mechanisms on the cell vents. Electrolyte
can not be replenished in these battery designs, therefore they are intolerant of excessive
overcharge. Captive electrolyte lead-acid batteries are popular for PV applications because
they are spill proof and easily transported, and they require no water additions making
them ideal for remote applications were maintenance is infrequent or unavailable. However,
a common failure mode for these batteries in PV systems is excessive overcharge and loss
of electrolyte, which is accelerated in warm climates. For this reason, it is essential that the
battery charge controller regulation set points are adjusted properly to prevent
overcharging.
This battery technology is very sensitive to charging methods, regulation voltage and
temperature extremes.
Optimal charge regulation voltages for captive electrolyte batteries varies between designs,
so it is necessary to follow manufacturers recommendations when available. When no
information is available, the charge regulation voltage should be limited to no more than
14.2 volts at 25 oC for nominal 12 volt batteries. The recommended charging algorithm is
constant-voltage, with temperature compensation of the regulation voltage required to
prevent overcharge.

A benefit of captive or immobilized electrolyte designs is that they are less susceptible to
freezing compared to flooded batteries. Typically, lead-calcium grids are used in captive
electrolyte batteries to minimize gassing, however some designs use lead-antimony/calcium
hybrid grids to gain some of the favorable advantages of lead-antimony batteries.

In the United States, about one half of the small remote PV systems being installed use
captive electrolyte, or sealed batteries. The two most common captive electrolyte batteries
are the gelled electrolyte and absorbed glass mat designs.

Gelled Batteries

Initially designed for electronic instruments and consumer devices, gelled lead-acid batteries
typically use lead-calcium grids. The electrolyte is 'gelled' by the addition of silicon dioxide
to the electrolyte, which is then added to the battery in a warm liquid form and gels as it
cools. Gelled batteries use an internal recombinant process to limit gas escape from the
battery, reducing water loss. Cracks and voids develop within the gelled electrolyte during
the first few cycles, providing paths for gas transport between the positive and negative
Absorbed
plates, Glass Mat
facilitating (AGM) Batteries
the recombinant process.

Another sealed, or valve regulated lead-acid battery, the electrolyte in an AGM battery is
absorbed in glass mats which are sandwiched in layers between the plates. However, the
electrolyte is not gelled. Similar in other respects to gelled batteries, AGM batteries are also
intolerant to overcharge and high operating temperatures. Recommended charge regulation
methods stated above for gelled batteries also apply to AGMs. A key feature of AGM batteries
is the phenomenon of internal gas recombination. As a charging lead-acid battery nears full
state of charge, hydrogen and oxygen gasses are produced by the reactions at the negative
and positive plates, respectively.. In an AGM battery the excellent ion transport properties of
the liquid electrolyte held suspended in the glass mats, the oxygen molecules can migrate
from the positive plate and recombine with the slowly evolving hydrogen at the negative plate
and form water again. Under conditions of controlled charging, the pressure relief vents in
AGM batteries are designed to remain closed, preventing the release of any gasses and water
loss.
Lead-Acid Battery Chemistry
Now that the basic components of a battery have been described, the overall electrochemical
operation of a battery can be discussed. Referring to Figure 10-1, the basic lead-acid battery
cell consists of sets positive and negative plates, divided by separators, and immersed in a
case with an electrolyte solution. In a fully charged lead-acid cell, the positive plates are lead
dioxide (PbO2), the negative plates are sponge lead (Pb), and the electrolyte is a diluted
sulfuric acid solution. When a battery is connected to an electrical load, current flows from
the battery as the active materials are converted to lead sulfate (PbSO4).

Lead-Acid Cell Reaction

The following equations show the electrochemical reactions for the lead-acid cell. During
battery discharge, the directions of the reactions listed goes from left to right. During battery
charging, the direction of the reactions are reversed, and the reactions go from right to left.
Note that the elements as well as charge are balanced on both sides of each equation.

1. At the Negative Electrode:

Pb + H2SO4 PbSO4 + 2H+ + 2e-

2. At the Positive Electrode:

PbO2 + 2H+ + H2SO4 + 2e- PbSO4 + 2H2O

3. Overall Reaction:

PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 PbSO4 + PbSO4 + 2H2O

Some consequences of these reactions are interesting and important. As the battery is
discharged, the active materials PbO2 and Pb in the positive and negative plates,
respectively, combine with the sulfuric acid solution to form PbSO4 and water. Note that in a
fully discharged battery the active materials in both the positive and negative plates are
converted to PbSO4, while the sulfuric acid solution is converted to water. This dilution of
the electrolyte has important consequences in terms of the electrolyte specific gravity and
freezing point that will be discussed later.

Formation
Forming is the process of initial battery charging during manufacture. Formation of a lead-
acid battery changes the lead oxide (PbO) on the positive plate grids to lead dioxide (PbO2),
and to metallic sponge lead (Pb) on the negative plates. The extent to which a battery has
been formed during manufacture dictates the need for additional cycles in the field to
achieve rated capacity.

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a solution to the density of water,
typically measured with a hydrometer. By definition, water has a specific gravity of one. In a
lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is a diluted solution of sulfuric acid and water. In a fully
charged battery, the electrolyte is approximately 36% sulfuric acid by weight, or 25% by
volume, with the remainder water. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is related to the
battery state of charge, depending on the design electrolyte concentration and temperature.

