Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612

DOI 10.1007/s00170-013-4957-2

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Evaluating of cutting forces in thread machining

Hamza K. Akyildiz

Received: 2 January 2013 / Accepted: 25 March 2013 / Published online: 19 April 2013
# Springer-Verlag London 2013

Abstract External thread cutting is a complex 3-D process In machining processes, external thread cutting is uniquely
in which the cutting conditions vary over the thread cutter complex both in geometry and process. Processes such as
profile. It is accepted as a mature technology. However, cylindrical turning, shaping, and planning are usually ap-
thread machining is heavily experience-based technology proximated by orthogonal cutting where the plane strain
and there are few academic works published. Determining conditions are assumed. These assumptions do not represent
the cutting forces during machining is crucial to explain the helical thread geometry and the V-shaped chip form.
formation of the surface layer, residual stresses, selection However, the V-shaped thread chip can be split into three
of the most appropriate machine tool, and optimizing the zones as the root (bottom) and the two sides and orthogonal
process. Mechanistic force model is known to be the most cutting conditions can be assumed at each one individually.
developed method in machining processes. In orthogonal Below, a semi-analytical cutting force prediction method is
cutting, the material is removed by the cutting edge that is proposed based on this simplification and the predictions are
perpendicular to the direction of relative tool-work motion verified with some limited experiments. These simplifica-
(direction of the cutting velocity). Although the most cutting tions are inspired by some former Soviet scientists’ previous
operations are three-dimensional, orthogonal cutting is used work that is not very well-known in western circles [2].
to explain the general mechanics of the material removal. In Cutting forces are great aspects of machining. All calcula-
this study, tangential and radial cutting forces during thread tions for example design of tools and machine structure, cal-
cutting which has API-V0.040 thread profile were predicted culation of cutting temperature, determining of stability lobes
from the orthogonal cutting data of the AISI 4140 steel. during cutting, calculation of form and dimensional errors, etc.
Huge differences up to 60 % were observed between pre- are based on the cutting forces [3–7]. Dimensional errors
dicted and measured cutting forces. Therefore, mechanistic interface temperature and stress distributions in the metal cut-
force model was improved for thread cutting operations and ting process can be calculated using techniques such as the
cutting forces were predicted with average errors between 3 analytical modeling (AM) and finite element method (FEM).
and 18 % depending on machining parameters. Both AM and FEM require the flow stress data of the work
piece material as function of high strains (1 to 4), strain rates
Keywords Thread machining . Cutting forces . Chip (103 to 105 s−1) and temperature levels as input. Conventional
compression ratio . Mechanistic model tension, compression, or torsion tests cannot be used for this
purpose [8]. As an addition, obtaining statistically reliable
experimental machining data for different machining condi-
1 Introduction tions is extremely costly in terms of both time and material [1].
In mechanistic force model, material behavior is generally
Traditionally, the selection of cutting tools and cutting con- modeled depending on the chip thickness, rake angle, and
ditions in machining processes such as turning and milling cutting velocity throughout orthogonal cutting tests.
has been left to the machine tool operator who would Variations of the shear angle, friction angle, and shear stress
acquire the necessary skills from practical experience [1]. are determined in terms of chip thickness, rake angle, and
cutting velocity thorough orthogonal cutting tests. Using least
square method curves are fitted for shear angle, friction angle,
H. K. Akyildiz (*)
and shear stress. Then cutting coefficients are calculated from
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bozok University,
66200 Yozgat, Turkey these data for each differential chip area and cutting forces are
e-mail: hkemal.akyildiz@bozok.edu.tr predicted at each differential chip area during cutting.
1602 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612

