CANALS

Engr. Shafiq-ur-Rahman Sameja

 CANAL AND ITS TYPES

 CANAL: A canal is an artificial channel,

generally trapezoidal in shape, constructed on
ground to carry water to the fields either from
the river or from a tank or reservoir.

 Main Canal: A main canal, generally carries

water directly from the river and therefore it
carries heavy supplies and is not used for direct
irrigation except in exceptional circumstances.
Main canal acts as a water carrier to feed
supplies to branch canals and major
distributaries.
 Branch Canal: There are the branches of
main canal in either direction taking off at
regular intervals. In general, branch canals are
usually feeder canals or feeder branches for
major or minor distributaries.

 Major Distributaries: These take off from a

branch canal. They may also sometimes take off
from the main canal but their discharge is
generally lesser than branch canals. They are
real irrigation channels, in sense, that they
supply water for irrigation to fields through
outlet, provided along them.
 Minor Distributaries: These take off from
major distributaries, but sometimes, they take off
from branch canal, also. They supply water to
water courses through outlets provided along
them and carry lesser discharge than major
distributary.

 Water Courses: It is a small channel which

ultimately feeds the water to the irrigation field.
 TYPES OF CHANNELS

 Contour Canal:
A channel flowing along the survey contour.

 Ridge Canal:
A channel flowing in filling or at
a higher level than the surrounding fields on either
direction.
 TYPES OF CHANNELS

 In Filling: When the bed level of the channel

is higher or the bed of the channel is made higher
than the adjoining ground level by filling.

 In Cutting: When the bed of the channel is in

depression or made lower than the adjoining
ground level by excavation.

 Partially in cutting and partially in filling:

When the site of the channel is such that certain
places require filling and certain places require
cutting. In this case B.L is below G.L & FSL is
above G.L.
CROSS-SECTION OF CANAL
CROSS-SECTION OF CANAL IN CUTTING
DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CHANNELS
 Design of irrigation channels consists in
finding its various elements e.g.
1) Bed Width (B)

2) Full supply depth (D)

3) Bed slope (S)

4) Side slopes

5) Mean velocity

6) Embankment top width

7) Extent of free board

 The guiding principles for the design of various
elements are as shown below:
 Side Slopes:
These should be such as can
withstand the pressure of water. These should be
stable. The average values are as below:

For light sand 2H : 1V to 3H : 1V

For sandy loam or Soft 1.5 H : 1V to 3H : 2V

Clay

For hard clay 1H : 1V.

 Free Board:
Free board is the vertical distance
between full supply level (F.S.L.) and the tops of
channel banks. It is about 6" for water courses and
1' to 4' or even more for other big canals.

As a general rule
F.S.D.
Free board = ( ------------- + 1 ) ft.
10
Where,
F . S . D is full supply depth.
 Inside Berms:
This is kept for future widening
of the canal. The width may be 2-4 times the FSD.

 Canal Banks:
Slope of the banks depends on the nature of
the material. It should be flatter on the water side.

 Spoil Banks:
When the excavation is more
than the embankments, the extra earth is dumped
in the form of a bank parallel to the canal banks, of
height equal to that of the canal banks. Such a
bank is called as spoil banks.
 NON SILTING NON SCOURING
VELOCITY
 The velocity of flow that prevents from deposition
of silts and scouring action is known as the non
silting and non scouring velocity.

 High velocities in natural river or canals may

result erosion/scouring, but low velocities would
cause deposition of silt in the bed, and cross-
section may be reduced. Hence flow is affected.
 DESIGN OF UNLINED CHANNELS

 Irrigation engineering involves the construction

of thousands miles of canals and to line them all
would be quite uneconomic. Hence the design of
an unlined channel which will remain stable is
an important challenge for the hydraulic and
irrigation engineer.
 Besides the difficulty that unlined sections erode
easily, the water entering the canal already
carries a heavy sediment load; which is likely to
be deposited. This has to be given due
consideration.
 In brief, the solution of the problem consists in
determining (1) depth, (2) bed width, (3) side
slope and (4) longitudinal slope of the channel so
as to produce a non-silting and non-scouring
velocity for the given discharge and sediment
load.