In a fully charged flooded lead-acid battery, the specific gravity of the electrolyte is typically
in the range of 1.250 to 1.280 at a temperature of 27 oC, meaning that the density of the
electrolyte is between 1.25 and 1.28 times that of pure water. When the battery is
discharged, the hydrogen (H+) and sulfate (SO42-) ions from the sulfuric acid solution
combine with the active materials in the positive and negative plates to form lead sulfate
(PbSO4), decreasing the specific gravity of the electrolyte. As the battery is discharged to
greater depths, the sulfuric acid solution becomes diluted until there are no ions left in
solution. At this point the battery is fully discharged, and the electrolyte is essentially water
with a specific gravity of one.
Concentrated sulfuric acid has a very low freezing point (less than -50 oC) while water has
a much higher freezing point of 0 oC. This has important implications in that the freezing
point of the electrolyte in a lead-acid battery varies with the concentration or specific
gravity of the electrolyte. As the battery becomes discharged, the specific gravity decreases
resulting in a higher freezing point for the electrolyte.
Lead-acid batteries used in PV systems may be susceptible to freezing in some applications,
particularly during cold winters when the batteries may not be fully charged during below
average insolation periods. The PV system designer must carefully consider the temperature
extremes of the application along with the anticipated battery state of charge during the
winter months to ensure that lead-acid batteries are not subjected to freezing. Table 2 shows
the properties and freezing points for sulfuric acid solutions.

Adjustments to Specific Gravity

In very cold or tropical climates, the specific gravity of the sulfuric acid solution in lead-acid
batteries is often adjusted from the typical range of 1.250 to 1.280. In tropical climates
where freezing temperatures do not occur, the electrolyte specific gravity may be reduced to
between 1.210 and 1.230 in some battery designs.
This lower concentration electrolyte will lessen the degradation of the separators and grids
and prolong the battery’s useful service life. However, the lower specific gravity decreases
the storage capacity and high discharge rate performance of the battery. Generally, these
factors are offset by the fact that the battery is generally operating at higher than normal
temperatures in tropical climates.

In very cold climates, the specific gravity of the electrolyte may be increased above the typical
range of
1.250 to 1.280 to values between 1.290 and 1.300. By increasing the electrolyte
concentration, the electrochemical activity in the battery is accelerated, improving the low
temperature capacity and lowers the potential for battery freezing. However, these higher
specific gravities generally reduce the useful service life of a battery.

While the specific gravity can also be used to estimate the state of charge of a lead-acid
battery, low or inconsistent specific gravity reading between series connected cells in a
battery may indicate sulfation, stratification, or lack of equalization between cells. In some
cases a cell with low specific gravity may indicate a cell failure or internal short-circuit
within the battery. Measurement of specific gravity can be a valuable aid in the routine
maintenance and diagnostics of battery problems in stand-alone PV systems.

Sulfation
Sulfation is a normal process that occurs in lead-acid batteries resulting from prolonged
operation at partial states of charge. Even batteries which are frequently fully charged suffer
from the effects of sulfation as the battery ages. The sulfation process involves the growth of
lead sulfate crystals on the positive plate, decreasing the active area and capacity of the cell.
During normal battery discharge, the active materials of the plates are converted to lead
sulfate. The deeper the discharge, the greater the amount of active material that is converted
to lead sulfate. During recharge, the lead sulfate is converted back into lead dioxide and
sponge lead on the positive and negative plates, respectively. If the battery is recharged soon
after being discharged, the lead sulfate converts easily back into the active materials.

However, if a lead-acid battery is left at less than full state of charge for prolonged periods
(days or weeks), the lead sulfate crystallizes on the plate and inhibits the conversion back to
the active materials during recharge. The crystals essentially “lock away” active material and
prevent it from reforming into lead and lead dioxide, effectively reducing the capacity of the
battery. If the lead sulfate crystals grow too large, they can cause physical damage to the
plates. Sulfation also leads to higher internal resistance within the battery, making it more
difficult to recharge. Sulfation is a common problem experienced with lead-acid batteries in
many PV applications. As the PV array is sized to meet the load under average conditions,
the battery must sometimes be used to supply reserve energy during periods of excessive
load usage or below average insolation. As a consequence, batteries in most PV systems
normally operate for some length of time over the course of a year at partial states of charge,
resulting in some degree of sulfation. The longer the period and greater the depth of
discharge, the greater the extent of sulfation.

To minimize sulfation of lead acid batteries in photovoltaic systems, the PV array is generally
designed to recharge the battery on the average daily conditions during the worst insolation
month of the year. By sizing for the worst month’s weather, the PV array has the best chance
of minimizing the seasonal battery depth of discharge. In hybrid systems using a backup
source such as a generator or wind turbine, the backup source can be effectively used to
keep the batteries fully charged even if the PV array can not. In general, proper battery and
array sizing, as well as periodic equalization charges can minimize the onset of sulfation.

Stratification
Stratification is a condition that can occur in flooded lead-acid batteries in which the
concentration or specific gravity of the electrolyte increases from the bottom to top of a cell.
Stratification is generally the result of undercharging, or not providing enough overcharge to
gas and agitate the electrolyte during finish charging. Prolonged stratification can result in
the bottom of the plates being consumed, while the upper portions remaining in relatively
good shape, reducing battery life and capacity. Tall stationary cells, typically of large capacity,
are particularly prone to stratification when charged at low rates. Periodic equalization
charges thoroughly mix the electrolyte and can prevent stratification problems.
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cad) batteries are secondary, or rechargeable batteries, and have
several advantages over lead-acid batteries that make them attractive for use in stand-
alone PV systems. These advantages include long life, low maintenance, survivability from
excessive discharges, excellent low temperature capacity retention, and non-critical voltage
regulation requirements. The main disadvantages of nickel-cadmium batteries are their
high cost and limited availability compared to lead-acid designs.

A typical nickel-cadmium cell consists of positive electrodes made from nickel-hydroxide

(NiO(OH))and negative electrodes made from cadmium (Cd) and immersed in an alkaline
potassium hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte solution. When a nickel-cadmium cell is
discharged, the nickel hydroxide changes form (Ni(OH)2) and the cadmium becomes
cadmium hydroxide (Cd(OH)2). The concentration of the electrolyte does not change
during the reaction so the freezing point stays very low.

