Chapter Four

4. Irrigation canals and Design

4. 1 Types of Canals

The success of the flow irrigation depends on the perfect design of the network of canals.
The design of the canal is mainly governed by the quantity of silt in the water and the
type of boundary surface of the channel. Depending upon these factors, the irrigation
channels can be broadly classified into the following types:
a) Non-alluvial channels
b) Rigid boundary channels
c) Alluvial channels

The non-alluvial channels are excavated in non-alluvial soils such as loam, clay, boulder
etc. Generally there is no silt problem in these channels and they are relatively stable.

In the rigid boundary channels, the surface of the channel is lined. The quantity of
sediment (silt) transported by such channels remains more or less the same as that has
entered the channel at its head. In such channels, relatively high velocity of flow is
usually permitted which does not allow the silt to get deposited. Therefore, the problem
of silt usually does not exist.

The alluvial channels are excavated in alluvial soils, such as silt. In the case of alluvial
channels, the quantity of silt may vary from section to section along reach. The silt
content may increase due to scouring of bed and sides of the channel. The silt content
may decrease due to silting at some sections. If the velocity is high, scouring will occur;
but when the velocity is low, silting occurs. Both these phenomena result in modifying
the cross-section of the channel. If the bed and sides are scoured, the cross-section
increases and the full supply level falls, which results in the decrease of command. On
the other hand, if silting occurs, the cross-section decreases and the discharge capacity
decreases, which also results in a decrease of command. Such channels should be
designed for a non-scouring and non-silting velocity, called critical velocity.

Reservoir-fed channels carry the water, which is relatively clear and free from sediments.
On the other hand, the channels taking off from diversion headworks usually carry the
water, which is heavily laden with sediment. Such channels have great silting and
scouring problems.

The design of an irrigation channel consists of the determination of the cross-sectional

areas, depth width, side slopes and the longitudinal slope, etc. for the given boundary
surface. Once thee parameters have been determined, the longitudinal and cross-sections
of the channel may be drawn.

Definition of different terms related to canal design

1. Alluvial soil. The soil that is formed by the continuous deposition of silt is known
as alluvial soil. The river carries heavy charge of silt in rainy season. When the
river overflows its banks during the flood, the silt particles get deposited on the
adjoining areas. This deposition of silt continues year after year. This type of soil
is found in deltaic region of a river. This soil is permeable and soft and very
fertile. The river passing through this type of soil has a tendency to change its
course.
2. Non-alluvial soil. The soil which is formed by the disintegration of rock
formations is known as non-alluvial soil. It is found in the mountainous region of
a river. The soil is hard and impermeable in nature. This is not fertile. The river
passing through this type of soil has no tendency to change its course.
3. Silt factor (f). In designing of a canal in alluvial soil, the suspended silt and the
deposited silt in the canal bed should be taken into consideration with great
importance. During the investigation works in various canals in alluvial soil,
Gerald Lacey established the effect of silt on the determination of discharge and
the canal section. So, he introduced a factor, which is known as ‘silt factor’. It
depends on the mean particle size of silt. It is denoted by ’f’.

The silt factor is determined by the expression,

f = 1.76mr
Where mr- mean particle size of silt in mm

Particle Particle size (mm) Silt factor (f)

Very fine silt 0.05 0.40

Fine silt 0.12 0.60
Medium silt 0.23 0.85
Coarse silt 0.32 1.00

4. Coefficient of Rugosity (N). The roughness of the canal bed affects the velocity
of flow. The roughness is caused due to the ripples formed on the bed of the
canal. So, a coefficient was introduced by R. G. Kennedy for calculating the mean
velocity of flow. This coefficient is known as coefficient of rugosity (N). The
value of ‘N’ depends on the type of bed materials on the canal.