Orthogonal cutting data can be used to simulate cutting depths of cuts per passes during achieving 1.5 mm thread
forces during 3D cutting operations. Geometries of the work height (cumulative radial feed). In the experimental studies
piece and chip can affect the reliability of the assumptions ASTM A28/A109 grade AISI 4140 steel was used.
while evaluating the cutting force prediction by using or- CNC turning machine and 3D machining force mea-
thogonal cutting data. When using simple geometries in surement system were used in thread cutting experi-
machining, one can be achieved better force predictions in ments. All the threads were machined in API V0.040
machining process. Cutting forces can be evaluated depend- thread form given by the related API standard [9].
ing on the orthogonal cutting data along the nonlinear cut- During the thread cutting experiments no cutting fluids
ting geometry. In linear chip area (Fig. 1, region 3), chip were used. In all experiments, cutting velocity was
thickness is constant and equals the chip thickness in cylin- 90 m/min and flank wear less than 0.05 mm at the
drical turning operations. In nonlinear chip areas (Fig. 1, thread tool tip was allowed. Diameter of the steel bar
regions 1 and 2), chip thickness changes continuously and was 41.275 mm and pitch of the thread was 3 mm
cutting forces change their directions around the curved chip during the experiments. CNC turning machine used in
segments. The most accurate evaluation can be handled by tests is Harding Super slant lathe. Spindle drive power
dividing the chip in to small differential elements with an of the lathe is 10 KW with a maximum spindle speed
angular increment [3]. By integrating forces of the small of 4,000 rpm. Sandvik 266RG-22V401A0503E 1020
differential elements, total cutting force of the total chip grade single toot coated cutting tool in API V 0.040
segment can be obtained for each cutting pass. thread form was used in the experiments. Rake angle of
In this study mechanistic force model is applied to thread threading tool was zero and inclination angle was 1°.
cutting operations and cutting forces were predicted for each Thread tool nose radius (thread root radius) was
thread cutting pass until 1.5 mm thread height (cumulative 0.508 mm. Compound straight feeding method was used
radial feed) is achieved for each set of experiment. Huge differ- during the experiments.
ences up to 60 % were observed between predicted and mea- Three sets of thread cutting experiments were conducted.
sured cutting forces depending on the cumulative radial feed. Designed experimental plan is given in Table 1. In the first
set of experiments, for 0.1 mm constant radial feed per pass,
15 thread cutting passes were conducted. In the second set,
2 Material and method for 0.05 mm constant radial feed per pass, 30 thread cutting
passes were conducted. In the third set, for 0.025 mm con-
Thread cutting forces throughout threading passes were stant radial feed per pass, 60 thread cutting passes were
experimentally measured for three different constant radial conducted. Heights of threads of H=1.5 mm (cumulative
radial feed) were achieved by the end of each set of experi-
ments. Thread cutting forces were measured depending on
the cumulative radial feed for each successive thread cutting
pass. Cutting forces were measured by using a tool holder
dynamometer.
Before measurements the amplifier’s calibration coef-
ficients supplied by the manufacturer were set for three
channels. A three-channel charge amplifier was used in
the experiments. Sampling rate for each channel was set
as 1,000 (number of measurements per second) for each
measurement process. Dynamometer sensitivity gains
supplied by the manufacturer were considered during
experiments.

Table 1 Designed experimental plan for thread cutting operations and

cutting force simulations

Uncut chip thickness Thread height Number of the thread

(radial feed per pass) [mm] [mm] cutting passes

0.1 1.5 15
0.05 1.5 30
0.025 1.5 60
Fig. 1 Chip cross-sectional area during thread cutting
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612 1603

3 Force calculation by using mechanistic model

In the mechanistic force model, chip cross-sectional area

and length of cutting edge for each particular thread cutting
pass are needed. To calculate cutting forces thread chip
cross-sectional area and length of cutting edge for each
thread cutting pass are evaluated. Chip cross-sectional area
during thread cutting can be divided into three geometrical
regions (Fig. 1).
Region 1 is the area of VLKZ. As seen from the Fig. 1,
inner and outer boundaries of this area are circular. Inner
boundary is generated by the tool nose radius at the previous
threading pass and outer boundary of the region 1 is gener-
ated by the tool nose radius at current threading pass. Left
and right sides of the region 1 is defined by linear lines VZ
and LK, respectively. Chip thickness varies with the angle θ
in region 1. θS1 is the angle enclosing region 1.
Region 2 is the area of KLMN. As seen from the Fig. 1, Fig. 2 First thread cutting pass
inner boundary of the region 2 is generated by the tool nose
radius at the previous pass and outer boundary is generated
by the linear cutting edge of the side of the thread cutting Instantaneous chip thickness during the first thread cut-
tool at the current pass. Left and right boundaries are de- ting pass is calculated as follows:
fined by the linear lines KL and MN, respectively. Chip
thickness varies with the angle θ in this region. θS2 −θS1 is rc
hðθÞ ¼ r  ð2Þ
the total angle including region 2. hθS2 is the chip thickness Cosθ
at the end of the region 2. Then corresponding differential chip area (A1) can be
Region 3 is the area of the NMRP. Inner and outer calculated as follows:
boundaries are generated by the linear cutting edge of the
side of the threading tool at the previous and current thread- dA ¼ hðθÞ:rdθ ð3Þ
ing pass, respectively. Left and right boundaries of the area
are defined also by the linear lines MN and PR reactively.
Chip thickness is constant in this region and is half of the Z S1
θ¼θ

radial feed. A1 ¼ 2: hðθÞ:rdθ ð4Þ

Chip cross-sectional area and cutting forces can be cal- θ¼0
culated in three different regions and then can be summed to
evaluate total thread cutting force for the current threading
pass.