Nickel-Cadmium Battery Chemistry

Following are the electrochemical reactions for the flooded nickel-cadmium cell:

1. At the Negative Electrode:

Cd + 2OH- Cd(OH)2 + 2e-

2. At the Positive Electrode:

2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e- 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH-

3. Overall Reaction:

Cd + 2NiO(OH) + 2H2O Cd(OH)2 + 2Ni(OH)2

The nominal voltage for a nickel-cadmium cell is 1.2 volts, requiring 10 nickel-cadmium
cells to be configured in series for a nominal 12 volt battery. The voltage of a nickel-
cadmium cell remains relatively stable until the cell is almost completely discharged,
where the voltage drops off dramatically. Nickel-cadmium batteries can accept charge
rates as high as C/1, and are tolerant of continuous overcharge up to a C/15 rate. Nickel-
cadmium batteries are commonly subdivided in to two primary types; sintered plate and
pocket plate.
Sintered Plate Ni-Cads

Sintered plate nickel cadmium batteries are commonly used in electrical test equipment and
consumer electronic devices. The batteries are designed by heat processing the active
materials and rolling them into metallic case. The electrolyte in sintered plate nickel-
cadmium batteries is immobilized, preventing leakage, allowing any orientation for
installation. The main disadvantage of sintered plate designs is the so called 'memory effect',
in which a battery that is repeatedly discharged to only a percentage of its rated capacity will
eventually 'memorize' this cycle pattern, and will limit further discharge resulting in loss of
capacity. In some cases, the 'memory effect' can be erased by conducting special charge and
discharge cycles, regaining some of its initial rated capacity.

Pocket Plate Ni-Cads

Large nickel cadmium batteries used in remote telecommunications systems and other
commercial applications are typically of a flooded design, called flooded pocket plate.
Similar to flooded lead-acid designs, these batteries require periodic water additions,
however, the electrolyte is an alkaline solution of potassium hydroxide, instead of a sulfuric
acid solution. These batteries can withstand deep discharges and temperature extremes
much better than lead-acid batteries, and they do not experience the 'memory effect'
associated with sintered plate Ni-Cads. The main disadvantage of pocket plate nickel
cadmium batteries is their high initial cost, however their long lifetimes can result in the
lowest life cycle cost battery for some PV applications.
Battery Strengths and Weaknesses
Each battery type has design and performance features suited for particular applications.
Again, no one type of battery is ideal for a PV system applications. The designer must
consider the advantages and disadvantages of different batteries with respect to the
requirements of a particular application. Some of the considerations include lifetime, deep
cycle performance, tolerance to high temperatures and overcharge, maintenance and many
others. Table 3 summarizes some of the key characteristics of the different battery types
discussed in the preceding section.

Table 3. Battery Characteristics

Battery Type Advantages Disadvantages
Flooded Lead-Acid
Lead-Antimony low cost, wide availability, good high water loss and maintenance
deep cycle and high temperature
performance, can replenish
electrolyte
Lead-Calcium Open Vent low cost, wide availability, low poor deep cycle performance,
water loss, can replenish intolerant to high temperatures
electrolyte and overcharge
Lead-Calcium Sealed Vent low cost, wide availability, low poor deep cycle performance,
water loss intolerant to high temperatures
and overcharge, can not replenish
electrolyte
Lead Antimony/Calcium Hybrid medium cost, low water loss limited availability, potential for
stratification
Captive Electrolyte Lead-Acid
Gelled medium cost, little or no fair deep cycle performance,
maintenance, less susceptible to intolerant to overcharge and high
freezing, install in any orientation temperatures, limited availability
Absorbed Glass Mat medium cost, little or no fair deep cycle performance,
maintenance, less susceptible to intolerant to overcharge and high
freezing, install in any orientation temperatures, limited availability
Nickel-Cadmium
Sealed Sintered-Plate wide availability, excellent low and only available in low capacities,
high temperature performance, high cost, suffer from ‘memory’
maintenance free effect
Flooded Pocket-Plate excellent deep cycle and low and limited availability, high cost, water
high temperature performance, additions required
tolerance to overcharge
Battery Performance Characteristics

Terminology and Definitions

Ampere-Hour (Ah): The common unit of measure for a battery’s electrical storage
capacity, obtained by integrating the discharge current in amperes over a specific time
period. An ampere-hour is equal to the transfer of one-ampere over one-hour, equal to
3600 coulombs of charge. For example, a battery which delivers 5-amps for 20-hours is
said to have delivered 100 ampere-hours.

Capacity: A measure of a battery’s ability to store or deliver electrical energy, commonly

expressed in units of ampere-hours. Capacity is generally specified at a specific discharge
rate, or over a certain time period. The capacity of a battery depends on several design
factors including: the quantity of active material, the number, design and physical
dimensions of the plates, and the electrolyte specific gravity. Operational factors affecting
capacity include: the discharge rate, depth of discharge, cut off voltage, temperature, age
and cycle history of the battery. Sometimes a battery’s energy storage capacity is expressed
in kilowatt-hours (kWh), which can be approximated by multiplying the rated capacity in
ampere-hours by the nominal battery voltage and dividing the product by 1000. For
example, a nominal 12 volt, 100 ampere-hour battery has an energy storage capacity of (12
x 100)/1000 = 1.2 kilowatt-hours. Figure 2 shows the effects of temperature and discharge
rate on lead-acid battery capacity.

o
Battery Operating Temperature - C
Cut Off Voltage: The lowest voltage which a battery system is allowed to reach in
operation, defining the battery capacity at a specific discharge rate. Manufacturers often
rate capacity to a specific cut off, or end of discharge voltage at a defined discharge rate. If
the same cut off voltage is specified for different rates, the capacity will generally be higher
at the lower discharge rate.

Cycle: Refers to a discharge to a given depth of discharge followed by a complete

recharge. A 100 percent depth of discharge cycle provides a measure of the total
battery capacity.

Discharge: The process when a battery delivers current, quantified by the discharge current
or rate. Discharge of a lead-acid battery involves the conversion of lead, lead dioxide and
sulfuric acid to lead sulfate and water.

Charge: The process when a battery receives or accepts current, quantified by the charge
current or rate. Charging of a lead-acid battery involves the conversion of lead sulfate and
water to lead, lead dioxide and sulfuric acid.

