UNIT 4 DESIGN OF UNLINED CANALS

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Ol>jectivzs

4.2 Unifor111 Flow Fonnulae

4.3 Tractive Force Approach
4.4 Silt Thcories
4.4.1 Kennedy's Silt Theory
4.4.2 Lacry's Silt Theory
1.4.3 Lacey's Rrginle Equations

4.5 Lilnitations of Silt Theories

4.6 Transmission Losses
4.7 Design Procedures
4.8 Sununary
4.9 Key Words
4.10 An~wersto SAQs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A canal is to have the extent of its cross-section adequate enough to carry the required
discharge. Therefore. its ed slope, and cross-sectional dimensions have to be designed
P
with reference to the de, ~gneddischarge. Moreover, the cross-section has to be stable in
the face of eroding and as well the silting action of sediment laden water, especially in
unlined canals.
Unlined canals exist n~ostlyin underdeveloped countries when lining camlot be easily
afforded. Many theories are available regarding these designs.
-
Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be familiar with the various theories concerning the
flow of water in unlined canals. You should be able to understand and use
Chezy's formula,
Kutter's formula,
Manning's formula,
Tractive fcjrce approach,
Kennedy's silt theory,
Lacey's silt theory,
Lacey's regime equations, 'and
Appropriate design procedures.

4.2 UNIFORM FLOW FORMULAE

There are various formulae available for the determination of average velocity of flow in
a rigid-bed open cl~annel,which are dicussed herein.
Chezy's Formula
Chezy 's formula for the velocity of uniform flow in an open channel is given by the
relation :
V - c~s)- . . . (4.1)

where, V = velocity of flow in mls,

Distribution Works-I1 S = longitudi~lalbedslope of the channel (more appropriately, it is the
energy slope),
C = a coefficient (known as Chezy's coefficient) depending upon the shape and
nature of the wetted surface of the chamel, and is given by the formuladue to
Ganguillet and Kutter as :

N = rugosity coefficient depending up011 the nature of the bed and sides of the
channel (it is also known as Kutter's N ), and
H = hydraulic mean radius which is the ratio of the area of cross-section of flow to
the wetted perimeter of the channel in m.
C can also be estiirrated by Bazin's equation, i.e.,

where, K is known as Bazin's coefficient, which attains different values for different
surface materials.
Kutter's Formula
The nkan velocity, given by Chezy's formula, can obviously be expressed also as :

where again, V = velocity of flow in m/s,

S = longitudinal bed slope of the channel,
N = rugosity coefficient as mentionedabove, and
R = hydraulic mean depth in m.
This is known as Kutter's Formula.
The value of N in Kutter's equation is dependent on the channel conditions. The value of
N generally adopted is given in Table 4.l(a).

Table 4.1 (a) :Recommended Values of Rugosity Coefficient

No. ' Condition of Channel Value of N

1. Very good 0.0225
2. Good 0.0250
3. Indifferent 0.0275

1
4. Bad 0.0300

The value of N is found to vary with discharge as well. It decreases with increase in
discharge. With a view to n~akethe design procedure a little easier, for channels carrying
discharges in the range of 2-30 cumec, N is taken as 0.0225 and for channels with
discharge less than 2 cumec s value of 0.0250 is adopted for N.
Manning's Formula
The mean velocity for a uniform flow as given by Mannings is given by :

The value of n (the Manning's roughness coefficient) is dependent on the bed and side
lrlaterial of the channel, such as given in Table 4.l(b).
 Table 4.l(b) :Manning's Roughness Ccwfficient for Various Design of Unlined Canals

Open Channel Surfaces

I
I
- -
Material
Concrete
Gravel hottoni with sides
- Concrcte
- murtered stone
/ Natural clean; straight natural stream 1 0.030 1
I
Natural stream with heiivy hush and timber IO.100 J

4.3 TRACTIVE FORCE APPROACH

This approach is applicable to the design of chcumelsin alluvium such that the channel
boundary consisting of erodible inaterial docs not get scoured. This is an improvement
over the conventional silt theories.