3.1 Force calculation in region 1

Threading passes in the region 1 can be divided in two

sections; one is the first pass (Fig. 2), the others are the
passes after the first pass until the engagement point of
the linear sides and circular nose radius of the tool
(Fig. 3).

3.1.1 First thread cutting pass

In the first pass, angle θS1 (Fig. 2) can be calculated as

follows:

r 
θS1 ¼ tan1 ð1Þ
rc Fig. 3 Second thread cutting pass in the region I
1604 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612

Z S1
θ¼θ

dFf 1 ¼ Kfc ðθÞ:dA:Sinθ þ Kfe :dS:Sinθ
r  c  
A1 ¼ 2: r :rdθ ð5Þ
Cosθ ¼ Kfc ðθÞ:hðθÞ þ Kfe :r:Sinθ:dθ ð11Þ
θ¼0
Total cutting forces during first pass can be calculated as
In these equations c is the radial depth of cut, r is the tool
follows:
nose radius. For numerical integration, the area is divided
into small elements and total area of the first pass in region 1 Z S1
θ¼θ Z S1
θ¼θ

is calculated by summing up these elemental areas. Cutting Ft1 ¼ 2: ðKtc ðθÞ:dA þ Kte :dS Þ ¼ 2: ½Ktc ðθÞ:hðθÞ þ Kte :r:dθ
forces in x, y, and z directions are parallel to the cutting θ¼0 θ¼0

forces Fr , Ft, and Ff, respectively, and they are given as ð12Þ
follows:

dFt1 ¼ Ktc ðθÞ:dA þ Kte :dS ¼ ½Ktc ðθÞ:hðθÞ þ Kte :r:dθ ð6Þ Z S1
θ¼θ
 
dFr1 ¼ 2: Kfc ðθÞ:dA:Cosθ þ Kfe :dS:Cosθ ð13Þ
θ¼0
dFr1 ¼ Krc ðθÞ:dA þ Kre :dS ¼ ½Krc ðθÞ:hðθÞ þ Kre :r:dθ ð7Þ
Z S1
θ¼θ
 
¼ 2: Kfc ðθÞ:hðθÞ þ Kfe :r:Cosθ:dθ
 
dFf 1 ¼ Kfc ðθÞ:dA þ Kfe :dS ¼ Kfc ðθÞ:hðθÞ þ Kfe :r:dθ ð8Þ θ¼0

Ktc , Krc, and Kfc are tangential, radial, and feed shear
Z S1
θ¼θ
components of cutting coefficients and Kte, Kre, and Kfe  
dFf 1 ¼ 2: Kfc ðθÞ:dA:Sinθ þ Kfe :dS:Sinθ ð14Þ
are friction components of the cutting coefficients, re-
θ¼0
spectively, evaluated from orthogonal cutting tests.
Cutting coefficients are determined for different orthog- Z S1
θ¼θ
 
onal cutting conditions (cutting velocity, rake angle, and ¼ 2: Kfc ðθÞ:hðθÞ þ Kfe :r:Sinθ:dθ
chip thickness) throughout orthogonal cutting tests and θ¼0
curves are fitted for each coefficient by using least
square method. During evaluating cutting forces coeffi-
3.1.2 Second pass and passes after second pass in region 1
cients are determined depending on chip thickness and
shear and friction angles for the current chip segment.
This formulation is valid only between the first thread-
Friction coefficients can be ignored by some researchers
ing pass and the last pass less than a thread height of
because they are small compared to shear coefficients.
0.254 mm (cumulative radial feed). Formulation
But in this study they were not ignored. In the current
obtained here can be used for the thread height up to
case since the tool has zero degree rake angle it is
r.Cosθ S1 (0.254 mm for the current tool geometry;
assumed that orthogonal cutting happens during thread
Fig. 3). After this critical point linear sides of the thread
cutting. Because of this assumption we have cutting
cutting tool begin to cut.
coefficients in two directions, feed and tangential direc-
During passes fallowing first pass, angle θS1 can be
tions, respectively. In this case radial cutting coefficients
calculated as follows:
are assumed to be zero (orthogonal cutting). Because
the radial cutting force is zero in orthogonal cutting,
r 
cutting forces in radial and feed directions in thread θS1 ¼ tan1 ð15Þ
r  n:c
cutting are angular projections of the feed forces in
the feed and radial directions. Then, cutting forces in This formula is used for the second and successive passes
three directions in thread cutting can be calculated as up to the thread height of 0.254 mm. In Eq. 15, n is the
follows: number of the thread cutting pass (e.g., n is equal to 2 for
second pass and 3 for the third pass, respectively). To get
dFt1 ¼ Ktc ðθÞ:dA þ Kte :dS ¼ ½Ktc ðθÞ:hðθÞ þ Kte :r:dθ ð9Þ
instantaneous chip thickness and chip area during second
pass and successive passes, first the angle g is defined as
follows:
dFr1 ¼ Kfc ðθÞ:dA:Cosθ þ Kfe :dS:Cosθ
h
c i
  g ¼ θ  Sin1 :Sinðp  θÞ ð16Þ
¼ Kfc ðθÞ:hðθÞ þ Kfe :r:Cosθ:dθ ð10Þ r
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612 1605