Rate of Charge/Discharge: The rate of charge or discharge of a battery is expressed as a

ratio of the nominal battery capacity to the charge or discharge time period in hours. For
example, a 4-amp discharge for a nominal 100 ampere-hour battery would be considered a
C/20 discharge rate.

Negative (-): Referring to the lower potential point in a dc electrical circuit, the negative
battery terminal is the point from which electrons or the current flows during discharge.

Positive (+): Referring to the higher potential point in a dc electrical circuit, the positive
battery terminal is the point from which electrons or the current flows during charging.

Open Circuit Voltage: The voltage when a battery is at rest or steady-state, not during
charge or discharge. Depending on the battery design, specific gravity and temperature, the
open circuit voltage of a fully charged lead-acid battery is typically about 2.1-volts.
Battery Charging
Methods and procedures for battery charging vary considerably. In a stand-alone PV
system, the ways in which a battery is charged are generally much different from the
charging methods battery manufacturers use to rate battery performance. The various
methods and considerations for battery charging in PV systems are discussed in the next
section on battery charge controllers.

Battery manufacturers often refer to three modes of battery charging; normal or bulk
charge, finishing or float charge and equalizing charge.

Bulk or Normal Charge: Bulk or normal charging is the initial portion of a charging cycle,
performed at any charge rate which does not cause the cell voltage to exceed the gassing
voltage. Bulk charging generally occurs up to between 80 and 90% state of charge.

Float or Finishing Charge: Once a battery is nearly fully charged, most of the active
material in the battery has been converted to its original form, and voltage and or current
regulation are generally required to limit the amount over overcharge supplied to the battery.
Finish charging is usually conducted at low to medium charge rates.

Equalizing Charge: An equalizing or refreshing charge is used periodically to maintain

consistency among individual cells. An equalizing charge generally consists of a current-
limited charge to higher voltage limits than set for the finishing or float charge. For batteries
deep discharged on a daily basis, an equalizing charge is recommended every one or two
weeks. For batteries less severely discharged, equalizing may only be required every one or
two months. An equalizing charge is typically maintained until the cell voltages and specific
gravities remain consistent for a few hours.
Battery Discharging
Depth of Discharge (DOD): The depth of discharge (DOD) of a battery is defined as the
percentage of capacity that has been withdrawn from a battery compared to the total fully
charged capacity. By definition, the depth of discharge and state of charge of a battery add
to 100 percent. The two common qualifiers for depth of discharge in PV systems are the
allowable or maximum DOD and the average daily DOD and are described as follows:

Allowable DOD: The maximum percentage of full-rated capacity that can be

withdrawn from a battery is known as its allowable depth of discharge. The allowable
DOD is the maximum discharge limit for a battery, generally dictated by the cut off
voltage and discharge rate. In standalone PV systems, the low voltage load
disconnect (LVD) set point of the battery charge controller dictates the allowable
DOD limit at a given discharge rate. Furthermore, the allowable DOD is generally a
seasonal deficit, resulting from low insolation, low temperatures and/or excessive
load usage. Depending on the type of battery used in a PV system, the design
allowable depth of discharge may be as high as 80% for deep cycle, motive power
batteries, to as low as 15-25% if SLI batteries are used. The allowable DOD is related
to the autonomy, in terms of the capacity required to operate the system loads for a
given number of days without energy from the PV array. A system design with a
lower allowable DOD will result in a shorter autonomy period. As discussed earlier, if
the internal temperature of a battery reaches the freezing point of the electrolyte, the
electrolyte can freeze and expand, causing irreversible damage to the battery. In a
fully charged lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is approximately 35% by weight and
the freezing point is quite low (approximately -60 oC). As a lead-acid battery is
discharged, the becomes diluted, so the concentration of acid decreases and the
concentration of water increases as the freezing point approaches the freezing point
of water, 0 oC.

Average Daily DOD: The average daily depth of discharge is the percentage of the full-
rated capacity that is withdrawn from a battery with the average daily load profile. If
the load varies seasonally, for example in a PV lighting system, the average daily DOD
will be greater in the winter months due to the longer nightly load operation period.
For PV systems with a constant daily load, the average daily DOD is generally greater
in the winter due to lower battery temperature and lower rated capacity. Depending
on the rated capacity and the average daily load energy, the average daily DOD may
vary between only a few percent in systems designed with a lot of autonomy, or as
high as 50 percent for marginally sized battery systems. The average daily DOD is
inversely related to autonomy; meaning that systems designed for longer autonomy
periods (more capacity) have a lower average daily DOD.
State of Charge (SOC): The state of charge (SOC) is defined as the amount of energy in a
battery, expressed as a percentage of the energy stored in a fully charged battery.
Discharging a battery results in a decrease in state of charge, while charging results in an
increase in state of charge. A battery that has had three quarters of its capacity removed, or
been discharged 75 percent, is said to be at 25 percent state of charge. Figure 3 shows the
seasonal variation in battery state of charge and depth of discharge.

Autonomy: Generally expressed as the days of storage in a stand-alone PV system,

autonomy refers to the time a fully charged battery can supply energy to the systems loads
when there is no energy supplied by the PV array. For common, less critical PV applications
autonomy periods are typically between two and six days. For critical applications involving
an essential load or public safety, or where weather patterns dictate, autonomy periods may
be greater than ten days. Longer autonomy periods generally result in a

Figure 3. Battery state of charge

lower average daily DOD and lower the probability that the allowable (maximum) DOD or
minimum load voltage is reached.

Self Discharge Rate: In open-circuit mode without any charge or discharge current, a
battery undergoes a reduction in state of charge, due to internal mechanisms and losses
within the battery. Different battery types have different self discharge rates, the most
significant factor being the active materials and grid alloying elements used in the design.
Higher temperatures result in higher discharge rates particularly for lead-antimony designs
 as shown in Figure 4.

