Error Assessment of Solar Irradiance Forecasts and AC Power From Energy Conversion Model in Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems

Article
Error Assessment of Solar Irradiance Forecasts and

AC Power from Energy Conversion Model in
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems
Gianfranco Chicco 1, *, Valeria Cocina 1 , Paolo Di Leo 1 , Filippo Spertino 1 and
Alessandro Massi Pavan 2
Received: 15 October 2015; Accepted: 11 December 2015; Published: 24 December 2015
Academic Editor: Guido Carpinelli
1 Energy Department, Politecnico di Torino, corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino 10129, Italy;
valeria.cocina@polito.it (V.C.); paolo.dileo@polito.it (P.D.L.); filippo.spertino@polito.it (F.S.)
2 Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, Via Valerio 10, Trieste 34127, Italy;
apavan@units.it
* Correspondence: gianfranco.chicco@polito.it; Tel.: +39-011-090-7141; Fax: +39-011-090-7199
Abstract: Availability of effective estimation of the power profiles of photovoltaic systems is

essential for studying how to increase the share of intermittent renewable sources in the electricity
mix of many countries. For this purpose, weather forecasts, together with historical data of the
meteorological quantities, provide fundamental information. The weak point of the forecasts
depends on variable sky conditions, when the clouds successively cover and uncover the solar disc.
This causes remarkable positive and negative variations in the irradiance pattern measured at the
photovoltaic (PV) site location. This paper starts from 1 to 3 days-ahead solar irradiance forecasts
available during one year, with a few points for each day. These forecasts are interpolated to obtain
more irradiance estimations per day. The estimated irradiance data are used to classify the sky
conditions into clear, variable or cloudy. The results are compared with the outcomes of the same
classification carried out with the irradiance measured in meteorological stations at two real PV
sites. The occurrence of irradiance spikes in “broken cloud” conditions is identified and discussed.
From the measured irradiance, the Alternating Current (AC) power injected into the grid at two PV
sites is estimated by using a PV energy conversion model. The AC power errors resulting from the
PV model with respect to on-site AC power measurements are shown and discussed.
Keywords: photovoltaic systems; weather forecasts; photovoltaic (PV) conversion model;

power profiles; error assessment; distributed generation; renewable energy; irradiance spike
1. Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) generation strongly depends on weather conditions, in particular on solar
irradiance and temperature. As such, availability of accurate weather forecast data is very important
for PV system planning and operation. For grid-connected PV systems, the power injected into the
grid is concentrated during sunlight hours, in which typically the maximum peak load occurs.
In the power system, the task of the Transmission System Operator (TSO) is to ensure a
constant balance between supply and consumption within the grid. Actually, the presence of strong
fluctuations of the irradiance increases the uncertainty on the PV generation and requires additional
regulatory actions for the procurement of reserve services. This may cause an increase in the costs
for ancillary services. The irradiance forecast is then useful for grid management, to obtain more
accurate information on the expected weather conditions. This information may assist the operators
in undertaking decisions concerning the energy market and to reduce the costs of energy imbalance.
Energies 2016, 9, 8; doi:10.3390/en9010008 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2016, 9, 8 2 of 27
The first research on solar irradiance forecasting was conducted more than twenty years ago [1],
using the Model Output Statistics (MOS) technique [2]. This technique allows the prediction of
a daily average value one or two days ahead. Concerning the forecasting on a short-time scale
(a few hours), the effectiveness of a statistical approach based on the prediction of the motion of the
clouds through images provided by satellites of the Meteosat constellation has been demonstrated
in [3]. However, this method requires a huge computational effort. A multi-resolution decomposition
technique applied to satellite images has been studied in [4], in order to obtain information on the
local mean value and on the gradient of solar irradiance at different spatial scales. Other studies on
short and very short time scales are available in the literature, taking into account the information
provided by satellites. Currently, the weather forecasting tools are based on numerical techniques,
which provide good results when applied to extended spatial scales. However, these tools are not
able to address local variability of the weather conditions.
The forecasting field is rapidly evolving according to the growth of the PV market. A model to
predict the power P produced by a PV plant can be written in the general form P “ f pX1 , X2 , ..., Xn q
where Xi (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) are n different physical quantities of influence. These quantities, including
the solar irradiance, the PV module’s temperature, the air temperature, the wind speed, the relative
humidity, etc., have to be provided by forecasting tools. The input of many models is the solar
irradiance [5], while different methods are based on the irradiance and on the temperature of the air
or of the PV module [6]. In general, as shown in [7] the models based on irradiance and temperature
perform better than the ones where only the irradiance is considered. Conversely, the adoption of the
models based on other working conditions does not necessarily improve the prediction accuracy.
Different techniques showing accurate results have been used to predict the power produced by
a PV plant. Some examples are Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)-based techniques [7–9], regression
model-based techniques [10], support vector machine [11], hybrid models [12] and PV system
models [13]. The prediction methods may change depending on the availability of local data coming
from a weather station specifically designed and installed to measure the operating conditions of the
PV system under study. Most residential PV plants (as well as many of the commercial/industrial
ones) are not equipped with any sensor of climate conditions. In this case, the usage of commercial
weather data allows the implementation of simpler models for the estimation of the power produced
by the PV plants [14].
Recently, a growing interest in using spatio-temporal forecasting methods has emerged, due to
the availability of time series data over a large number of meteorological stations. Interesting results
incorporating spatial-temporal forecasting method based on the vector autoregression framework
have been presented in [15]. This framework combines observations collected by smart meters
and distribution transformer controllers, to obtain 6 h-ahead forecasts at the residential PV and
medium-voltage/low-voltage substation levels. Spatio-temporal information from satellite images
has been used in [16] through an autoregressive approach to forecast the global horizontal irradiance
at ground level.
This paper presents a procedure to assess the errors occurring in the 1 day-ahead solar irradiance
estimation and in the model-based estimation of the Alternating Current (AC) power delivered to the
grid by the PV system. This procedure is based on:
(1) The use of solar irradiance weather forecasts updated every a few hours from a provider. These
data are interpolated with polynomial splines to obtain a higher number of estimated values
during the day. The results are compared with the measurements gathered at 1-min intervals
during a period of one year in order to calculate the estimation error.
(2) The application of a PV conversion model from solar irradiance to AC power, determining 1-min
AC power estimates. From these values, 15-min averaged data are calculated and compared
with the energy meter readings at 15-min intervals in order to calculate the error on AC
power estimates.
Energies 2016, 9, 8 3 of 27
The strengths of this paper are that:
(a) The procedure presented can be used to select the best forecasting model or the best
provider of weather forecasts in the location of interest.
(b) The irradiance error estimation is particularly accurate, because the meteorological stations
are equipped with pyranometers (secondary standards used as reference instruments)
installed in the same sites of two operating PV plants. Moreover, the AC power error
estimation is relevant because (i) the PV plants analyzed are located in the Italian region
(Puglia) with the highest PV power density; and (ii) the measurements referring to the PV
plants are taken from calibrated energy meters.
The results of the proposed procedure are presented in the form of duration curves of the
positive and negative errors between estimated and measured values, determined during a period of
one year. The evaluation of the estimation errors is helpful for the grid operator to estimate to what
extent the estimation of the PV contribution as grid-connected local generation, calculated starting
from 1 day-ahead forecast data, can be trustable. The occurrence of irradiance spikes due to the
phenomenon of “broken clouds” is also presented and discussed as a source of possible irradiance
peaks, in some cases exceeding the rated value of the AC power injected into the grid.
The next sections of this paper are organized as follows: the second section presents an overview
of solar irradiance models and the PV conversion model. The third section introduces the proposed
model for hourly classification in clear, variable and cloudy sky conditions, according to the clearness
index values. Section 4 discusses the error calculation of the estimated irradiance with respect to
the measured irradiance. The fifth section addresses the errors between the AC power estimates
and the AC power values measured on two PV systems in operation. The last section contains
the conclusions.
2. Solar Irradiance Models and PV System Description
2.1. Models for Extraterrestrial and Ground Level Irradiance