Then, instantaneous chip thickness can be calculated Fr3 ¼ Fx3 ¼ Kfc A3 :SinθS1 þ Kfe :L3 :SinθS1 ð26Þ
according to the angle g as follows [3]:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
hðθÞ ¼ r  c2 þ r2  2:c:r:Cos g ð17Þ Ff 3 ¼ Fy3 ¼ Kfc A3 :CosθS1 þ Kfe :L3 :CosθS1 ð27Þ
Then corresponding differential chip area (A) can be
calculated as follows: 3.4 Total cutting forces during thread cutting pass
Z S1
θ¼θ

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Total cutting forces can be found by summing the forces
A¼ r  c2 þ r2  2:c:r:Cos g :r:dθ ð18Þ
calculated at the different regions depending on the thread
θ¼0
cutting conditions, especially on thread height. Chip regions
Differential and total tangential, feed, and radial thread which are in cut are defined depending on the thread height
cutting forces can be calculated as explained in previous and total tangential, radial, and feed (axial) cutting forces
section. can be obtained by summing them as follows:
Ft ¼ Ft1 þ Ft2 þ Ft3 ð28Þ
3.2 Force calculation in region 2

θS1 and θS2 are the boundary angular values of the region 2 Fr ¼ Fr1 þ Fr2 þ Fr3 ð29Þ
(Fig. 1). To make simplification in calculation of the area of
the region 2 (A2), circular line KN can be accepted as a
linear line. Then, A2 (area of KLMN) can be calculated as Ff ¼ Ff 1 þ Ff 2 þ Ff 3 ð30Þ
the area of trapezoid KLMN. Length of cutting edge (L2) in
the region 2 can be calculated as c/Cosδ.
hθS1 þ hθS2
A2 ¼ :LM ð19Þ 4 Model verification in cylindrical turning operations
2
After calculating the A2 and L2 in region 2, cutting forces Mechanistic cutting force calculation model is verified in
can be calculated as follows: cylindrical turning operation. For that reason, by using
thread cutting tool, cylindrical cutting experiments were
Ft2 ¼ Fz2 ¼ Ktc :A2 þ Kfe :L2 ð20Þ conducted in 1.5 mm depth of cut for eight different axial
feeds. During the experiments cutting forces were measured
Fr2 ¼ Fx2 ¼ Kfc :A2 :SinθSI þ Kfe :L2 :SinθS1 ð21Þ in three directions. In cylindrical turning simulations chip
cross-sectional area was divided into two regions similar to
thread chip. Hence, cutting forces were calculated for each
Ff 2 ¼ Fy2 ¼ Kfc :A2 :CosθSI þ Kfe :L2 :CosθS1 ð22Þ
region and integrated to evaluate total cutting force for the

3.3 Force calculation in region 3

The area of the region 3 (A3) can be calculated as the area of

trapezoid MNPR (Fig. 3):

MR þ NP
A3 ¼ :hθS2 ð23Þ
2
Length of the cutting edge in the region 3 (L3) can be
calculated as

MR
L3 ¼ ð24Þ
Cosd
After calculating the A3 and the L3 in region 3, total
cutting forces in tangential, radial, and feed directions can
be calculated as follows in region 3:
Fig. 4 Chip cross-sectional area during cylindrical turning with
Ft3 ¼ Fz3 ¼ Ktc A3 þ Kte :L3 ð25Þ threading tool (c axial feed)
1606 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612

Tangential Cutting Forces

800 Radial Cutting Forces
350
Simulated F
t Simulated F
r
Experimental Ft Experimental F
700 r
300
Tangential Cutting Force Ft [N]

600 250

Radial Cutting Force Fr , [ N ]

500 200

400 150

300 100

200 50

100 0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22
Axial feed, c [ mm/rev]] Axial feed, c [ mm/rev]]