Materials Value of ‘N’

Earth 0.0225
Masonry 0.02
Concrete 0.013 to 0.018

5. Mean Velocity (V). The velocity of flow measured by surface flow is known as
surface velocity. This velocity is not constant at all depths of water in the canal or
river. It is found by observation that the velocity at a depth 0.6D represents the
mean velocity. Where ‘D’ is the depth of water in the canal or river. After a long

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 investigation in various canals, Chezy and Manning have established the
following expressions for finding the mean velocity of flow.
a) Mean velocity by Chezy’s expression

V = C x RS
Where, V = mean velocity in m/sec,
C = Chezy’s constant,
R = hydraulic mean depth,
S = longitudinal slope of
bed

b) Mean velocity by Manning’s expression

1 2 1
V= R 3 S 2 N = Coefficient of rugosity (roughness)
N

6. Critical Velocity (Vo). When the velocity of flow is such that there is no silting
or scouring action in the canal bed, then that velocity is known as critical velocity.
The value of Vo was given by Kennedy according to the following expression,

Vo = 0.546 x D0.64 Where D = depth of water.

7. Critical Velocity Ratio (C.V.R). The ration of the mean velocity ‘V’ to the
critical velocity ‘Vo’ is known as critical velocity ratio (m).

C.V.R = m= V/Vo Where m = 1 there will be no silting or scouring

m >1, scouring will occur
m<1 silting will occur. So, by finding
the value of m, the condition of the canal can be predicted whether
it will have silting or scouring.

8. Hydraulic Mean Depth or radius. The ratio of the cross-sectional area of flow
to the wetted perimeter of the channel is known as hydraulic mean depth or radius
(R)

R = A/Pw Where, A = Cross-sectional area of flow

Pw = Wetted perimeter

9. Full Supply Discharge (F.S.D). The maximum discharge capacity of the canal
for which it is designed is known as full supply discharge. The water level of the
canal corresponding to the full supply discharge is known as full supply level
(F.S.L).

10. Economic Section. If a canal section is such that the earth obtained from cutting
(i.e. excavation) can be fully utilized in forming the banks, then that section is

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 known as economic section. Again the discharge will be maximum with minimum
cross-section area. Here, no extra earth is required from borrow pit and no earth is
in excess to form the spoil bank. This condition can only arise in case of partial
cutting and partial banking. Sometimes, this condition is designated as balancing
of cutting and banking. Here, the depth of cutting is called balancing depth.

4.2 Design of Non-alluvial Channels

The non-alluvial soils are stable and nearly impervious. To design a canal in this type of
soil, the coefficient of rugosity plays an important role, but the other factor like silt factor
has no any role. Here, the velocity of flow is considered very close to critical velocity.
So, the mean velocity given by Chezy’s expression or Manning’s expression is
considered for the design of canals in this soil. The following formulae are adopted for
the design:
1) Mean Velocity by Chezy’s formula:

V = CRS V, C, R and S- as expressed above

The Chezy’s constant C can be calculated as:

a) Bazen’s formula:

C = 87/ 1+ K/R Where, K = Basin’s Constant

R = hydraulic radius (m)

b) Kutter’s formula

0.00155 1
23  
C= S N N, R and S-as expressed above
 0.00155  N
1   23  
 S  R

2) Mean velocity by Manning’s formula:

1 2 1
V= R 3 S 2
N

3) Discharge (Q)

Q=AxV Q = m3/sec
A = cross-sectional area of water section in m2
V = mean velocity (m/sec)

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Note:

(a) If value of K is not given, then it may be assumed as follows, for unlined
channel, K = 1.30 to 1.75, for lined channel K = 0.45 to 0.85
(b) If the value of N is not given, then it may be assumed as follows, for unlined
channel, N = 0.00225, for lined channel, N = 0.333

4.3 Design of Alluvial Channels

In the case of alluvial channels, the channel surface consists of alluvial soil which can be
easily scoured. Moreover, the velocity is low which encourages silting. Therefore, in an
alluvial channel, both scouring and silting may occur if the channel is not properly
designed. The quantity of silt transported by water in an alluvial channel varies from
section to section due to scouring of bed and sides as well as due to silting (or
deposition). If the velocity is too high, scouring may occur. On the other hand, if the
velocity is too low, silting may occur. The command of an irrigation channels decreases
if the scouring occurs because the full supply level falls. The discharge capacity is
decreased if the silting occurs because the cross-section is reduced. Therefore, the alluvial
channel should be designed such that neither scouring nor silting occurs. The velocity at
which this condition occurs is called the critical velocity. Such an alluvial channel is
called a stable channel. Therefore, a stable channel is none in which banks and bed are
not scoured and also in which no silting occurs. Even if there is some minor scouring and
silting, the bed and banks of a stable channel remain more or less unaltered over a long
period of time.