Solar irradiance, which is received by the Earth’s surface, is the result of complex interactions
between the irradiance from the Sun, the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. In general terms,
it is subject to changes determined by the geometry of the Earth, its daily rotation and its annual
revolution around the Sun. On a local scale, the main factor is the topography, especially the altitude,
the slope, the exposure, and the shading caused by mountains or other natural obstacles. It is possible
to determine, by means of appropriate geometric relationships, the amount of irradiance that reaches
locally a plane parallel to the ground [17]. The first step is to determine the position of the Sun
relative to an observer on the ground, by using a suitable reference system represented by the celestial
coordinates. In this case, it is convenient to make use of local coordinates:
‚ latitude ξ, in radians or degrees, with respect to the equator (>0 toward North);
‚ longitude ζ, in radians or degrees, referred to the Greenwich line (>0 toward East);
‚ solar declination δ, the angle between the Sun-Earth line and the equator plane (>0 North);
‚ hour angle ψ, between the meridian plane passing through the observer and the meridian plane
passing through the Sun (>0 West);
‚ azimuth angle φ between the projection of the Sun-Earth line and the plane at the horizon with
South direction (>0 West);
‚ zenith angle z between the Sun-Earth line and the zenith direction;
‚ solar height α, that is, the angle between the Sun-Earth line and the horizon plane.
The latitude ξ and the longitude ζ are the only parameters that do not require calculations,
because they are known as the geographical coordinates of the place of observation.
Energies 2016, 9, 8 4 of 27
The hour angle ψ of the Sun is a more complex parameter, because it depends on the position of
the observer (longitude effect) and on the measurement of the local time. During the year, the time
indicated from a meridian deviates periodically a few minutes with respect to the time indicated by a
clock, which in Italy is normally referred to the Central European Time (CET). This difference is called
“equation of time” τ, defined as the East or West component of the analemma, a curve representing
the angular offset of the Sun from its mean position on the celestial sphere as viewed from the Earth.
At any point in time, the solar irradiance incident on a horizontal plane outside the atmosphere is the
normal solar irradiance G0 , given by ([18], pp. 37–41):
ˆ ˙
360d
G0 “ Gsc 1 ` 0.033cos cosz (1)
365
where Gsc is the solar constant, d is the day of the year, and cosz “ cosξ cosδ cosψ ` sinξ sinδ.
By integrating this equation for an interval between the hour angles ψ1 and ψ2 , which define an
hour (where ψ2 is the larger), the irradiation H0 (in MJ/m2 ) is obtained as:
ˆ ˙
12 ˆ 3600 360d
H0 “ Gsc 1 ` 0.033cos rcosξ cosδ psinψ2 ´ sinψ1 q ` pψ2 ´ ψ1 q sinξ sinδs (2)
π 365
The solar irradiance, in the path through the atmosphere towards the Earth surface, is subject to
scatter, absorption, reflection, diffusion, meteorological conditions and air mass [19]. It is useful to
define a standard “clear” sky and calculate the hourly and daily irradiance that would be received on
a horizontal surface under these standard conditions ([18], pp. 85–95). In order to calculate the clear
sky irradiance, several methods have been developed [20]. Among these methods, the Moon-Spencer
model [21] provides the theoretical instantaneous values of the irradiance at clear sky on a surface
orientated in any direction. The irradiance values obtained from the Moon-Spencer model refer to
free view with respect to the horizon. The results may differ in case of obstacles hiding the visual
landscape, for some parts of the day, in the directions in which the Sun should impact on the surface
(e.g., presence of mountains or adjacent buildings). In these cases, the results of the Moon-Spencer
model have to be adjusted to take into account the actual skyline seen from the surface.
The Moon-Spencer model was developed for the atmospheric conditions in the United States,
but sometimes it over-estimates or under-estimates the global irradiance in case of geographical
locations different from the United States. Therefore, this clear sky model cannot be considered as
an ideal profile with minimum turbidity of the sky, but it represents an indicative daily evolution for
the comparison with the weather forecasts. In order to take into account the information provided
by the clear-sky model, a dedicated variable space has been created in [22], in which the time axis
is normalized in such a way to map the time interval between the sunrise and the sunset in the
(0, 1) interval; the irradiance values are normalized so that the unity value corresponds to the peak
conditions at clear-sky from the Moon-Spencer model.
Another clear-sky model has been implemented in the online software PVGIS [23]. In [24] a
comparison between the irradiance measured by the pyranometer and the simulated PVGIS clear-sky
irradiance has been discussed for a particular day of July. Examining other days during the whole
year, owing to higher air turbidity the measured values are, many times, lower than the ones obtained
from the clear-sky model.
In this paper, the data are elaborated in order to create a partitioning into three types of sky
conditions: variable, clear, and cloudy. Classifications with more types of sky conditions have been
used in various references for different purposes [25,26].
2.2. Description of the Two Meteorological Stations and PV Systems