0 /h
(a) :Channel Sides

(b) :Channel Bottom

Figure 41 :Maximum Shear Stress on :Sides and Bed of Sn~odhChannels in Uniform Flow

The cause of scour on the channel bed is due to the occurrence of tractive force (due to
tlowing water) om the bed that niay be sufficient to move the loose particles on the bed.
This force is known as the tractive force which is equal to the components of the weight
of waer in the direction of flow. However, a sediment particle on the side slope of a
Distribution WOI-~S-II cha~lnelwill rnove on account of ffle resultant of the tractive force in the direction of flow
and the component of the gravitational force that sets the particle rolling or sliding down
the side slope. Erosion will start when the tractive force acting on the bed or tne resultant
of tlie tractive force and the component of the gravitational force exceeds the force
resisting the ~~lc>ven~entof the particle. The method of design of stable channels in
alluvium is known as the USBR illethod and was proposed by Lane.
The average tractive stress (shear stress) z, in a uniform flow is expressed as :

T,, = wRS

where, w = unit weight o f water.

The shear stress varies, in fact, over the channel boundary as shown in Figure 4.1. The
nlaxinlu~nshear stresses occur on the bed, zh,,, , and the sides, T,, , of the channel. Whcn
a particle on thc bed, whether level or slightly sloping, is in a state of incipient motion,
then we have :
zh[ X (1 = 1 . v ~X tm t)

where, ws = submerged weight of the particle,

n = effective area over which the tractive force T ~ Ioil
, the bed, is acting, and

8 = angle of rcpose of the particle.

Thus for incipient motion, zhr is the critical shear stress (7,) in ~ / -m ~ bed
for the
particles, which is given by :

This i'onllula holds gootl for water at 20°C and for a sediment of specific gravity 2.65,
where, d = sedimeilt sizc in mni. Also, accordingly to Shield :
T, = 0.06w ( G - 1) d

where. C; is the specific gravity of the sediinenl.

Since the lnovenient of the particle is to be avoided, 'cbl has, therefore, to be kept less than
Z, , Sily 0.9z,..
In tlle case of a particle resting on the sloping side of the channel (Figure 4.2), the state of
illcipient nlotion is inathen~aticallyexpressed as :

Figure 4.2 :Forces Causing Movement of a Particle Resting o n a Channel Bank

 ws
7.1 = - cos a
7
J(tan-8 - tan a )
2 . . . (4.1 1) Design of Unlined Canals 1
01, a
2.d
By combining Equations (4.6) and (4.11 ), we get (defining K = -) :
ZbI

K = ' h 1= -cos a 4tan2 C) - tan2a

Zi,l

For no particle movement we can write :

With non-scouring conditions, such as :

Lane's observations revealed that channels that are aligned on a curve are more readily
scoured, and he suggested that the critical value of the tractive stress should be multiplied
with a correction factor depending on the type of chaiu~el.Table 4.2 gives the c'ritical
values of the tractive stress for bed and side slope of curved channels.
Table 4.2 :Values of Critical Shear Stress for Curved Channels

Type of Channel

Stress
I I

1 2. ] Slightlv curved channels 1 0.9 T, 1 0.810 T, I

1 3. 1 Moderately curved channels 1 0.75 T, 1 0.675 T, I

Why I\ ltle 11l;lgnltudc ot 1r:lctlvc lor(v d l l l c r c ~ Ol ~I I thc c r ~ l ; ~hollolll

l u 1111 rc\llc( I
10115 ~ ~ a l on
u e thc s ~ d c s "

4.4 SILT THEORIES

<
Irrigation canals are constructed in alluvial soils without any lining. These canals draw
their discharges from rivers that carry sediment rolling on the bed or held in suspension,
which, obviously, is carried into the offtaking canals. If the velocity of flow is too low,
the sediment held in suspension will settle down, whereas if the velocity is too high the
water will erode the bed and sides and carry along more sediment in suspension. A
channel should thus be designed for a velocity that will neither deposit the sediment nor
scour the bed and banks; such a velocity is known as non-scouring and non-silting
velocity.
Plenty of research work has been done by various investigators on silt transportation, all
of which cannot be discussed here. Only the original research work done by Kennedy in
m j a b and Lacey in UP will be discussed in this unit.