Battery Lifetime: Battery lifetime is dependent upon a number of design and operational
factors, including the components and materials of battery construction, temperature,
frequency and depth of discharges, average state of charge and charging methods. As long
as a battery is not overcharged, overdischarged or operated at excessive temperatures, the
lifetime of a battery is proportionate to its average state of charge.

A typical flooded lead-acid battery that is maintained above 90 percent state of charge will
provide two to three times more full charge/discharge cycles than a battery allowed to
reach 50 percent state of charge before recharging. This suggests limiting the allowable
and average daily DOD to prolong battery life.

Lifetime can be expressed in terms of cycles or years, depending upon the particular type of
battery and its intended application. Exact quantification of battery life is difficult due to the
number of variables involved, and generally requires battery test results under similar
operating conditions. Battery manufacturers often do not rate battery performance under
the conditions of charge and discharge experienced in PV systems.

Temperature Effects: For an electrochemical cell such as a battery, temperature has

important effects on performance. Generally, as the temperature increases by 10 o C the rate
of an electrochemical reaction doubles, resulting in statements from battery manufacturers
that battery life decreases by a factor of two for every 10o C increase in average operating
temperature. Higher operating temperatures accelerate corrosion of the positive plate grids,
resulting in greater gassing and electrolyte loss. Lower operating temperatures generally
increase battery life. However, the capacity is reduced significantly at lower temperatures,
particularly for lead-acid batteries.
 When severe temperature variations from room temperatures exist, batteries are located in
an insulated or other temperature-regulated enclosure to minimize battery temperature
swings

Effects of Discharge Rates: The higher the discharge rate or current, the lower the
capacity that can be withdrawn from a battery to a specific allowable DOD or cut off voltage.
Higher discharge rates also result in the voltage under load to be lower than with lower
discharge rates, sometimes affecting the selection of the low voltage load disconnect set
point. At the same battery voltage the lower the discharge rates, the lower the battery state
of charge compared to higher discharge rates.

Corrosion: The electrochemical activity resulting from the immersion of two dissimilar
metals in an electrolyte, or the direct contact of two dissimilar metals causing one material
to undergo oxidation or lose electrons and causing the other material to undergo reduction,
or gain electrons. Corrosion of the grids supporting the active material in a battery is an
ongoing process and may ultimately dictate the battery's useful lifetime. Battery terminals
may also experience corrosion due to the action of electrolyte gassing from the battery, and
generally require periodic cleaning and tightening in flooded lead-acid types. Higher
temperatures and the flow of electrical current between two dissimilar metals accelerates
the corrosion process
.

Battery Gassing and Overcharge Reaction

Gassing occurs in a battery during charging when the battery is nearly fully charged. At
this point, essentially all of the active materials have been converted to their fully charged
composition and the cell voltage rises sharply. The gas products are either recombined
internal to the cell as in sealed or valve regulated batteries, or released through the cell
vents in flooded batteries. In general, the overcharge or gassing reaction in batteries is
irreversible, resulting in water loss. However in sealed lead-acid cells, an internal
recombinant process permits the reforming of water from the hydrogen and oxygen gasses
generated under normal charging conditions, allowing the battery to be sealed and
requiring no electrolyte maintenance. All gassing reactions consume a portion of the charge
current which can not be delivered on the subsequent discharge, thereby reducing the
battery charging efficiency.

In both flooded lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries, gassing results in the formation of
hydrogen at the negative plate and oxygen at the positive plate, requiring periodic water
additions to replenish the electrolyte.

Flooded Batteries Require Some Gassing

Some degree of gassing is required to agitate and prevent stratification of the electrolyte in
flooded batteries.
When a flooded lead-acid battery is charged, heavy sulfuric acid forms on the plates, and
falls to the bottom of the battery. Over time, the electrolyte stratifies, developing greater acid
concentrations at the bottom of the battery than at the top. If left unmixed, the reaction
process would be different from the bottom to the top of the plates, greater corrosion would
occur, and battery performance would be poor. By gently gassing flooded batteries, the
electrolyte is mixed preventing electrolyte stratification. However, excessive gassing and
overcharge dislodges active materials from the grids, reducing the battery life. Excessive
gassing may also lead to higher temperatures, which accelerates corrosion of the grids and
shortens battery life.

Captive Electrolyte Batteries Should Avoid Gassing

Gassing control is especially important for captive electrolyte or sealed batteries. These are
not flooded, and electrolyte cannot be replaced if allowed to escape due to overcharging.
For these types of batteries, the charging process should be controlled more carefully to
avoid gassing.

Charge Regulation Voltage Affects Gassing

The charge regulation voltage, or the maximum voltage that a charge controller allows a
battery to reach in operation plays an important part in battery gassing. Charge controllers
are used in photovoltaic power systems to allow high rates of charging up to the gassing
point, and then limit or disconnect the PV current
to prevent overcharge. The highest voltage that batteries are allowed to reach determines in
part how much gassing occurs. To limit gassing and electrolyte loss to acceptable levels,
proper selection of the charge controller voltage regulation set point is critical in PV systems.
If too low of a regulation voltage is used, the battery will be undercharged. If too high of a
regulation voltage is used, the battery will be overcharged. Both under and overcharging will
result in premature battery failure and loss of load in stand-alone PV systems. In general,
sealed “maintenance free” valve-regulated batteries (using lead-calcium grids) should have
lower charge regulation voltage set points than flooded deep cycling batteries (using lead-
antimony grids).

Other Factors Affecting Battery Gassing

The onset of gassing in a lead-acid cell is not only determined by the cell voltage, but the
temperature as well. As temperatures increase, the corresponding gassing voltage decreases
for a particular battery. Regardless of the charge rate, the gassing voltage is the same,
however gassing begins at a lower battery state of charge at higher charge rates. The grid
design, whether lead-antimony or lead-calcium also affects gassing. Battery manufacturers
should be consulted to determine the gassing voltages for specific designs.
Figure 14 shows the relationships between cell voltage, state of charge, charge rate and
temperature for a typical lead-acid cell with lead-antimony grids.