For our investigation, measurements have been collected by two meteorological stations, named
for the sake of simplicity “Gi” and “Ma”, near two grid-connected PV systems at latitude 40˝ North
Energies 2016, 9, 8 5 of 27
(Puglia region, Figure 1). The distance between the two meteorological stations is 61 km. As discussed
in [27], each meteorological station is provided with:
‚ A 2016,
Energies pyranometer
9, page–page(Secondary Standard according to ISO 9060 [28]) for measuring the horizontal
global irradiance G pyr ;
‚ Two reference
reference solar
solar cells in polycrystalline silicon (p-Si) with South orientation for measuring
the 30˝
30° tilted global irradiance Gtcell ;;
tcell
‚ One thermo-hygrometer for measuring
measuring the
the ambient
ambient temperature
temperature TTamb
amb, relative humidity and
wind speed wss..
Figure 1. Location of the two grid-connected PV systems and satellite photo of the “Gi” site.
Figure 1. Location of the two grid-connected PV systems and satellite photo of the “Gi” site.
To obtain a correctly integrated value for the solar irradiance over the day, small time steps are
To
recommendedobtain for a correctly
data sampling. integrated value for
However, duetheto solar irradiance
the response time over thepyranometer,
of the day, small time the steps
time
are recommended for data sampling. However, due to the
step cannot be lower than 5 s. The sampling time steps may be chosen depending on the data response time of the pyranometer, the
time step cannot be lower than 5 s. The sampling time steps may
collection system and on the calculation and update speed of the algorithms used. In our case, the be chosen depending on the data
collection
pyranometer system and on the
is connected to calculation
the meteorologicaland update speed
station. of the algorithms
Therefore, a time step used.
of 10In sourandcase,
an
the pyranometer is connected to the meteorological station.
averaging time for the integrated values of 1 min are used. This averaging time is suitable for Therefore, a time step of 10 s and an
averaging
obtaining atime for thenumber
sufficient integrated of data values
to beoffurther
1 min averaged
are used. within
This averaging
longer timetime is suitable
steps, such as the for
obtaining a sufficient number of data to be further averaged within
ones used in the electricity markets (e.g., 10, 15 min, 30 min, or 1 h). The global irradiance data longer time steps, such as the ones
used
from in the electricity
solar cells on the markets
tilted (e.g.,
plane10, are15validated
min, 30 min, or 1 h).
through theThe global irradiance
comparison with the data from solar
pyranometer
cells on the tilted
uncertainty [24],plane showing are validated
the possiblethrough the comparison
effect with the pyranometer
of the measurement accuracy. uncertainty
The expanded [24],
showing the possible effect of the measurement accuracy. The expanded
uncertainty of a pyranometer having the same characteristics of the pyranometers used in the two uncertainty of a pyranometer
having the same characteristics of the level
pyranometers used factor
in thektwo 2 with
sites is about 30 W/m 2 with confidence 95% (coverage = 2) sites is about
[29]. This value30isW/m
valid when
confidence
the irradiance level 95% (coverage
reaches its peaksfactor up to k1200= 2) W/m
[29]. 2This value is valid
. A confidence level when
99.7% the(coverage
irradiancefactor
reachesk = its
3)
peaks up to 1200 W/m 2 . A confidence level 99.7% (coverage factor k = 3) corresponds to an expanded
corresponds to an expanded uncertainty of about 45 W/m2. At mid-level of irradiance (e.g., around
uncertainty of expanded
about 45 W/m 2 . At mid-level of irradiance (e.g., around 500 W/m2 ) the expanded
500 W/m2) the uncertainty for k = 2 is about 15 W/m2.
uncertainty for k = 2 is about 15 W/m 2.
The real grid-connected PV system has a power rating Ppeak = 993.6 kWp for the site “Gi” and
Ppeak The real kW
= 997.3 grid-connected PV system has a power rating P peak =(STC)
p for the site “Ma” at Standard Test Conditions
993.6 with
kWp global
for theirradiance
site “Gi”
GSTC P
and = peak = 997.3
1 kW/m 2, cellkW p for the site
temperature “Ma”
TSTC = 25at°CStandard
and standardTest Conditions
spectrum AM (STC)
1.5.with
The global
PV systemirradiance
in the
G = 1 kW/m 2 , cell temperature T = 25 ˝ C and standard spectrum AM 1.5. The PV system
STC“Gi” is equipped with polycrystalline
site STC silicon modules of 230 Wp each, tilted at 30° with South
in the site “Gi”
orientation. On isthe equipped
contrary,with the polycrystalline
PV system in silicon the sitemodules
“Ma” isofequipped
230 Wp each,
with tilted at 30˝ with
mono-crystalline
South
siliconorientation.
modules ofOn 230the Wpcontrary,
, 235 Wp the andPV 240system
Wp and in the
withsite “Ma” is equipped
polycrystalline siliconwith mono-crystalline
modules of 230 Wp,
silicon modules of
235 Wp and 240 Wp, tilted 230 W , 235 W and 240 W and with polycrystalline
p at 30°pwith South porientation. The PV arrays of each site, placed silicon modules of 230on Wpa,
235 Wp and 240 Wthat ˝
metallic structure p , tilted
permits at 30thewithnaturalSouth air orientation.
circulation, feed The two
PV arrays of each
centralized site, placed
inverters on a
with high
metallic structure that permits the natural air circulation, feed
efficiency (transformerless option). These power conditioning units are slightly undersized, giventwo centralized inverters with high
efficiency (transformerless
that the 500-kVA inverter isoption).suppliedThese power
by a 552.0 kW conditioning units are slightly undersized, given
p array for the site “Gi” and by a 542.0 kWp array
that thesite
for the 500-kVA
“Ma”;inverter
the 400-kVA is supplied
inverterby ais552.0 kWp by
supplied array for the
a 441.6 kWsite “Gi” and by a 542.0 kWp array
p array for the site “Gi” and by a
for the site “Ma”; the
455.3 kWp array for the site “Ma”. 400-kVA inverter is supplied by a 441.6 kW p array for the site “Gi” and by a
455.3 kWp array for the site “Ma”.
2.3. Definition of the PV Conversion Model
In the definition of the PV conversion model, it is important to take into account the efficiencies
referring to the main loss factors affecting the PV system behavior. As mentioned in [30], the main
loss factors are summarized in the efficiencies defined as follows:
Energies 2016, 9, 8 6 of 27
2.3. Definition of the PV Conversion Model