Fig. 5 Tangential (left) and radial (right) forces depending on the axial feed in cylindrical turning H=1.5 mm

current pass (Fig. 4). Circular region of the chip was divided good agreement for tangential radial and axial force compo-
into differential small elements and integrated in the nents. Results of the cylindrical turning experiments verified
simulation. mechanistic model in cylindrical turning operations.
Cutting forces were predicted by using mechanistic force Percent average errors in simulated cutting forces for
calculation model. Measurement and prediction results are tangential, axial feed and radial force components are 9.77,
given in the Figs. 5 and 6. In force predictions chip cross- 13.76, and 11.65 % respectively for cylindrical turning
sectional area considered in the mechanistic force model is operations.
given in the Fig. 4. Chip cross-sectional area during cylin-
drical turning operation is divided into two geometrical
regions and cutting forces were calculated in two regions 5 Force measurement and simulation results in thread
and summed. Simulations and measurements results were in machining

Axial Feed Cutting Forces Mechanistic force model is applied to thread cutting oper-
450
ations and cutting force simulations were made for 0.1, 0.05,
Simulated Ff and 0.025 mm constant radial depths of cuts per pass
400 Experimental Ff
depending on the cumulative radial feed until achieving
350
thread height of 1.5 mm. It was observed that there are huge
differences between simulations and measurements results.
Axial Cutting Force, Ff [ N ]]

300 Tangential and radial thread cutting forces were measured

depending on cumulative radial feed for three different
250 constant radial feeds per pass (0.1, 0.05, and 0.025 mm).
Cutting force measurement results show that in all experi-
200 ments cutting forces are increasing with increasing cumula-
tive radial feeds. Increasing the number of the pass means
150 increasing the cumulative radial feed or increasing thread
height during thread machining. For that reason, cutting
100 forces increase with increasing thread height depending
on the increase in chip cross-sectional areas. Linear
50
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 increases in cutting forces for constant radial feed of
Axial feed, c [ mm/rev]]
0.1 mm are seen depending on the cumulative radial
Fig. 6 Axial feed forces depending on the axial feed in cylindrical feed in both tangential and radial thread cutting forces
turning H=1.5 mm related to cross-sectional chip areas for each successive
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612 1607

Tangential Cutting Forces Radial Cutting Forces

1000 500

900 Simulated F t 450

Simulated F r
Experimental F t
Experimental F r
Tangential Cutting Force Ft [N]

800 400

Radial Cutting Force Fr [N]

700 350

600 300

500 250

400 200

300 150

200 100

100 50
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.1 mm] Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.1 mm]

Fig. 7 Experimentally measured and simulated tangential cutting forces (left), radial cutting forces (right) in thread machining constant radial feed
per pass c=0.1 mm, 15 threading passes, thread height H=1.5 mm

threading pass. But tangential and radial thread cutting differences is seen between simulated and measured cutting
forces are not increasing linearly for the constant radial feeds forces for both 0.05 and 0.025 mm constant radial feed per
per pass 0.05 and 0.025 mm. cross-sectional areas for 0.05 and pass. Differences between simulated and measured cutting
0.025 mm constant radial feeds per pass. These extra increases forces are increasing with increasing cumulative radial feed
continue to specific saturation points for both cases. Saturation (thread height or number of the pass; Figs. 7, 8, and 9).
points are around 25th passes for 0.05 and 0.025 mm constant Differences between simulations and measurements are de-
radial feeds per pass. In 0.1 mm constant radial feed cutting it creasing with decreasing constant radial feed given per pass.
is not achieved 25th pass because thread height is 1.5 mm. For
that reason saturation point is not seen in the Fig. 7. Huge
differences are seen between simulated and measured both 6 Discussion and model improvement for thread cutting
tangential and radial thread cutting forces. During the initial
threading passes measured and simulated cutting forces are in Because of theoretical notch factor has the highest value at
good agreement in both radial and tangential thread cutting thread root the most important region of the threaded part is
forces. With increasing the number of the threading passes the threaded root diameter. The diameter of the threaded part

Tangential Cutting Forces Radial Cutting Forces

500 300

450 Simulated F t Simulated F r

Experimental F t 250 Experimental F r

400
Tangential Cutting Force Ft [N]

Radial Cutting Force Fr [N]

350
200
300

250 150

200
100
150

100
50
50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.05 mm] Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.05 mm]

Fig. 8 Experimentally measured and simulated tangential cutting forces(left), radial cutting forces in thread machining constant radial feed per pass
c=0.05 mm, 30 threading passes, thread height H=1.5 mm
1608 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612