 The various formulas used for the design are:

1. Manning's formula

( i.) V (FPS) = (1.49/n) R(2/3) S(1/2)

( ii.) V (SI) = (1/n)R(2/3) S(1/2)

2. Chezy's formula

V = C 𝑅𝑆

3. Kutters formula
0.00281 1.811
41.6+ +
C= 𝑆
0.00281
𝑁
𝑁
1+ 41.6+ ( )
𝑆 𝑅
 KENNEDY'S SILT THEORY

 Kennedy worked at the upper Bari Doab Canal in

1865-1885 and his research work was published
in Civil Engineers, Institution in London. He
started his studies in 1865 and gave an empirical
formula in 1895.
Vc = 0.84 D0.64
 When the same formula was applied in Sindh,
then the constant 0.84 was not found to be
correct. Therefore a general formula was
proposed as:
Vc = m Dn
 Where,
Vc = Critical velocity i.e. non silting and
non scouring velocity.
m = Constant which depends on the nature
and the charge (Parts/million) of the silt. It has a
greater value for coarser silt.
m = 0.84 for some of the Punjab canals

m = 0.63 for some of the Sindh canals

n = Constant, and its value is 0.64 approximately

 The critical velocity for earthen canals is

approximately taken as 3.5 ft/sec.
 Bed slope of 1 ft/miles is considered good enough
for Punjab and Sindh canals to get good results
i.e. 1' in 5000‘.
Note that one canal mile = 5000' and not 5280 feet.
 Side slope of the canal can be taken as 1/2H : 1V.

 For design, we assume certain depth of flow for

known discharge for given 'm' value and we find
'V' from, Vc = m Dn
 Then from side slope and bed slope, with B & D
We proceed through chezy's formula to get V
actual.
 If Vact >V - it is scouring velocity

 If Vact < V - it is silting velocity

 So we make trails to get Vact very close to 'V'

 PROBLEMS

1) Design an irrigation channel in alluvium soil in

Punjab according to kennedy‘s theory with the
following given data: Q = 500 cfs, N = 0.0225, S
= 1 in 5000.

2) Design a channel as per kennedy‘s theory to carry

a discharge for 60 cusecs with longitudinal slope 1
ft/canal mile. N = 0.0225.

3) Design an irrigation channel according to

kennedy's theory for Q = 5000 cfs, N = 0.0225, S =
1 in 5000.
 MODIFICATION AND IMPROVEMENT TO
KENNEDY'S THEORY

o E.S. Lindley and F.W. Woods suggested

modification and improvements to Kennedy's
theory. Lindley performed experiments on the
lower Chenab canal and developed the following
relationships, between the velocity, bed width
and depth.
 V = 0.95 D0.57
 V = 0.59 B0.355
 B = 3.80 D1.61
o Where V = non-silting, non-scouring velocity and
B and D are the bed width and depth of channel
respectively.
o According to Lindley all the variables in the
channel, i.e. slope, bed with and depth, sediment
charge are all fixed by nature.
o F.W. Woods analyzed Lindley's data and agreed
with him that the stable channel carrying the
sediment charge must have a fixed bed width,
depth and slope. He developed the following
equation:
 D = B(0.434)

 V = 1.434 log10B

1
o S =
2 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑄 ∗1000
 LACEY'S SILT THEORY
o One of the drawbacks in Kennedy's theory is that
the silt supporting power depends only on the bed
width. Kennedy assumed that the silt was
supported by the eddies caused by the bed only
but the eddies are also caused by the sides too.
Therefore wetted perimeter should have been
used instead of bed width only. The other
drawback is that:
o the velocity of water was assumed to be directly
proportional to some power of depth 'D'.
o As Kennedy did not mention any particular bed
slope or any particular B/D ratio, hence if we
analyze the problem without fixing bed slope of
the channel or B/D ratio, a channel carrying 60
cfs , discharge designed as per Kennedy's theory
may have the following alternatives:

S B D B/D

1 in 5000 21.5’ 2.0 10.75

2 in 4000 11.0' 2.9 3.80

3 in 2000 4.0' 4.3' 0.93

o Lindley and wood also improved the Kennedy's
theory but their approach was also same.
However they considered B/D ratio.
o In 1929 Lacy put forward his theory. He made a
systematic study of the observed data and
derived some empirical relations and gave the
concept of 'Regime' theory for unlined channels.
o He proposed the following conditions (Regime
conditions of unlined channels for zero net
erosion or deposition over a hydrological cycle i.e.
 Discharge should be constant.