In the definition of the PV conversion model, it is important to take into account the efficiencies
referring to the main loss factors affecting the PV system behavior. As mentioned in [30], the main
loss factors are summarized in the efficiencies defined as follows:
‚ Efficiency ηdirt , due to losses for soiling and dirt (environmental pollution). To estimate the
impact of dirt/soiling accumulation, a 10-day summer period without rain is considered. At the
end of this period (10th day), the horizontal solar irradiation is calculated from the pyranometer
and the solar cell. At the 11th day, the rain appears and naturally cleans the sensors. Finally,
at the 12th day (clear-sky day), the solar irradiation is calculated in such a way as to practically
have the same astronomical conditions of the 10th day. Therefore, the corresponding value of
ηdirt for the PV plant, located in a relatively clean environment (i.e., away from mines, landfills,
etc.), is determined according to the following formula:
pHa_rain ´ Hb_rain q
ηdirt “ 100 (3)
Ha_rain
where Ha_rain and Hb_rain are the values of the daily irradiation in two clear-sky days, one after
rain (12th day) and the other before rain (10th day), respectively. The corresponding value of
ηdirt is generally in the range 0.97–0.98.
‚ Efficiency ηre f l , due to reflection of the PV module glass; the value used is 0.971, taken from the
PVGIS website [23].
‚ Efficiency ηth , due to the thermal losses lth with respect to the STC, calculated as:
ηth “ 1 ´ lth “ 1 ´ γth pTC ´ TSTC q (4)
where γth is the thermal coefficient of maximum power of the PV modules, depending on the PV
technology (for crystalline silicon γth = 0.5%/˝ C); TC is the cell temperature (mean temperature
in outdoor operation at G NOCT = 800 W/m2 and Tamb,NOCT = 20 ˝ C), which can be calculated as
a function of the ambient temperature Tamb , the cell irradiance on the tilted plane Gtcell and the
Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) of 42–50 ˝ C [31,32]:
` ˘ Gtcell
TC “ Tamb ` NOCT ´ Tamb,NOCT (5)
GNOCT
‚ Efficiency ηmism , taking into account the current-voltage (I-V) mismatch losses, assuming that
the bottleneck effect globally leads to 97% of the power rating declared by the manufacturer for
all the modules in the PV array. This loss is a consequence of the weakest modules in the series
connection inside the strings, and of the weakest strings in the parallel connection inside the PV
array [33].
‚ Efficiency ηcable , including the DC cable losses, with the value 0.99 considered according to good
design criteria [34].
Considering these efficiencies, the available power at the maximum power point is expressed as:
Pmpp “ Prated pGtcell ´ Glim q ηdirt ηre f l ηth ηmism ηcable (6)
where Glim = 17.7 W/m2 is the irradiance limit below which the output is vanishing, calculated
by linear interpolation of the irradiance and power values declared by the manufacturer of the
silicon modules installed in the PV array.
Finally, considering the efficiency η MPPT of the maximum power point tracker, and thanks to
the model of the power conditioning unit for grid connection, the AC power injected into the grid is
calculated by solving the second-order equation [35]:
Energies 2016, 9, 8 7 of 27
2
cQ PAC ` p1 ` c L q PAC ` P0 ´ PDC “ 0 (7)
with:
PDC “ η MPPT Pmpp (8)
where P0 is the no-load power losses along the operation, while c L and cQ are the linear and quadratic
loss coefficients, respectively.
Therefore, if the reference-cell data Gtcell , averaged on 15-min basis, are used as inputs of the
above-described model, the power P AC delivered to the grid can be compared with the power Pmeas
indicated by the energy meter of the PV plant.
For the error calculation of the AC power profiles compared to the experimental results of each PV
plant in the two sites, the estimation error ∆P is defined as the difference between the estimated power
to be delivered to the grid P AC and the AC power Pmeas measured by the energy meter of each PV plant:
∆P “ PAC ´ Pmeas (9)
3. Clear, Variable and Cloudy Sky Classification
3.1. Determination of the Diffuse Contribution in the Global Irradiance

The amount of solar irradiance that reaches the ground, besides the daily and yearly apparent
motion of the Sun, depends on the geographical location (latitude and longitude) and on the climatic
conditions (e.g., cloud coverage). Many studies have proved that cloudiness is the main factor
affecting the difference between the values of irradiance measured outside the atmosphere and on
the Earth surface [36].
Let us define the global irradiance on a horizontal surface Gth (kW/m2 ), composed of the
diffuse component Gdh and beam component Gbh . Let us further consider the hourly clearness index
kt = Gth /G0 , calculated as the ratio of Gth (measured by the pyranometer) to the extra-atmospheric
total irradiance G0 (kW/m2 ) defined in Equation (1). The ratio kd = Gdh /Gth can be expressed as
a function of the clearness index, and permits to distinguish the sky conditions into clear, variable
and cloudy. For this purpose, several correlations have been proposed to establish a relationship
between the diffuse and the global horizontal irradiances. As explained in [37], some of the existing
models [38,39] have been developed for Northern latitudes with high albedos and air masses.
This is the reason for differences in diffuse irradiance values and an error source in modeling diffuse
irradiance [40]. Only in recent years models to calculate the diffuse irradiance with respect to
the global irradiance have been developed for the European Mediterranean area [41]. The hourly
correlations considered in this context are represented by these expressions:
$
& 0.995 ´ 0.081k t
’ for k t ď 0.21
kd “ 0.724 ` 2.738k t ´ 8.32k t 2 ` 4.967k t 3 for 0.21 ă k t ď 0.76 (10)
’
% 0.180 for k t ą 0.76
The above-mentioned correlations permit the hourly classification of the sky conditions.
In particular:
‚ for kt ď 0.21 a total cloudy sky condition occurs, and a linear expression of kd is assumed;
‚ in the range 0.21 < kt ď 0.76, a variable (i.e., partially cloudy) sky condition occurs, in which
the Sun is partially obscured by clouds, and the correlation is represented by a cubic
polynomial expression;
‚ for kt > 0.76 a clear-sky condition occurs, in which that the sunlight is not reduced by clouds,
and the fraction of diffuse irradiance is assumed to be 18% of the global one.
The weather forecasts considered in this paper are provided by the meteorological service of
Catalonia [42]. The available data are based on the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) [43]
Energies 2016, 9, 8 8 of 27
model: a next-generation mesoscale numerical weather forecast system designed to serve both
atmospheric research and operational forecasting needs. It features two dynamical cores, a data
assimilation system, and a software architecture allowing for parallel computation and system
extensibility. The model serves a wide range of meteorological applications across scales ranging
from meters to thousands of kilometers. As shown in Table 1, the coordinates of the points of the
WRF model (WRF latitude and WRF longitude) are close to the real points (real latitude and real
longitude) for the two sites under analysis.
Table 1. Real and WRF coordinates for the two sites (degrees).
Site Real Latitude Real Longitude WRF Latitude WRF Longitude