4.4.1 Kennedy's Silt Theory

Kennedy proposed his theory based on the charge and grade of silt present in the Upper
Doab Canal (Punjab) and its distributaries. He observed that there is always one velocity
for a given condition, called "critical velocity", V, , which characterises a non-silting and
 wurks-11
Dislributio~~ non-scouring chalulel in a steady regime. This velocity depends on the deplh of water in
the channel. He found that :
V , = 0.546 Do.64 . . . (4.16)
where, V , = velocity, rids
D = depth ot water. m.
This relation. was appl~cahleto the grade of silt present only in the Upper Doab Canal.
He introduced a factor called the "critical velocity ratio, (CVR), m" in his equation to
account for the varying grades of silt in other regions. Thus, he propounded :
V = 0.546 n~ I ) ' ' . ~ ~ . . . (4.17)
where. rn = V/V, = CVR
Table 4.3 gives the values nf rn for different types of silt.
Table 4.3 :Values of CVR for Various Types of Soils

No. Type of Silt I value o f m 1

I 1 I. Light sandy silt in the rivers of North India
I
2. /
I
Rather coarser silt or debris of hard soils
I
1.30

/ 3. 1 Sumewhat coarser silt or drhns of hard soils 1.10

4. 1
I
~ r n d yloamy
, silt 1 1.20
/
1- 5. 1 Silt of river Indus in Sind (Pakistan)
.-. 0.70
A value of 1.1 in the head reach, and 0.85 towards the tail end of channels carrying
appreciable hed and suspended loads, respectively, are recommended as the value of m
for purposes of design.
Kennedy's equation in the general form can be written as

Various investigators have reported that K and n both vary with the silt grade.
Table 4.4 gives the relations for other reions.
Table 4.4 :Kennedy's Relations for Various Regions

1 N~C R&&
I
Region
I

2. , y = 0.530 11Q.52 Krishna Western delta

3. 1 v = 0.567 0°.57 Lower Chenab delta

/ 4. / y = 0.283 ~ ~ 1 Egyptian canals

) 7 ~

4.4.2 Lacey's Silt Theory

Lacey stated that a ch'annel flowing in incoherent alluvium of infinite depth of the same
grade as lhe material carried by it would reach final stabil~tyor final regime conditions, if
the flow is continuous, that is, both the discharge and silt remain constant over a
reasonably long perlod.
A channel attains regime conditions when silting and scouring are in equilibrium and a
dynamic balance exists between the forces generating and maintaining the channel cross
section and gradient. These ideal conditions, though rarely achieved in nature, are termed
as true regime conditions.
A particular grade of silt can be c'uried by a give11discharge through a channel of a
particular sectioii and 3 particular slope. Channcls tr'msporting natural silt have a
tendency to attain a semi-elliptical section. If the silt is coarsest, the major axis of the
ellipse is horizontal ,uld fit is very fine, this axis is vertical (Figure 4.3).
 Design of Unlined Cauals

A B C D E E D C B A
\ \ \ \ \ 1 / I I , /
\

B. COARSE SILT

0. FINE SILT E . VERY FINE SILT

Figure 4.3 :Profile (Shape ) of a Regime Chamel

A chumel designed with a section that is ttx, small and the slope steeper tlian required for
a given discharge will get scoured till appropriate regime conditions are attained. Where a
channel is designed with a section that is too large and the slope tlatter thw required for a
given discharge the channel will deposit silt till final regime conditions are reached.
Lacey's formulae hold for regime conditions, i.e., constant discharge and silt grade, and
are, hence, called "regime formulae". The discharge and silt factor determine the final
regime velocity. Knowing the discharge and silt factor,,f, regime velocity, V can be
determined from which A and R can be calculated. If the shape of the channel is defined,
the bed width and depth can be computed. It is usual to excavate channels with 1:l side
slopes which after silting will attain side slopes of 0.5 : 1 (H : V).

4.4.3 Lacey's Regime Equations

Actual observations were plotted by Lacey and he proposed two relations in the first
instance, such as :
V= = 0.632m . . . (4.19)
= 140v5 . . . (4.20)

where, V = velocity, mls

f = silt factor,
R = hydraulic mean radius, m, and
A = area, m2.

By combining the two relations, he got the "Perimeter - Discharge" or "P-Q relation" as :
P = 4.75 @ . . . (4.21)

where, P = wetted perimeter, m and

,/~
Q = discharge, cumec.

and, further he amved at "V-Q-f relation" as given below :

V= (~f~/140)'/~

His "regime flow relations" are given as under :

v = 35.54~7q.qz3-
or. V = 10.8 R~ S~

and, "non-regime flow relation7'is written as :

where, N, = Lacey's absolute rugosity coefficient.

and K 1 is a constant
The values of Na , depending on the type of material, are given in Table 4.5.
Distribution Works-I1 Table 4.5 :Values of N, for Various Materials

The absolute rugosity coefficient is a function of the grade and density of the boundary
inaterial and does not depend on the channel conditions. Furthermore, other useful
relations are given below :
"Na - f relation"
Nu = 0.0225f14
"Regime scour depth relation"
R = 0 . 4 7 (Q/.fl1"
"Regime slope equation"