 Loose granular alluvium material which can be

scoured out as easily as it is deposited should be
of same characteristics.
 Silt grade and silt charge are constant.
o Obviously all the above requirements are
unlikely to be fulfilled in nature, and therefore
regime conditions may not be obtained. Lacey
therefore classified the regime conditions as
below:
 True Regime:
o This is obtained when the above conditions are
fulfilled. This happens most often in sandy rivers
in alluvial plains which have lateral freedom and
by meandering adjust their length and slope,
which is determined solely by discharge and silt
grade.
o Artificial channels with no freedom of lateral
movement can never achieve true regime. They
may achieve initial regime but only rarely final
regime.
 Initial Regime :
o Channels excavated in the first instance with
defective slopes and with narrow dimensions, can
by immediately throwing down incoherent silt on
the bed, increase their slopes and by the
generation of increased velocity achieve a non-
silting equilibrium which may be termed initial
regime. Such channels are subject to lateral
restraint in that the scouring of the banks is not
allowed.
o They attain a working stability and therefore
neither silt nor scour but they are not in final
regime. Their slopes and velocities are higher and
the cross-section narrower than they would have
been if the sides were not rigid.
 Final Regime:
o If the continuous action of the current eventually
overcomes the resistance of the sides and set up a
condition where the channel adjusts its
perimeter, depth and slope according to discharge
and silt grade, final regime conditions are said to
have been achieved.
 LACY‘ S EQUATIONS
o Lacy worked on that canals which were at the
final regime conditions. He gave various formulae
to design bed slope, bed width and other
parameters of channels. In this case no hit and
trail method is used.
o The equations given by Lacey is:
V = 1.1547 𝑓𝑅
o Where V = non-silting, non-scouring velocity, R =
Hydraulic mean depth, f = Lacey‘ s silt factor. If
the particle sizes are increasing, the value of 'f'
will also increase and vice versa. The values of 'f'
for various materials was given by Lacy. (see
page 114, in Book by Iqbal Ali).
o Now according to Kennedy's theory
Vc = m x 0.84 D0.64
o Where m = Critical velocity ratio (CVR) and it
is equal to the square root of Lacey‘ s silt factor
i.e. m= 𝑓 , f = m2
8 3 2.67
P= 𝑄 = 𝑄
o Where, P = wetted perimeter and Q = discharge
𝑓5 3
o S= , where S = Bed slope
1844 𝑄1 6

1.346
o V= R3/4 S1/2 , where Na the roughness
𝑁𝑎

of material = 0.0225cf
o The other formulae for design are the modified
form of Manning’s Formula
o Manning's formula:
1.36
o V= R3/4 S1/2
𝑁𝑎
o Where Na = 0.0225 f1/4

o PROBLEM-1: Design an irrigation channel in

alluvial soil according to Lacey‘ s theory, given
the following data: Q = 500 cfs, and Lacey‘ s
silt factor, f=1.
o PROBLEM-2: Design an unlined channel as
per Lacey‘ s theory to carry a discharge of 60 Cfs.
with longitudinal slope of 1 ft/canal mile.
o PROBLEM-3: Design an unlined channel as
per Lacey‘ s theory to carry a discharge of 5000
Cfs. with longitudinal slope of 1 ft/canal mile.
 Problem-3: Solution
Q=5000 cfs, S=1/5000,
P= 2.67 (5000)(1/2)=188.8 ft
f=(1844S(Q)0.6 )=1.288
V=1.1547(fR)(0.5) =1.311R(0.5) (1)
V=(1.346/Na)R(3/4)S(1/2) Na=0.0225(f)0.25 =0.024
V=0.794R(3/4) (2)
Equating Eq. 1 and 2, 0.794R(3/4) = 1.311R(0.5)
R=7.427, A=RxP=7.427x188.8=1402.21ft2
A=1402.21=(B+2D(1+(0.5)2)0.5 (3)
P= 188.8= B+2(0.5DxD/2))0.5 (4)
Solving 3 and 4
D=2.51 ft
B=15.08 ft
 SILT CONTROLLING WORKS
o A lot of silt is carried by the rivers every year.
The river sutlej transports 35 million tons of
sediments per year, while the Indus carries a
total load of 440 million tons per year at Tarbela,
with a mean annual discharge of 93 MAF, and
the estimate for the Jhelum is 70 million tons per
year. The Warsak reservoir on the river Kabul
built in 1960, had an initial live storage of 23,000
acre feet which in the last ten years has been
reduced to a residual minimum of 10,000 acre
feet. Tarbela reservoir with an initial live storage
of 9.3 million acre feet when completed in 1975,
will reduce to one million acre feet in fifty years
whereas the Mangla reservoir will lose 30
percent of its live storage in the same period.
 SILT CONTROLLING WORKS