Ma 40.35 17.52 40.44 17.65
Gi 40.55 16.84 40.62 16.93
The data set taken from the meteorological provider consists of solar irradiance forecasts for the
two meteorological stations during the whole year 2012 [44]. The forecast values are given in W/m2 at
four points in time (hours 7 a.m., 10 a.m., 1 p.m. and 4 p.m.). There is no indication on the uncertainty
of these data. The maximum timespan is 72 h. The forecast data have been first interpolated by using
polynomial splines [45], obtaining an estimated irradiance pattern that can be represented with a
number of points per day higher than the four points available from the forecast data.
On the basis of the hourly correlations from Equation (10), each hour of a day has been classified
belonging to clear, cloudy or variable sky conditions for both the estimated and measured data [44].
In particular, the value of the hourly clearness index of pyranometer ktp has been calculated as the
ratio of the solar irradiance from the pyranometer to the extra-atmospheric total irradiance G0 . Then,
the hourly clearness index of forecasts kt f has been calculated as the ratio between the 1 day-ahead
forecast data (considered to be more accurate than the 2 and 3 days-ahead forecasts, as confirmed by
the results indicated in Section 4) and the abovementioned G0 .
3.2. Representation of Measured, Forecast and Estimated Data

In Figure 2, the daily evolution of the solar irradiance is represented for seven consecutive
days of July 2012 (17–23 July) for the two sites “Gi” (a) and “Ma” (b). The 1, 2 and 3 days-ahead
forecasts available every three hours from [42] are represented with circles, while the measurements
from the pyranometer G pyr are indicated with a black line. Furthermore, the lines obtained by
polynomial spline interpolations are shown in different colors, corresponding to estimates obtained
from the 1 day-ahead forecast (in red), the 2 days-ahead forecast (in blue) and the 3 days-ahead
forecast (in green). These lines serve as references to identify the type of day on the basis of the
actual measurements. Finally, the dashed line represents the outcomes of the Moon-Spencer model.
By examining the daily evolution of measurements, for both sites there are four clear sky days, and
three days with variable sky or cloudy sky conditions. In general, the weather forecasts are able to
predict the clear-sky condition, but they are not able to predict the variable-sky condition: on 23 July
for the “Gi” site only the 1 day-ahead forecast is closer to the measurements. In particular, the hours
from 5 a.m. to 8 a.m. are classified by the algorithm related to the clearness index of measurement as
cloudy, in which ktp is between 0.04 and 0.16 and the value of the pyranometer irradiance does not
reach 200 W/m2 . The calculation for the 1 day-ahead forecast of the same day classifies all the hours
as variable, with kt f in the range 0.36–0.67.
Actually, in variable-sky days, the phenomenon of broken clouds [46–48] (also called cloud
enhancement [48,49], cloud edge [50] or overirradiance [51]) may affect the outcomes of the analysis.
The presence of broken clouds appears when the sky is mainly clear, but the passage of clouds affects
the irradiance evolution. The irradiance may reach values higher than the peak at clear-sky for short
duration due to the clouds, surrounding the solar disc, which reflect a portion of irradiance in a small
area of the ground. Obviously, on a longer period the clouds determine an irradiation lower than at
Energies 2016, 9, 8 9 of 27
Energies 2016, 9, page–page
clear-sky,
working with because of the shield
smoothed of the direct
data would makeirradiance by theamong
the distinction clouds.different
This phenomenon may cause
sky conditions more
fast
challenging. In this respect, the ISBC effect is useful to provide highly variable realbydata
positive and negative variations with the mentioned abnormal peak, which are revealed the
pyranometer
characterizingon 1 min or
variable scale. In sky
cloudy order to identifyimpacting
conditions, this effectoninthe
a synthetic
increase way,
of theletforecasting
us introduce the
errors.
acronym ISBC (Irradiance Spikes caused by Broken Clouds; no specific acronym
Hence, the polynomial splines obtained from the forecasted values are represented at 1-min time has been found in
the literature to identify this phenomenon. Thereby,
step as well in order to be compared with the measured values. the new acronym ISBC is introduced here to
represent synthetically
A specific aspect canthebe occurrence
observedof infast positive
Figure and negative
2b, where irradiance
the measured data variations
indicate a in “broken
systematic
clouds” conditions).
irradiance reduction at the “Ma” site in the early morning. This is due to the location of the
Averaging
irradiance sensor theinirradiance data over station
the meteorological a time building.
period longer thansensor,
For this 1 minthe (to direct
obtainirradiance
a smoother is
irradiance pattern) can reduce the relevance of the ISBC effect on the measured
shadowed in the early morning in the summer period, causing a bias in the error calculations. This values. However,
working
systematicwith smoothed
error varies withdata the
would
day.make the distinction
Its impact among different
on the free-view curve can skybeconditions
determined more
by
challenging.
knowing theIn this sky
clear respect,
model theof
ISBC
the effect
days is useful
and to provide
the exact highly
location variable
of the real data
shadowing characterizing
obstacles. When
variable
the sensor cloudy sky conditions,
or shadowing impacting
occurs, the total on the
irradiance increase to
is reduced of the
the diffuse
forecasting errors.InHence,
irradiance. the
the model
polynomial splines obtained from the forecasted values are represented at
used in this paper, for the periods in which the systematic error occurs, the maximum spline values1-min time step as well
in
canorder to be compared
be reduced withof
to the values the measured
the values. calculated from the clear sky model.
diffuse irradiance
Figure 2. Cont.
9
Energies 2016, 9, 8 10 of 27
(a) (b)
Figure2.2. Solar
Solar irradiance
irradiancevalues
valuesfrom: thethe
from: Moon-Spencer model
Moon-Spencer (Gth),(G
model pyranometer measurements (Gpyr),
Figure th ), pyranometer measurements
(G pyr ), the 3-hour forecasts (dots) and the spline-approximated estimations for days
the 3-hour forecasts (dots) and the spline-approximated estimations for seven sevenofdays
Julyof2012.
July
(a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
2012. (a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
3.3. A specific aspect