Tangential Cutting Forces Radial Cutting Forces

300 140

Simulated F t Simulated F r
120
250 Experimental F t Experimental F r
Tangential Cutting Force Ft [N]

Radial Cutting Force Fr [N]

100
200

80
150
60

100
40

50
20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.025 mm] Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.025 mm]

Fig. 9 Experimentally measured and simulated tangential cutting forces (left), radial cutting forces (right) in thread machining constant radial feed
per pass c=0.025 mm, 60 threading passes, thread height H=1.5 mm

is minimized at the root. Maximum nominal stress occurs in passes. In contrast, in thread cutting, chip interference on the
thread root during static or cyclic loading of the threaded rake face of the thread cutting tool is very important and it
part. When thread cutting operations were compared with continuously increases with increasing thread height. If
the side cut turning operations it has been found that the shear plane along the thread root is considered as a conical
main cutting force components are nearly twice as large as shape, bottom diameter is tool nose radius and hence top
in the side cut turning because the interference of the chip diameter is smaller than the tool nose radius. Thus, it can be
flow occurring in the rake face of the thread cutting tool seen that when material flows from the bottom to the top
complicates the deformation [10] and effects cutting forces. through shear plane, it is compressed at the end of shear
In the mechanistic force model, material behavior during plane and chip thickness is increased more than that in
machining are modeled via orthogonal cutting experiments. orthogonal cutting with increasing cumulative radial feed.
Variation of shear stress, shear angles, and friction angles Plastic deformations in the shear plane and chip interference
are determined throughout orthogonal cutting experiments, on the rake face are increased with increasing cumulative
depending on the chip thickness, cutting velocities, and rake radial feed (or thread height). So, additional increases in
angles. Cutting coefficients are evaluated for each chip cutting forces can be seen in thread cutting operations.
segment depending on the chip thickness, cutting velocity, In Fig. 11, thread chip pictures are given. It is experi-
and rake angle. Then cutting forces for the current segment mentally determined that chip thickness ratio at thread root
were obtained. Calculated forces for each segment through- is increasing with increasing cumulative radial feed in
out chip profile were summed and total cutting force for the
current threading pass are determined.
Cutting coefficients vary along the circular nose radius in
thread machining. If cutting velocity variation along the
circular nose radius of the tool is ignored, only chip thick-
ness variation remains as a parameter effecting cutting coef-
ficients in the mechanistic model (considered that rake angle
is zero and threading tool has no chamfer). If variation of the
chip cross-sectional area is investigated during thread cut-
ting depending on the thread height or cumulative radial
feed, along circular nose radius of the threading tool, there
are same chip thicknesses for each successive thread cutting
passes for constant radial feeding per threading pass
(Fig. 10).
Mechanistic force model gives the same cutting coeffi- Fig. 10 Variation of the chip cross-sectional areas during thread cut-
cients for the same direction on the circular nose radius with ting. A1 A2 A3.... and An are the cross-sectional areas of the first,
increasing cumulative radial feed for successive threading second, third.... and last passes, respectively
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612 1609

Fig. 11 Cross-sectional
geometry of thread chips: a the
first pass, b an intermediate
pass, and c the last pass