Several investigators have studied the problem and suggested various theories. These are
known as silt theories.

The following two theories are commonly used for the design of canals in alluvial soils.
Kennedy’s Silt Theory
Lacey’s Silt Theory

Kennedy’s Theory

After long investigations R.G. Kennedy arrived at a theory which states that the silt
carried by flowing water in a channel is kept in suspension by the vertical component of
eddy current which is formed over the entire bed width of the channel and the suspended
silt rises up gently towards the surface.

The following assumptions are made in support of his theory,

(a) The eddy current is developed due to the roughness of the bed
(b) The quality of the suspended silt is proportional to bed width
(c) It is applicable to those channels which are flowing through the bed consisting of
sandy silt or same grade of silt.

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He established the idea of critical velocity ‘Vo’ which will make a channel free from
silting or scouring. From long observations, he established a relation between the critical
velocity and the full supply depth as follows,

Vo = C x D n
The value of C and n where found out as 0.546 and 0.64 respectively.

Thus, Vo = 0.546 x D0.64

Again he realized that the critical velocity was affected by the grade of silt. So he
introduced another factor m, which is known as critical velocity ratio (C.V.R).

Thus, Vo = 0.546 x m x D.64

Drawbacks in Kennedy’s Theory

 The theory is limited to average regime channel only.

 The design of channel is based on the trial and error method.
 The value of ‘m’ was fixed arbitrarily.
 Silt charge and silt grade are not considered
 There is no equation for determining the bed slope and it depends on Kutter’s
equation only.
 The ratio of ‘B’ to ‘D’ has no significance in his theory.

Expressions Adopted for the Design by Kennedy

a) Critical velocity, Vo = 0.546 x m x D .64

b) Mean velocity, V = CRS

Where m = C.V.R
D = full supply depth (m)
R = hydraulic mean depth (m)
S = bed slope (1 in n)
C- is calculated by Kutter’s formula

c) B/D ratio assumed between 3.5 to 1.2

d) Discharge, Q = A x V

Where, A = x-sectional in m2
V = mean velocity in m/sec
e) The full supply depth is fixed by trial to satisfy the value of ‘m’. Generally the
trial depth is assumed 1m to 2m. If the condition is not satisfied within, then it
may be assumed accordingly.
Lacey’s Theory

Lacey’s theory is based on the concept of regime condition of the channel. The regime
condition will be satisfied if,

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 The channel flows uniformly in unlimited in coherent alluvium of the same character,
which is transported by the channel.
The silt grade and the silt charge remain constant.
The discharge remains constant.

In his theory, he states that the silt carried by the flowing water is kept in suspension by
the vertical component of eddies. The eddies are generated at all the points on the wetted
perimeter of the channel section. Again he assumed the hydraulic mean radius, R, as the
variable factor and he recognized the importance of silt grade for which introduced a
factor which is known as silt factor ‘f’. Thus he deduced the velocity as,
V = 2 fR Where V = mean velocity in m/sec, f = silt factor, R = hydraulic radius.
5

Then he deduced the relation between A, V, Q, P w, S and f as follows:

1. f = 1.76mr
2
2. Af = 140 V2
1
 Qf 2  6
3. V =  
 140 
4. Pw = 4.75 Q

5. Regime slope equation

3
2
f
a) S = 1
3
4980R
5
3
f
b) S = 1
6
3340Q

6. Regime flow equation

V = 10.8 R2/3S1/2

7. Regime scour depth

R = 0.47 (Q/f)1/3
6
 f 53 
8. From 5b, Q =  
 3340 S 
 
Drawbacks in Lacey’s Theory

1. The concept of true regime is theoretical and cannot be achieved practically.

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2. The various equations are derived by considering the silt factor f, which is not at all
constant.
3. The concentration of silt is not taken into account.
4. Silt grade and silt charge are not clearly defined.
5. The equations are empirical and based on the available data from a particular type
of channel. So, it may not be true for a different type of channel.
6. The characteristics of regime channel may not be same for all cases.