Comparison between can be observed
Estimated ValuesinandFigure 2b, where
Measurements inthe measured
the Two PV Sites data indicate a systematic
irradiance reduction at the “Ma” site in the early morning. This is due to the location of the irradiance
sensorOn the meteorological
in the basis of Equation (10),building.
station the clearness
For thisindex determines
sensor, the directthe amount is
irradiance ofshadowed
diffuse hourly
in the
irradiation with respect to the global hourly irradiation, and thus the sky conditions. The assessment
early morning in the summer period, causing a bias in the error calculations. This systematic error
of clear, variable and cloudy sky conditions is carried out for the pyranometer measurements and for
varies with the day. Its impact on the free-view curve can be determined by knowing the clear sky
the polynomial splines representing the estimated values. In both cases, the values are averaged at
model of the days and the exact location of the shadowing obstacles. When the sensor shadowing
each hour. When the assessment for measurement and estimate indicates the same type of sky
occurs, the total irradiance is reduced to the diffuse irradiance. In the model used in this paper,
conditions, the comparison result is marked as a “pass”, otherwise it becomes a “fail”.
for the periods in which the systematic error occurs, the maximum spline values can be reduced to
Table 2 and Table 3 report the comparison performance by showing the number of hours with
the values of the diffuse irradiance calculated from the clear sky model.
correct classification (passes) and with incorrect classification (fails). The comparison is carried out
with
3.3. estimates between
Comparison referring to 1 day-ahead
Estimated Values andforecast, summarized
Measurements in thefor
TwoallPVtheSites
months of the year 2012 in
the two sites. Only the hours having at least 30 min of sunlight are considered. The check on the
On the
sunlight basis
hours of Equation
is carried out for (10),
eachthe
day clearness
by usingindex determines
the clear sky model. the The
amount of diffuse
last row of eachhourly
table
irradiation with respect to the global hourly irradiation, and thus the sky
reports the percentage of passes (or fails) per month related to the total number of sunlight hoursconditions. The assessment
clear,
ofper variable and cloudy sky conditions is carried out for the pyranometer measurements and for
month.
the polynomial
For the sitesplines
“Gi”, inrepresenting
summer (in the estimated
particular values.
in July) In bothnumber
the highest cases, the valuespasses
of hourly are averaged
occurs
atfor
each
the hour.
variableWhen the assessment
condition. for measurement
The cases classified as variable and
fromestimate indicates thebut
the measurements same type
clear fromof the
sky
conditions, the comparison result is marked as a “pass”, otherwise it becomes
estimation occur mainly in the middle hours of the day (from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.) in the days with a “fail”.
Tables
greater 2 and 3 report
occurrence of thetheISBCcomparison
effect. Onperformance
the other hand, by showing
in springthe number
a great of hours
number with correct
of hourly fails
classification
occur for the (passes) and condition.
clear–variable with incorrect classification (fails). The comparison is carried out with
estimates referring
The low number to 1ofday-ahead
clear days,forecast,
especially summarized
in spring and forsummer,
all the months of the year
can be explained by2012 in the
the actual
two sites. OnlyInthe
air turbidity. hours the
general, having at least 30
air pollution min
can of sunlight
play are considered.
a fundamental The check
role. The number on the sunlight
of clear-sky days
hours
at theissite
carried
“Ma”out for each
is lower day
than at by
theusing the clear
site “Gi”. skythe
In fact, model. The last
site “Ma” row to
is close of high
each pollution
table reports the
areas,
percentage of passes (or fails) per month related to the total
with the presence of fine dust in the air, produced by industrial steel mills. number of sunlight hours per month.
For the site “Gi”, in summer (in particular in July) the highest number of hourly passes occurs
for the variable condition. The cases classified as variable from the measurements but clear from the
estimation occur mainly in the middle hours of the day (from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.) in the days with
greater occurrence of the ISBC effect. On the other hand, in spring a great number of hourly fails
occur for the clear–variable condition.
The low number of clear days, especially in spring and summer, can be explained by the actual
air turbidity. In general, the air pollution can play a fundamental role. The number of clear-sky days
at the site “Ma” is lower than at the site “Gi”. In fact, the site “Ma” is close to high pollution areas,
with the presence of fine dust in the air, produced by industrial steel mills.
10
Energies 2016, 9, 8 11 of 27
Table 2. Number of passes for all the months of 2012.
(a) Site “Gi”

Measured Estimated January February March April May June July August September October November December
Variable Variable 192 88 136 80 112 139 148 130 140 120 178 185
Clear Clear 8 30 51 98 108 129 54 109 86 77 5 5
Cloudy Cloudy 7 31 18 33 12 29 10 16 31 45 31 24
Total Passes 207 149 205 211 232 297 212 255 257 242 214 214
Passes % 72% 48% 57% 53% 53% 67% 47% 60% 71% 72% 71% 72%
(b) Site “Ma”
Variable Variable 165 96 145 70 124 113 135 141 149 124 139 155
Clear Clear 24 31 44 101 118 103 50 73 87 77 16 12
Cloudy Cloudy 0 24 18 34 2 29 0 16 32 45 17 26
Total Passes 189 151 207 205 244 245 185 230 268 246 172 193
Passes % 65% 49% 57% 51% 56% 55% 41% 54% 74% 73% 57% 65%
Energies 2016, 9, 8 12 of 27
Table 3. Number of fails for all the months of 2012.
(a) Site “Gi”