 Unlined canals can get choked or silted by

sediment brought by the rivers, and diverted into
the canals along with the water. Special works
may be constructed to control sediments entering
into the canals or sediments being carried away
by water. These works are called as silt
controlling works. These works are:
 Works in the river (Silt excluder )

 Works in the canal (silt ejector)

 Proper channel design

 SILT EXCLUDERS
 The basic idea behind the design is that the lower
layers of the flowing water carry a higher
concentration of silt, and therefore if the upper
layers of the water only can be skimmed into the
canal, all the rolling bed silt and the silt in the
lower layers is excluded. This is achieved by a silt
excluder. This is a diaphragm slab supported on a
number of tunnels. Tunnels are placed parallel to
the head regulator and discharge d/s through the
under-sluices. The water above the silt excluder
slab containing less silt is then diverted into the
canal. The following points should be kept in mind
while designing a silt excluder.
 Thetunnel discharge through the under-sluice is
recommended to be 20% of the canal discharge.
 The silt excluder should cover only two bays of
the under-sluice.
 The approach channel need not be lined.
 Thedivide wall should be 1.2. to 1.4 times the
head regulator length.
 The top of the silt excluder slab should be
flushed with the head regulator crest.
 Theroof slab should be designed to carry a full
water load in case the tunnels are empty.
 The first tunnel should cover all the head
length.
 The discharge through the tunnels will
depend upon the head measured above the
centre line of the tunnel. Tunnels can be
treated as box culverts.
 The velocity in tunnels should be 6 ft/sec to
10 ft/sec.
 SILT EJECTOR
 It employees the same principle of sediment
removal as the silt excluder except that it is placed
in the bed of the canal and is located about 1000
yards d/s of the head regulator.
 It consists of a horizontal slab a little above the
canal bed, which separates out the bottom layers.
Under the slab there are tunnels to eject heavy silt
laden bottom water in an escape channel. For
designing of silt ejector the following points
should be kept in mind:
 Itshould be located about 1000 yards d/s of the
head regulator.
 The bed width of the canal is divided into a
number of tunnels. These tunnels curve to right
or left and pass under the canal bank to
terminate in a regulator, which is provided with
gates to regulate the discharge
 The height of the tunnel should be 20 to 25% of
the design depth of water in canal.
 The top slab of the tunnels usually project 1.5 ft
to 2 ft U/S at the entrance.
 20% of the canal discharge is usually diverted
into the ejector. This means that 20% additional
discharge over and above the canal design
discharge is allowed to enter the canal at the
head regulator.
 CANAL HEAD REGULATOR

 Canal head regulator is a structure constructed at

the head of canal. In the case of main canal, it
consist of a number of sluices or opening between
piers controlled by gates which are operated from
the overhead gate bridge on the top as the weirs.
Along with the service bridge above the pier we
may also have a road bridge for traffic:-
 The objects of a canal head regulator are:

1) To regulate the supply entering the canal.

2) To control the amount of silt entry into the canal.

3) To shut out river floods entering the canal.

 The head regulator of a distributary of minor canal
is similar to that of main canal, so far as the
working principle is concerned. It consists of a
number of arches to carry a road bridge for traffic
and also in some cases a gate bridge for the
manipulation of gates which move between piers.
 The function of the regulator is to pass into the
channel, the required quantity of water as when
necessary. Its design should be such as to allow
into the channel its due share of silt in suspension.
 The sill of the regulator is usually fixed slightly above
the bed level of the parent channel on its upstream
side. The spans are controlled by vertical lift gates or
radial gates and in case of some unimportant regulator
by1 needles. The regulator is generally a flumed one
because it is economical. However it involves
transitions, energy dissipation arrangement etc.
 Distributary head regulator: This controls the
supply to an off-taking channel from the parent
channel.

 Cross regulator: This structure controls the

water level of a channel and the discharge
downstream of another hydraulic structure.

 Canal escape: Canal escape disposes of extra

supplies when the safety of a canal is endangered
due to heavy rains or closure of outlets by
farmers.