By examining Figure 6, one can see that at 27 oC and at a charge rate of C/20, the gassing
voltage of about
2.35 volts per cell is reached at about 90% state of charge. At a charge rate of C/5 at 27 oC,
the gassing voltage is reached at about 75% state of charge. At a battery temperature of 0
oC the gassing voltage increases to about 2.5 volt per cell, or 15 volts for a nominal 12 volt
battery. The effects of temperature on the gassing voltage is the reason the charge
regulation voltage is sometimes temperature compensated - to fully charge batteries in cold
weather and to limit overcharge during warm weather. This type of information is needed to
properly select battery charge controller voltage regulation set points in order to limit the
amount of gassing for a specific battery design and operational conditions.
Some recommended ranges for charge regulation voltages (at 25 oC) for different battery
types used in PV systems are presented in Table 10-4 below. These values are typical of
voltage regulation set points for battery charge controllers used in small PV systems. These
recommendations are meant to be only general in nature, and specific battery manufacturers
should be consulted for their suggested values.

Figure 6. Lead-acid cell charging voltage

Table 3. Recommended Charge Regulation Voltages

Battery Type

Charge Regulation Flooded Lead- Flooded Lead- Sealed, Valve Flooded Pocket
Voltage at 25 oC Antimony Calcium Regulated Lead- Plate Nickel-
Acid Cadmium
Per nominal 12 volt 14.4 - 14.8 14.0 - 14.4 14.0 - 14.4 14.5 - 15.0
battery
Per Cell 2.40 - 2.47 2.33 - 2.40 2.33 - 2.40 1.45 - 1.50
The charge regulation voltage ranges presented in Table 10-4 are much higher than the
typical charge regulation values often presented in manufacturer’s literature. This is because
battery manufacturers often speak of regulation voltage in terms of the float voltage, or the
voltage limit suggested for when batteries are float charged for extended periods (for example,
in un-interruptible power supply (UPS) systems). In these and many other commercial
battery applications, batteries can be “trickle” or float charged for extended period, requiring
a voltage low enough to limit gassing. Typical float voltages are between 13.5 and 13.8 volts
for a nominal 12 volt battery, or between 2.25 and 2.30 volts for a single cell.

In a PV system however, the battery must be recharged within a limited time (usually during
sunlight hours), requiring that the regulation voltage be much higher than the
manufacturer’s float voltage to ensure that the battery is fully recharged. If charge regulation
voltages in a typical PV system were set at the manufacturer’s recommended float voltage,
the batteries would never be fully charged.

Battery System Design and Selection Criteria

Battery system design and selection criteria involves many decisions and trade offs.
Choosing the right battery for a PV application depends on many factors. While no specific
battery is appropriate for all PV applications, common sense and a careful review of the
battery literature with respect to the particular application needs will help the designer
narrow the choice. Some decisions on battery selection may be easy to arrive at, such as
physical properties, while other decisions will be much more difficult and may involve
making tradeoffs between desirable and undesirable battery features. With the proper
application of this knowledge, designers should be able to differentiate among battery types
and gain some application experience with batteries they are familiar with. Table 4
summarizes some of the considerations in battery selection and design.
 Battery Selection Criteria

 Type of system and mode of operation

 Charging characteristics; internal resistance
 Required days of storage (autonomy)
 Amount and variability of discharge current
 Maximum allowable depth of discharge
 Daily depth of discharge requirements
 Accessibility of location
 Temperature and environmental conditions
 Cyclic life and/or calendar life in years
 Maintenance requirements
 Sealed or unsealed
 Self-discharge rate
 Maximum cell capacity
 Energy storage density
 Size and weight
 Gassing characteristics
 Susceptibility to freezing
 Susceptibility to sulfation
 Electrolyte concentration
 Availability of auxiliary hardware
 Terminal configuration
 Reputation of manufacturer
 Cost and warranty.
Battery Subsystem Design
Once a particular type of battery has been selected, the designer must consider how best to
configure and maintain the battery for optimal performance. Considerations in battery
subsystem design include the number of batteries is series and parallel, over-current and
disconnect requirements, and selection of the proper wire sizes and types.

Connecting Batteries in Series

Batteries connected in a series circuit have only one path for the current to flow. Batteries
are arranged in series by connecting the negative terminal of the first battery to the positive
terminal of the second battery, the negative of the second battery to the positive of the third
battery, and so on for as many batteries or cells in the series string. For similar batteries
connected in series, the total voltage is the sum of the individual battery voltages, and the
total capacity is the same as for one battery. If batteries or cells with different capacities are
connected in series, the capacity of the string is limited to the lower battery capacity. Figure
7 illustrates the series connection of two similar batteries.

Connecting Batteries in Parallel

Batteries connected in parallel have more than one path for current to flow, depending on
the number of parallel branches. Batteries (or series strings of batteries or cells) are arranged
in parallel by connecting all of the positive terminals to one conductor and all of the negative
terminals to another conductor. For similar batteries connected in parallel, the voltage
across the entire circuit is the same as the voltage across the individual parallel branches,
and the overall capacity is sum of the parallel branch capacities. Figure 8 illustrates the
parallel connection of two similar batteries.

Series Vs Parallel connection

In general, battery manufacturers recommend that their batteries be operated in as few

parallel strings as possible. If too many parallel connections are made in a battery bank,
slight voltage differences between the parallel strings will occur due to the length, resistance
and integrity of the connections. The result of these voltage differences can lead to
inconsistencies in the treatment received by each battery (cell) in the bank, potentially
causing unequal capacities within the bank. The parallel strings with the lowest circuit
resistance to the charging source will generally be exercised to a greater extent than the
parallel groups of batteries with greater circuit resistance to the charging source. The
batteries in parallel strings which receive less charge may begin to sulfate prematurely.