Variable Clear 3 7 6 7 5 25 90 49 25 14 8 17
Variable Cloudy 18 77 30 77 65 16 57 48 34 30 51 32
Clear Variable 50 59 115 83 123 87 75 71 46 46 22 23
Clear Cloudy 8 16 6 21 9 20 16 1 2 2 4 6
Cloudy Variable 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4
Cloudy Clear 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total Fails 81 159 157 188 202 148 238 169 107 92 86 82
Fails % 28% 52% 43% 47% 47% 33% 53% 40% 29% 28% 29% 28%
(b) Site “Ma”
Variable Clear 12 6 11 12 12 70 120 67 27 32 38 31
Variable Cloudy 30 75 18 77 75 30 66 48 27 25 85 49
Clear Variable 51 66 116 83 96 74 62 76 41 31 2 15
Clear Cloudy 7 10 10 18 7 24 16 2 1 0 0 8
Cloudy Variable 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2
Cloudy Clear 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Total Fails 100 157 155 194 190 198 264 193 96 89 128 105
Fails % 35% 51% 43% 49% 44% 45% 59% 46% 26% 27% 43% 35%
Energies 2016, 9, 8 13 of 27
Comparing the number of passes with the number of fails, it is interesting to point out that in
both sites only in two months (February and July) the number of passes is lower than the number
of fails. In particular, in July the classification of the cloudy conditions in these sites is particularly
challenging, especially when a cloudy day appears after a number of successive clear days.
3.4. Identification of the Irradiance Spikes caused by Broken Clouds (ISBC) Conditions
In order to estimate the number of occurrences of the ISBC effect in a day, an additional control
has been performed. In general, the ISBC effect may happen at each time (minute, hour . . . ) of the
day, when the irradiance spikes exceed the irradiance indicated by the reference model at clear sky.
The maximum value of clear-sky irradiance changes in each day; the monthly values are shown in
Table 4. The reference model considers a fixed plane (i.e., with the same 30˝ tilt angle of the modules
in the PV plant).
Table 4. Maximum clear-sky solar irradiance values with tilted angle of 30˝ for each month of 2012.
Max Clear-Sky Irradiance (W/m2 ) on a 30˝ Plane

Month
Site “Gi” Site “Ma”
January 852 856
February 971 977
March 1080 1100
April 1100 1110
May 1060 1070
June 1060 1060
July 1020 1030
August 1080 1080
September 1040 1040
October 1000 1020
November 906 905
December 856 853
In this paper, a spike is defined by the occurrence of an increase in the global irradiance Gtcell on
the tilted solar cells, from one minute to the successive minute, higher than a threshold value. The
threshold is set to 45 W/m2 , that is, the maximum expanded uncertainty of the pyranometer with
99.7% confidence indicated in Section 2.2. The occurrence of the ISBC effect has been determined by
showing two different outcomes:
(i) the number of irradiance spikes for which the measured irradiance exceeds the irradiance of the
reference model at the same minute;
(ii) the number of irradiance spikes for which the measured irradiance is so high to exceed
the maximum irradiance Gmax indicated by the reference model of the corresponding day.
The rationale of this choice is that for irradiance values higher than the maximum value
established at clear-sky conditions the PV system may inject in the electrical network a power
that could be even higher than the rated power of the PV plant.
For the two sites, the global irradiance Gtcell is gathered with a resolution of 1 min. For the
“Gi” site, in the year 2012 the ISBC effect occurs for a number of minutes corresponding to about
2 days and 17 h. The details by month are shown in Table 5a. The occurrence of the ISBC effect in
2012 at the “Ma” site is similar to what happens at the “Gi” site, with a number of minutes in which
the ISBC effect occurs corresponding to 2 days and 16 h. The details by month are shown in Table 5b.
The months with a higher occurrence of the ISBC effect are in spring (April–May) and in autumn
(September).
Energies 2016, 9, 8 14 of 27
Table 5. Number of ISBC events for each month, considering Gtcell with time step of 1 min, exceeding
the minute-by-minute points and the daily peak of the clear sky model.
Number of ISBC Events (Year 2012)

(a) Site “Gi” (b) Site “Ma”
Month
Exceeding the Exceeding the
Exceeding the Exceeding the
Minute-by-Minute Minute-by-Minute
Daily Peak of the Daily Peak of the
Points of the Points of the
Clear Sky Model Clear Sky Model
Clear Sky Model Clear Sky Model
January 378 190 357 172
February 228 117 231 117
March 232 89 430 217
April 552 283 469 221
May 646 343 397 190
June 252 108 202 73
July 227 104 167 57
August 154 60 34 10
September 493 207 663 311
October 345 161 416 166
November 245 121 214 79
December 174 86 289 140
Total year 3926 1869 3869 1753
4. Accuracy of the Estimated Values
4.1. Error Indices to Compare the Irradiance Estimates with the Measurements
In order to compare the estimated quantities with the measured ones, the estimation error εG is
the difference between the estimated irradiance Gest and the measured irradiance Gmeas [52]:
εG “ Gest ´ Gmeas (11)
Different statistical parameters [53] have been calculated on a daily basis, by considering a
generic error ε:
‚ the root mean square error (RMSE):

g
f N
f1ÿ
RMSE “ e ε2i (12)
N
i“1
‚ the mean bias error (MBE), representing the systematic part (bias) of the error [54]:
N
1ÿ
MBE “ ε “ εi (13)
N
i “1
‚ the mean absolute error (MAE):