S = f 5B
3 3 4 0 t)'16
or, S = 0.0003 x<f-5"/Qlh
"Silt factor, grain size relation"
,f = 1 . 7 6
where, m, = average particle size, inm(the average size being 0 . 3 2 3 mm)
Table 4.6 gives values of m, and f for different materials.
Table 4.6 :Lacey's Silt Factor

I No. Type of Material Grain Size, m,, Silt Factor, f

B ajri
Coarse
Medium
Fine
E
0.888
2. B~ulders
Large 188.800 - ' 24.18 ,
Medium 72.500 15 .OO
Small 50. 100 12.46

Heavy 26.100 9.00

Medium 7.28 4.75

I I sand
Coarse
Medium
0.725
0.505
1 1.50
1.25
Silt
Very fine 0.052
Fine 0.120
Medium 0.158
SAQ2 Standard 1 0.323 1 .00

Expla~nKannedy's and Lacy's sill thcor1t.s: ant1 comparc the two theories
 Design of Unlined Canals
4.5 LIMITATIONS OF SILT THEORIES
The limitation of Kennedy's silt theory is that it does not take into consideration the
width, the shape, and the slope of the channel in its basic design approach. Therefore,
while designing a channel by Kennedy's theory, it is necessary to assume some trial
values of these factors. The velocity computed should permit the desired discharge while
satisfying Kennedy's equation as well. The mean velocity of flow in the channel
determined by either of Chezy's, Manning's or Kutter's equations should not be less than
the critical velocity obtained by Kennedy's relation.
The relations suggested by Lacey pertain to regime channels. A channel will achieve
regime conditions only after it has run for a long time wit11 silt and discharge. Applying it
to a newly co~lstructedcl~annelis inappropriate.

When water is conveyed through a canal some losses in respect of water being conveyed
occur. These losses are terrned as transmission losses. These losses are caused by two
I-
I
factors, such as :
1 (a) Seepage through the wetted periphery of thc canal section, and
1
(b) Evaporation from the free (top) surface of the water in the canal.
br
The following factors deternune the loss of water through seepage or percolation :
(a) Permeability of the strata through which the canal passes. If the strata is less
pervious, obviously the losses will he less and vice-versa.
(b) The level of the ground water table and t l ~ edrainage condition of the sub-soil.
If the water table is deep tlien the losses will be heavy,
(c) The condition of the canal. Seepage loss through a newly constructed canal
will be nmre than a canal that has been silted up with fine sill. Water loss from
a canal in filling will be more than a canal in cutting.
(d) The quantity of silt carried by the canal. Less the silt nlorc is the loss. The silt
on deposition will plug the seepage passages.
(e) Velocity of flow in the canal. Higher the veltxity lower will be the percentage
of loss due to seepage.
(f) Cross-section of the canal. The loss by absorption varies directly as Ule wetted
perimeter and the depth of the canal.
Loss of water by evaporation depends upon the climatic conditions, such as, temperature,
humidity and wind velocity. The evaporation loss varies ir~verselyas the depth of flowing
water, and directly as the extent of top water surface. It is observed that evaporation
1
losses constitute only a fraction of the losses by seepage and are just about 1.5-2 5% of the
total losses in an earthen channel.
For purposes of design, the seepage and evaporation losses are combined and expressed
as cumec per million sq m o f the wetted perimeter and is usually taken as given in
Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 :Transmission Losses in Canals
Running through Different Materials
No. Material Losses in
cumedmillion sq m of
Wetted Perimeter
1. Alluvial red soil 2.50 -

2. Black cotton soil 1.54

3. lkcayed rock, gravel 3.00 -
1
4. Rocks 0.90
Distribution Works-11 Tllc following enlpirical relations for the estimation of losses have been developed for
specific regions.
In UP, the losses are expressed as -
Q = ( B + 11)~'~ /200 . . . (4.30)
where Q = loss in cuniec I km length of channel
B = bed width, m
D = depth, m.
In Punjab, the relation used is :
K = 1.9 L)'" . . . (4.31)
where, K = losses in cumec per million sq ni of wetted perimeter
Q = channel discharge. cumec.

4.7 DESIGN PROCEDURES

Design of Channel by Kennedy's Theory
A channel designed by Kennedy's theory will require the following data :
(a) The design discharge of the channel, Q in cuniec
(b) Tl~ebed slope, S (to k assunled on practical considerations)
( c ) Tlle rugosity coefficient, N
(d) The critical velocity ratio, nz = V / V ,
The relations to be used are listed as under :
(a) Q = A V

(b) Kutter's, V = .,.