The battery capacity requirements and the size and voltage of the battery selected dictate the
series and parallel connections required for a given PV application. For PV systems with
larger capacity requirements, larger cells, generally in nominal 2-volt cells for lead-acid, may
allow the batteries to be configured in one series string rather than in several parallel
strings. When batteries must be configured in parallel, the external connection between the
battery bank and the PV power system should be made from the positive and negative
terminals on opposite sides of the battery bank to improve the equalization of charge and
discharge from the bank (Figure 9).

Bank Battery Voltage Selection

Battery bank voltage selection is often dictated by load voltage requirements, most often 12
or 24 volts for small remote stand-alone PV systems. For larger loads requiring a larger PV
array, it is sometimes prudent to go higher voltages if possible to lower the system currents.
For example, a 120 watt dc load operating from a 12 volt battery draws 10 amps, however a
120 watt load operating from a 24 volt battery only draws 5 amps. Lower system currents
minimize the size and cost of conductors, fuses, disconnects and other current handling
components in the PV system.
Battery Conductor Selection

Conductors connecting the battery to other circuits and components in a PV system must be
selected based on the current or ampacity requirements, voltage drop limitations and the
environmental conditions. Conductors should be adequately sized to handle at least 125% of
the maximum current, and limit the voltage drop to acceptable levels (generally less than 5%)
between the battery and other components in the system at the peak rated currents.
Conductor insulating materials should be selected based on temperature, moisture
resistance or other application needs. Particular attention should be paid to selecting
adequate size conductors for the high currents expected between the battery and inverter
where applicable.

If too small of conductors are used between the PV array, charge controller and battery, the
series resistance and resulting voltage drops may force the PV array to operate at a fraction
of the array peak rated current. As a result, the charging effectiveness of the PV array is
reduced, requiring more modules to do the job. In many cases, the batteries in systems with
excessive voltage drops will not be fully recharged. Note that voltage drop limitations
generally dictate larger conductor sizes than the sizes required to handle the current alone,
particularly in low voltage systems (12 - 24 volts dc).
Overcurrent and Disconnect Requirements
Batteries can deliver thousands of amperes under short circuit conditions, potentially
causing explosions, fires, burns, shock and equipment damage. For these reasons, proper dc
rated overcurrent and disconnect protection devices are required on all PV battery systems.
Fuses or circuit breakers used for overcurrent protection must not only be able to operate
properly under 'normal' high currents resulting from load problems, but must also operate
under battery short-circuit conditions. The ampere interrupt rating (AIR) for overcurrent
devices must be considered with regard to the potential for battery system short-circuit
currents, or the devices could fail with disastrous results. For ungrounded systems,
disconnects are required on both the positive and negative conductors leading to and from
the battery. For grounded systems, disconnect and overcurrent protection are only required
on the ungrounded conductor. Figure 10-22 shows the overcurrent and disconnect
requirements for batteries in PV systems.
Battery Auxiliary Equipment
Battery auxiliary equipment includes any systems or other hardware necessary to safely
and effectively operate a battery system. Some of the more important battery auxiliary
systems and equipment are discussed below.

Enclosures

Batteries are generally required by local electrical codes and safety standards to be installed
in an enclosure separated from controls or other PV system components. The enclosure may
also be insulated, or may have active or passive cooling/heating mechanisms to protect the
batteries from excessive temperatures. Battery enclosures must be of sufficient size and
strength hold the batteries, and can be located below ground if needed to prevent freezing. If
the enclosure is located above ground, care should be taken to limit the direct exposure to
sunlight, or some type of shading or reflective coating should be provided.

Passive Cooling Enclosures

We have shown that temperature is a critical factor affecting battery performance and life
expectancy. Any actions taken by the system designer to reduce temperature swings will be
rewarded with better battery performance, longer life, and lower maintenance.

One approach to moderating the influence of ambient temperature swings on battery

temperature is the use of passive cooling enclosures, without the need for active components
such as motors, fans or air conditioners. The use of active temperature regulation means
generally requires additional electrical power, and adds unnecessarily to the complexity, size
and cost of the PV system. By using a thermodynamically passive approach, maximum
benefits are gained with minimal complexity and maximum reliability -- key features of any
PV system installation.

Ventilation

Batteries often produce toxic and explosive mixtures of gasses, namely hydrogen, and
adequate ventilation of the battery enclosure is required. In most cases, passive ventilation
techniques such as vents or ducts may be sufficient. In some cases, fans may be required to
provide mechanical ventilation. Required air change rates are based on maintaining
minimum levels of hazardous gasses in the enclosure. Under no circumstances should
batteries be kept in an unventilated area or located in an area frequented by personnel.
Catalytic Recombination Caps

A substitute for standard vented caps on lead-antimony batteries, catalytic recombination

caps (CRCs) primary function is to reduce the electrolyte loss from the battery. CRCs contain
particles of an element such as platinum or palladium, which surfaces adsorb the hydrogen
generated from the battery during finishing and overcharge. The hydrogen is then
recombined with oxygen in the CRC to form water, which drains back into the battery.
During this recombination process, heat is released from the CRCs as the combination of
hydrogen and oxygen to form water is an exothermic process. This means that temperature
increases in CRCs can be used to detect the onset of gassing in the battery. If CRCs are
found to be at significantly different temperatures during recharge (meaning some cells are
gassing and others are not), an equalization charge may be required. The use of CRCs on
open-vent, flooded lead-antimony batteries has proven to reduce electrolyte loss by as much
as 50% in subtropical climates.

Battery Monitoring Systems

Monitoring and instrumentation for battery systems can range from simple analog meters to
more sophistication data acquisition systems. Lower level monitoring of battery systems
might include voltage and current meters or battery state of charge indicators, while higher
level monitoring may include automated recording of voltage, current, temperature, specific
gravity and water levels. For small standalone PV systems, monitoring of the battery
condition is generally done only occasionally during routine maintenance checks, or by
simple meters or indicators on the battery charge controller.