thread cutting. For constant radial feed of 0.1 mm, variation of Calculation results show that shear angle is decreasing with
the chip thickness ratio at thread root is determined for 30 increasing cumulative radial feed for constant radial feed per
threading passes up to thread height of 3.0 mm (cumulative pass. As seen from the Fig. 12, shear angle changes from 36° to
radial feed). Chip thickness ratio, on the contrary to shear 13° depending on the cumulative radial feed. Although uncut
strain, represents the true plastic deformation in metal cutting. chip thickness is constant during all threading passes with
The chip compression ratio can be used to calculate the total radial constant feed in compound straight feeding method, chip
work done by the external force applied to the tool and then thickness ratio and shear angle are changing with increasing
might be used for optimization of the cutting process [5, 11]. cumulative radial feed. Reasons of this change may be the chip
All the calculations in orthogonal cutting mechanics are geometry and increasing size effect, in contrast to cylindrical
based on the chip thickness ratio. Chip thickness ratio(r, also side turning, in thread cutting. Chip thickness variation along
known as chip compression ratio) is the ratio of the uncut the circular nose radius of the thread tool also may affect shear
chip thickness(h) to chip thickness(hc) and experimentally angle. It is reported by Oxley [1] that interface shear stress is
determined as given below[3, 5]: increased by decreasing shear angle from 30° to 10° for 0.16 %
h carbon steel in metal cutting. It is also reported by Oxley that
r¼ ð31Þ interface shear stress increases from 300 to 400 MPa when
hc
After calculating chip thickness ratio, shear angle (Øc) shear angle is decreased from 22° to 14° for 0.38 % carbon
during machining can be calculated as follows: steel [1]. The cutting force components are generally high, and
the nose radius of the threading tool is small and thus relatively
rc Cos ar
Lc ¼ tan1 ð32Þ weak [10]. Degradation of the thread is dependent on the
1rc Sin ar
threading tools geometry. Sharp cutting edges tend to produce
In the above equation, αr is the rake angle of the tool and pronounced feed marks and more severe surface damage (e.g.,
is known parameter. After determining the chip thickness tears, laps, pits, cracks, etc.) than honed edges (formed by
ratio depending on the cumulative radial feed, variation of small random chips) due to increased stresses at the restricted
the shear angle for each threading pass were calculated at tool–chip and tool–work piece contact areas [12].
thread root (Fig. 12). Residual stresses are also effective on the fatigue perfor-
mance of external threads. For similar surface hardening
taking place at various cutting conditions, significant varia-
tion in residual stresses was experimentally observed [13].
Under intensive thermal effects during the threading pro-
cess, both axial and tangential residual stresses at the thread
root were found tensile, and thus the fatigue performance
weakened. Consequently, complex transformations occur in
the thread profile during the machining process. It is also
known that machining parameters have important effects on
the fatigue life of the precision threaded parts [14]. For that
reason process parameters should be selected correctly for a
mechanically reliable thread.
It is shown experimentally that specific cutting force
Fig. 12 Variation of the shear angle at the thread root during thread
machining constant radial feed of 0.1 mm per pass, cutting velocity
decreases at the initial passes of the process and then increases
85–95 m/min, uncoated carbide insert,10 % boron oil cutting fluid, with the cumulative radial feed, which is explained as the effect
4340 material 30 HRC hardness(thread height=cumulative radial feed) of chip interference on the rake face at the tool tip [10]. This
1610 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612

Tangential Cutting Forces Radial Cutting Forces

1000 500
Simulated F t
Simulated F r
900 450
Experimental F t
Experimental F r
Tangential Cutting Force Ft [N]

800 400

Radial Cutting Force Fr [N]

700 350

600 300

500 250

400 200

300 150

200 100

100 50
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.1 mm] Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.1 mm]

Fig. 13 Experimentally measured and simulated tangential cutting forces (left), radial cutting forces (right) in thread machining constant radial feed
per pass c=0.1 mm, 15 threading passes, thread height H=1.5 mm (Improved mechanistic model)

may be another reason that compression ratio increases at the angle, cutting forces also increase during cutting. In the
thread root. Root radius and thread profile angle are also shown material behavior model of the mechanistic force calcu-
to have effects on the chip compression ratio at the root during lation method this additional increase in cutting forces
thread cutting. during thread cutting is not included. To improve mate-
It is shown from the variation of the shear angle at rial behavior model for thread cutting operations, addi-
thread root and cutting force measurements depending tional decrease in shear angle depending on the
on the cumulative radial feed during thread cutting that cumulative radial feed was added to the model and
there are saturation points in both shear angle variation cutting force simulations were repeated again
and cutting force variation during thread cutting depend- (Figs. 13, 14, and 15). Simulation results of the im-
ing on the cumulative radial feed for a constant specific proved model are in good agreement with the experi-
radial feed per pass. Cutting forces increase with in- mental results. Average errors were calculated in both
creasing chip cross-sectional area depending on the cu- mechanistic and improved mechanistic model for thread
mulative radial feed. Additionally, with decreasing shear cutting operations and given in the Table 2.

Tangential Cutting Forces Radial Cutting Forces

500 300

450 Simulated F r
Simulated F t
250 Experimental F r
400 Experimental F t
Tangential Cutting Force Ft [N]

Radial Cutting Force Fr [N]

350
200
300

250 150

200
100
150

100
50
50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.05 mm] Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.05 mm]

Fig. 14 Experimentally measured and simulated tangential cutting forces (left), radial cutting forces in thread machining constant radial feed per
pass c=0.05 mm, 30 threading passes, thread height H=1.5 mm (Improved mechanistic model)
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612 1611

Tangential Cutting Forces Radial Cutting Forces

300 140
Simulated Fr
Simulated Ft
120 Experimental Fr
250 Experimental Ft
Tangential Cutting Force Ft [N]

Radial Cutting Force Fr [N]

100
200

80
150
60

100
40

50
20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.025 mm] Number of the pass [Radial feed c=0.025 mm]