(c) Kennedy's. V = 0.546 m . . . (4.16)

Procedure
(a) A trial value of D is assumed: and it is substituted in Equation (4.17) to
compute the value of ~riticalvelocity.
(b) A = Q/V, A can be expressed in terms of 8 and I>(bed width and depth of the
channel, repectively) adopting side slopes of 0.5 : 1 (H : V) if not specified.
For the trial value of D (as adopted above), determine 8.Knowing values of B
and I) find R, the hydraulic me'm depth.
(c) Substituting the value of R in Equation (4.3) determine V, the actual velocity
for the assumed channel section.
(d) If the velocities determined from Equations (4.17) and (4.3) agree with each
other, then the assumed depth is correct, otherwise a second tnal is to be
made. The trials are repeated until the two velocities are almost ec]u:ll.
Example 4.1
Design an irrigation channel to supply 50 cumec of water at a slope of 115000
with Kutter's N = 0.025 and ni = 0.95, using Kennedy's theory.
Solution Design of Unlinecl Canals

Let D = 2.4 m
Kennedy's V = 0.546 x 0.95 x (2.4) 0.64 = 0.91 n-~
/s
A = Q/V - 50 /0.91 = 54.945 m2
For the canal, the side slopes are assumed as 0.5 : 1 (H : V).
Thus, for a trapezoidal section, A = BD + D2/ 2 = 54.945 rn2
Putting D = 2.4 nl , 2.4 B + 2.42 / 2 = 55.05 m
ort B = 21.70 m
P =B + 2.24 D = 21.70 + (2.24 x 2.4) = 27.10 m
R = A / P = 54.945/27.10 = 2.03 m
Chezy's C in Kutter's equation

.: .Actual velocity = C = 45.95 d(2.03 x 1/5000) = 0.93 m / s

The actual velocity of flow, (0.93 m / s) works out to be nearly the sane as the
critical velocity of 0.91 nl / s. Hence, the assutned channel dimensions are
acceptable.
Therefore, adopt Bed width = 21.70 m, and depth = 2.4 m.
Example 4.2
Design an irrigation channel to supply 50 cumec of water by Lacey's method
assunling a silt factor of 1.O.
Solution
P = 4.75 @ = 4.75 d% = 33.59 tn
R = 0.47(Q/f11" = 0.47(50/1)'" = 1.73 m
S = 0.0003 . = 0.0003 x (I)'" x ( 5 0 ) ' ~= 0.000156
V = 10.8R"' s'" = 10.8 x ( 1 . 7 3 ) x~ (0.000156)'" = 0.838 m / s
Also, P = B + L) 6 = 33.59 m(as calculated above)
(Assuming a side slope of 1 : 0.5 (V : H))
Thus, B = 33.59 - 2.236 11
and , A = (BD) + D2/2 = PR = 3 3 . 5 9 ~
1.73 = 58.11 m2
or, (33.59 D - 2.236 0') + 0.5 D2 = 58.11
i.e., 1.7361)2 - 33.59 1) + 58.11 = 0
or D = 1.92 m or 17.42 m
The value of D = 17.42 nl will give negative value of B , and hence is not
acceptable. With D = 1.92 tn, B = 33.53 -- 2.236 x 1.92 = 29.3 111.
Example 4.3
Design a trapezoidal channel (with side slopes of 2H : I V) to convey 14 cumec
of clear water with a bed slope of 1/9000. The canal bed and banks consist of
coarse sand of 3 mnl size ('angle of repose, 0 = 31°). Adopt the tractive force
approach.
Solution
From Equation (4.7). we have :
Distribution Works-I1