Battery Maintenance

The maintenance requirements for batteries varies significantly depending on the battery
design and application. Maintenance considerations may include cleaning of cases, cables and
terminals, tightening terminals, water additions, and performance checks. Performance checks
may include specific gravity recordings, conductance readings, temperature measurements,
cell voltage readings, or even a capacity test. Battery voltage and current readings during
charging can aid in determining whether the battery charge controller is operating properly. If
applicable, auxiliary systems such as ventilation, fire extinguishers and safety equipment may
need to be inspected periodically.

Generally speaking, flooded lead-antimony batteries require the most maintenance in terms
of water additions and cleaning. Sealed lead-acid batteries including gelled and AGM types
remain relatively clean during operation and do not require water additions. Battery
manufacturers often provide maintenance recommendations for the use of their battery.
Battery Test Equipment
The ability to measure and diagnose battery performance is an invaluable aid to users
and operators of stand-alone PV systems. Following are two of the more common
instruments used to test batteries.

Hydrometer

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity of a solution, or the

ratio of the solution density to the density of water. While the specific gravity of the
electrolyte can be estimated from open-circuit voltage readings, a hydrometer provides a
much more accurate measure. As discussed previously, the specific gravity of the electrolyte
is related to the battery state of charge in lead-acid batteries.

Hydrometers may be constructed with a float ball using Archimedes' principle, or with a
prism measuring the refractive index of the solution to determine specific gravity. In an
Archimedes hydrometer, a bulb-type syringe extracts electrolyte from the battery cell. When
the bulb is filled with electrolyte, a precision glass float in the bulb is subjected to a buoyant
force equivalent to the weight of the electrolyte displaced. Graduations are marked on the
sides of the glass float, calibrated to read specific gravity directly.

Hydrometer floats are only calibrated to give true readings at a specific temperature, typically
26.7 oC (80 oF). When measurements are taken from electrolyte at other temperatures, a
correction factor must be applied. Regardless of the reference temperature of the hydrometer,
a standard correction factor 0.004 specific gravity units, often referred to as “points”, must
be applied for every 5.5 oC (10 oF) change from the reference temperature. Four “points” of
specific gravity (0.004) are added to the hydrometer reading for every
5.5 oC (10 oF) increment above the reference temperature and four points are subtracted
for every 5.5 oC (10 oF) increment below the reference temperature. When taking specific
gravity measurements of batteries at temperatures significantly lower or higher than
standard room temperatures, it is important that the temperature of the electrolyte be
accurately measured to make the necessary corrections. When making specific gravity
readings, the variations between cells are as important as the overall average of the
readings.
Load Tester

A battery load tester is an instrument which draws current from a battery with an
electrical load, while recording the voltage, usually done at high discharge rates for short
periods. Although not designed to measure capacity, a load test may be used to determine
the general health or consistency among batteries in a system. Load test data are
generally expressed as a discharge current over a specific time period.

Battery Safety Considerations

Due to the hazardous materials and chemicals involved, and the amount of electrical
energy which they store, batteries are potentially dangerous and must be handled and
used with caution. Typical batteries used in stand-alone PV systems can deliver up to
several thousand amps under short-circuit conditions, requiring special precautions.
Depending on the size and location of a battery installation, certain safety precautions
are be required.

Handling Electrolyte

The caustic sulfuric acid solution contained in lead-acid batteries can destroy clothing and
burn the skin. For these reasons, protective clothing such as aprons and face shields should
be worn by personnel working with batteries. To neutralize sulfuric acid spills or splashes on
clothing, the spill should be rinsed immediately with a solution of baking soda or household
ammonia and water. For nickel-cadmium batteries, the potassium hydroxide electrolyte can
be neutralized with a vinegar and water solution. If electrolyte is accidentally splashed in the
eyes, the eyes should be forced open and flooded with cool clean water for fifteen minutes. If
acid electrolyte is taken internally, drink large quantities of water or milk, followed by milk of
magnesia, beaten eggs or vegetable oil. Call a physician immediately.

If it is required that the electrolyte solution be prepared from concentrated acid and water,
the acid should be poured slowly into the water while mixing. The water should never be
poured into the acid. Appropriate nonmetallic funnels and containers should be used when
mixing and transferring electrolyte solutions.

Personnel Protection

When performing battery maintenance, personnel should wear protective clothing such as
aprons, ventilation masks, goggles or face shields and gloves to protect from acid spills or
splashes and fumes. If sulfuric acid comes into contact with skin or clothing, immediately
flush the area with a solution of baking soda or ammonia and water. Safety showers and eye
washes may be required where batteries are located in close access to personnel. As a good
practice, some type of fire extinguisher should be located in close proximity to the battery
area if possible. In some critical applications, automated fire sprinkler systems may be
required to protect facilities and expensive load equipment. Jewelry on the hands and wrists
should be removed, and properly insulated tools should be used to protect against
inadvertent battery short-circuits.

Dangers of Explosion

During operation, batteries may produce explosive mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen gasses.
Keep spark, flames, burning cigarettes, or other ignition sources away from batteries at all
times. Explosive gasses may be present for several hours after a battery has been charged.
Active or passive ventilation techniques are suggested and often required, depending on the
number of batteries located in an enclosure and their gassing characteristics. The use of
battery vent caps with a flame arrester feature lowers the possibility of a catastrophic battery
explosion. Improper charging and excessive overcharging may increase the possibility of
battery explosions. When making and breaking connections to a battery from a charging
source or electrical load, ensure that the charger or load is switched off as to not create
sparks or arcing during the connection.

Battery Disposal and Recycling

Batteries are considered hazardous items as they contain toxic materials such as lead,
acids and plastics which can harm humans and the environment. For this reason, laws
have been established which dictate the requirements for battery disposal and recycling. In
most areas, batteries may be taken to the local landfill, where they are in turn taken to
approved recycling centers. In some cases, battery manufacturers provide guidelines for
battery disposal through local distributors, and may in fact recycle batteries themselves.
Under no circumstances should a batteries be disposed of in landfills, or the electrolyte
allowed to seep into the ground, or the battery burned.