Fig. 15 Experimentally measured and simulated tangential cutting forces (left), radial cutting forces (right) in thread machining constant radial feed
per pass c=0.025 mm, 60 threading passes, thread height H=1.5 mm (Improved mechanistic model)

It is known that chip thickness has an effect on the chip effect on the chip compression ratio and shear angle as
compression ratio and shear angle. It is reported by the mentioned previously [11]. In order to decrease average
Oxley that when undeformed chip thickness is increased errors in these simulations results (Figs. 14 and 15), the
from 0.05 to 0.2 mm, shear angle is increased from 8° to simulations should be repeated considering the variation of
24°. It is also reported by the Oxley that increasing of the the shear angle depending on cumulative radial feed
shear angle from 8° to 28° decreased shear stress at tool– obtained using constant radial feed of 0.05 and 0.025 mm.
chip interface from 500 to 200 MPa [1].
Shear angle variation depending on the cumulative radial
feed given in Fig. 12 is determined for the constant radial 7 Conclusion
feed of 0.1 mm and for the material 4340 steel. Therefore,
because of materials 4140 and 4340 are similar, simulation In this study, mechanistic force calculation method which is
and experimental results are in good agreement and average known the most developed force calculation method in
error in the cutting forces is very low as shown in Fig. 13. machining processes is applied in thread cutting operations
Since variation of the shear angle depending on constant and cutting forces experimentally measured and simulated.
radial feed of 0.1 mm is used for both simulations results Huge differences between simulations and experimental
given in Figs. 14 and 15, average errors in the cutting forces measurements were discussed and available model was im-
are relatively higher than that given in Fig. 13. Constant proved for thread cutting operations. In thread cutting oper-
radial feed per pass or depth of cut are known to have an ations extra shear angle variation depending on the constant
cumulative radial feed was determined and added to the
Table 2 Average percent simulation errors for both tangential and material behavior model of the mechanistic force calculation
radial thread cutting forces in mechanistic and improved mechanistic method. It is also determined that extra decreases in shear
models for thread cutting operations
angle and increases on cutting forces depending on the
(Number of passes)× Calculated average errors (%) cumulative radial feed continues up to specific saturation
(constant radial depth point of about 25 passes.
of cut per pass)=H Mechanistic model Improved mechanistic
Simulation errors were reduced to acceptable level of 3 to
[mm] model
14 % for tangential and 9 to 18 % for radial thread cutting
Tangential Radial Tangential Radial forces during thread cutting operations depending on cutting
cutting cutting cutting cutting parameters. Improved model can be used for force predictions
forces forces forces forces in thread cutting operations. Variation of the shear angle
15×0.1=1.5 mm 21.98 25.56 3.16 9.37
depending on the cumulative constant radial feed during thread
30×0.05=1.5 mm 29.88 29.10 9.66 15.42
cutting was used for specific tool–material pair and cutting
60×0.025=1.5 mm 20.96 26.98 14.00 17.54
conditions. For each specific tool-material pair, shear angle
variation depending on the cumulative radial feed should be
1612 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 68:1601–1612

determined for better improvements in thread cutting simula- 5. Astakhov VP (1999) Metal cutting mechanics. CRC, Boca Raton
6. Polini W, Prisco U (2003) The estimation of the diameter error in
tions. Flexibilities of elements of machining system are ig-
bar turning: a comparison among three cutting force models. Int J
nored in this study. Static deflections of the tool and work piece Adv Manuf Technol 22:465–474
should be considered. Material behavior at the 3D shear plane 7. Fan K, Jianguo Y, Wei W, Yao X (2012) Error prediction and
along the thread root should be more studied in detail. clustering compensation on shaft machining. Int J Adv Manuf
Technol 58:663–670
8. Ozel T, Karpat Y (2007) Identification of constitutive material
Acknowledgments Authors thankfully acknowledged financial sup-
model parameters for high-strain rate metal cutting conditions
port of TUBITAK (Turkish Scientific and Technical Research Council)
using evolutionary computational algorithms. Mater Manuf Pro-
for the project (TUBITAK-BIDEB-2219). The experiments are con-
cess 22:659–667
ducted at The University of British Columbia, Manufacturing Auto-
9. API SPEC 7 Add. 1 (2002) Specification for rotary drill stem
mation Laboratory, Vancouver, Canada with the sponsorship of
elements, upstream segment, Fortieth Ed. API Publishing Services.
NSERC CANRIMT Grant.
Washington, D.C.
10. Kafkas F (2010) An experimental study on cutting forces in the
threading and the side cut turning with coated and uncoated grades.
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