= 2.44 N/m2
2
Let us assume, zb, = 0.9 z, = 0.9 x 2.44 = 2.196 N/m , and also zbm = 2.197 N/m.
The cosine etc. of a, the side-slope angle, are given by :
:. from Equation (4.12) :
cos a d m , = 0.494
K = - tan2 0 - tan a =
tan0 0.6
Therefore, from Equatin 4.12, -
zsl = 0.494 x zbl= 0.494 x 2.196 = 1.085 N/m2 = zsm.
Further calculations are done by trial and error method. Let B/h ratio = 10, to
begin with.
Then from Figure 4.1 (a), for a B/h ratio of 10, z,, / whs - 0.76;
or, h = zSm/0.76 ws = 1.085/(0.78 x 9 8 1 0 x 1 /9000) = 1.28 m
From Figure 4.1 (h), for a B/h ratio of 10, zhm / whs = 0.99;
or, h = zhm/0.99 w s = 2.197 /(0.99 x 9810 x 119000) = 2.04 m
Adopting the lesser of the two flow depths, h = 1.28 m. Thus, B = 10 h = 12.8 m.
Areaof flow,A= Bh + 2 h 2 = 1 2 . 8 ~1.28 + 2 x 1 . 2 8 ~= 19.66m2.
Wetted perimeter, P = B + 26 h = 12.8 + 2 f i x 1.28 = 18.52m.
Hydraulic meandepth, R = A / P = 19.66 /18.52 = 1.062m.
- 3 V6 /25.6 = 0.0148.
Rugosity coefficient, N = dlh/25.6 = ( 3 x 10 )
Then from Manning's relation,
Q = A V = ( I / N ) AR ~ S *
= ( 1 /0.0148) x 19.66 x ( 1 . 0 6 2 ) x~ =
- 14.58 cumec, which is just right.
Hence, a canal with a bed width of 12.8 m, and a depth of 1.28 m (without free
hoard) will be able to carry the design discharge.
' .". <
i >i*<l:L~t~ I I Ii ~ r i g : ~ ~c~kk~l!llli!f
ioi~ LO i ~ i p p l y cu tlltc: ot \v:iter at i~ slope (>C 1 /(')OOO
:v~rta Kuttcr's A'= 0 , 0 2 2 5 u l t i ni = 0.05. using Kemlu(ly's theory.

i??.;ig~~ ; I !~-;~l)c.;lcrlctal c l l ; r ~ ~ l (w~t!-!

ci slopcs (>I' L H : 1 V) t o convey 30 ztrlllec
O! i. IL,~LI \\::ll~?i. N:IL!I :I hcc! \loilt: !,!' / !!.,OOO, -FIlc ci1r1:ll t ) ~ (:IIIC~
l ~ ; I I I ~~S~ [ ~ s i s t
<,<.).I~.\L\ ; L ! I ~01. ;. 11ii!1 :+i/,:~ ~ I I S0 ~; r:po,,c
L = 3 J "). j4dopI the ( r : ~ ~ t for<(:
iv~
'ipj?: ty-:ic!i.
 Design of Unlined Can:~ls
4.8 SUMMARY
Design of a canal in general, amongst ohter things, involves the deternlinaliorl of tlow
velocity of flow: and for this purpose various formulae arc available. For the desgirl of
unlined canals (i.e.. bed and side nlaterial are erodible due lo the tlow of water) therc are
three basic approaches that are in vogue, such as : tractive force procedure, Kennedy's
silt-theory based approach, and Lacy's silt-theory based degign procedure. The last two
theories have been developed in India: and though these are considered to be appropriate.
yet they suffer from certain limitations. A few solved examples illustrate the basics ot
application procedures of these approaches to design a cllannel section.

4.9 KEY WORDS

Chezy7sFormula : A formula derived by Che2.y to express the velocity of
tlow in an unlined chruulel considering the longitudinal
slope of the channel and the hydraulic mean radius.
Design Procedures : Step by step procedures for determining the c11,annel
dimensions appropriate for conveying a particular
discharge.
Kennedy's Silt Theory : Theory propounded by Kennedy ii)r the silt carrying
capacity of canals.
Kutter7sFormula : An empirical formula given by Kutter to express the
velocity of flow in an unlined chmnel considering the
longitudinal slope of the channel and thc l~ydraulicmean
radius.
Silt Theories : Enlpirical theories correlating the conveyance of silt with
the discharge in a canal.
Lacey7sSilt Theory : Theory suggested by Lacey considers regime conditions
of tlow that include silting and scourillg in alluvial soils
(known as incoherent alluvium).
Manning's Formula : A relation developed by Manning for determining the
velocity of tlow with reference to the hydraulic mean
radius, longitudinal slope and a coefficient of friction of
the channel section.
Transmission Losses : Reduction in discharge of a channel, while the tlow is
taking place, due to seepage as well as evaporation.
Tractive Force Approach : A design approach which considers non-scouring of
erodible material in alluvial dlannels, as the main
criterion for design.

4.10 ANSWERS TO SAOs

Read thrc>ughthe relevant sections and refer to the reference books.
For SAQs 5, 6 and 7 follow the design procedure set out in the solved examples.