N
1ÿ
MAE “ |εi | (14)
N
i “1
The estimation error is calculated by using Equation (11) with Gest given by the estimated data
interpolated from the 1, 2 and 3 days-ahead irradiance forecasts, and Gmeas equal to the irradiance
G pyr measured from the pyranometer. Figures 3–5 show the RMSE, the MBE and the MAE calculated
errors, respectively, expressed in kW/m2 for the days of July 2012 in the sites “Gi” and “Ma”.
For example, it can be observed that on 23 July there is a significant increase of the three errors with
Energies 2016, 9, 8 15 of 27
respect
Energiesto2016,
the9,preceding
page–page days, at both sites. This situation can be explained by looking at the last
graphs of Figure 2, in which the sky on 23 July becomes variable after a sequence of clearer days.
graphs situation
A similar of Figure occurs
2, in which
on 24theJulyskyat on 23 sites
both July and
becomes
on 25variable aftersite
July at the a sequence
“Gi”. of clearer days.
A similar situation occurs on 24 July at both sites and on 25 July at the site
On the average, the 1-day ahead estimate is the most accurate, with lower errors compared “Gi”.
On the average, the 1-day ahead estimate is the most accurate, with lower errors compared to
to the 2-days and 3-days ahead estimates. In particular, considering the RMSE errors in Figure 3,
the 2-days and 3-days ahead estimates. In particular, considering the RMSE errors 2 for in Figure 3, the
the average value of the 1-day ahead estimates give figures around 119 W/m the site “Gi” and
average value of the 1-day ahead estimates give figures around 119 W/m for the site2 “Gi” and 2
around 107 W/m2 2for the site “Ma”; whereas the maximum value is around 266 W/m for the site
around 107 W/m for the 2site “Ma”; whereas the maximum value is around 266 W/m2 for the site 2
“Gi” and around 280 W/m 2for the site “Ma”. Furthermore, the minimum value is around 81 W/m
“Gi” and around 280 W/m for the site “Ma”. Furthermore, the minimum value is around 81 W/m2
for the site “Gi” and around 82 W/m2 2 for the site “Ma”. From Figure 4, it can be pointed out that
for the site “Gi” and around 82 W/m for the site “Ma”. From Figure 4, it can be pointed out that the
the1-day
1-dayahead
aheadestimates
estimates give MBE figures around 2 for the site “Gi” and around 40 W/m2
give MBE figures around 50 50
W/mW/m
2 for the site “Gi” and around 40 W/m2 for
forthe
thesite
site“Ma”.
“Ma”.In In 2
the best results the MBE index decreases down to 20to
the best results the MBE index decreases down 20 2W/m
W/m for theforsitethe siteand
“Gi” “Gi”
and 2 2
down to 10 W/m for the site “Ma”, and in the worst results the MBE raises up to 140 W/m for thefor
down to 10 W/m2 for the site “Ma”, and in the worst results the MBE raises up to 140 W/m
2
thesite
site“Gi”
“Gi” and 2 for the site “Ma”. The presence of a positive bias (with estimates
and upup to 160
to 160 W/m W/m
2 for the site “Ma”. The presence of a positive bias (with estimates higher
higher
than than the measured
the measured values)values)
may be may be associated
associated with
with air air pollution.
pollution. From Figure
From Figure 5, the 5,MAEthe for
MAE thefor
the1-day
1-dayahead
ahead estimates
estimates is 90
is 90 W/mW/m2 for2 the
forsite
the“Gi”
site “Gi”
and 80and
W/m80 2W/m 2 for the site “Ma”, the minimum
for the site “Ma”, the minimum value
value is about 60 2W/m 2 for both sites and the maximum value 2is 180 W/m2 for the site “Gi” and
is about 60 W/m for both sites and the maximum value is 180 W/m for the site “Gi” and 190 W/m2 for
190the
W/m 2
site “Ma”.
for the site “Ma”.
RMSE 1-day RMSE 2-days RMSE 3-days
0.6
0.5
0.4
[kW/m2]
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
days
(a)
RMSE 1-day RMSE 2-days RMSE 3-days
0.6
0.5
0.4
[kW/m2]
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
days
(b)
Figure 3. The RMSE in kW/m2 in July. (a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
Figure 3. The RMSE in kW/m2 in July. (a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
15
Energies 2016, 9, 8 16 of 27
MBE 1-day MBE 2-days MBE 3-days
MBE 1-day MBE 2-days MBE 3-days

0,6
0,6
0,5
0,5
0,4
0,4
[kW/m2]
0,3
[kW/m2]
0,3
0,2
0,2
0,1
0,1
0,0
0,0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
days
days
(a)
(a)
MBE 1-day
MBE 1-day
MBE 2-days
MBE 2-days
MBE 3-days
MBE 3-days
0,60,6
0,50,5
0,40,4
[kW/m2]
[kW/m2]
0,30,3
0,20,2
0,1
0,1
0,0
0,0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15days
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
days
(b)
(b)
Figure 4. The MBE in kW/m2 in
TheMBE
MBEininkW/m
kW/m 2 July. (a)(a)
Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
Figure4.4.The
Figure 2 in in July.
July. Site“Gi”;
(a) Site “Gi”;(b)
(b) Site
Site “Ma”.
“Ma”.
MAE 1-days MAE 2-days MAE 3-days
0,7 MAE 1-days MAE 2-days MAE 3-days
0,7
0,6
0,6
0,5
0,5
0,4
[kW/m2]
0,4
[kW/m2]
0,3
0,3
0,2
0,2
0,1
0,1
0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
0,0 days
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
(a)
days
Figure(a)
5. Cont.
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Cont.
Cont.
16
16
Energies 2016, 9, 8 17 of 27
MAE 1-days MAE 2-days MAE 3-days
0,7 MAE 1-days MAE 2-days MAE 3-days
0,7
0,6
0,6
0,5
0,5
0,4
2] 2
]
0,4
[kW/m
[kW/m
0,3
0,3
0,2
0,2
0,1
0,1
0,0
0,0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15days
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
days
(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure5.5.The
TheMAE
MAEininkW/m
kW/min
2 July.
2 in (a)(a)Site
July. Site“Gi”;
“Gi”;(b)
(b) Site “Ma”.
Site “Ma”.
Figure 5. The MAE in kW/m2 in July. (a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
In order to provide an overall view of the estimation errors during the year 2012, Figure 6
showsInthe
order to provide
monthly average anvalues
overall
of view of the
the daily estimation
RMSE, MAE anderrors
MBEduring thefrom
obtained yearthe
2012, Figure 6
1 day-ahead
shows the monthly average values of the daily RMSE, MAE and MBE obtained from the 1 day-ahead
estimates. At both sites, relatively high average errors occur in April and May, while generally the
estimates.
months withAt
Atboth
bothsites,
lower
sites,relatively
errors are from high
relatively average
high average
October errors
to occur
errors in April
occur
January. These andand
in April
results May, while
May, generally
while
are consistent with the
generally
the
months with
the months lower
with lowererrors are
errors from
are fromOctober
OctobertotoJanuary.
January.These
Theseresults
resultsare
occurrence of the most relevant ISBC effects in April and May, as shown in Table 5.
are consistent
consistent with
with the
occurrence
occurrence of
of the
the most
most relevant ISBC effects
relevant ISBC effects in
in April
April and
and May,
May, as
as shown
shownin inTable
Table5.5.
0.20
0.18 RMSE
MAE
0.16
MBE
0.14
average error [kW/m2]
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
month number
(a)
(a)
Figure 6. Cont.
Figure 6. Cont.
Figure 6. Cont.
17
17
Energies 2016, 9, 8 18 of 27
(b)
Figure 6. Monthly average values of the daily RMSE, MAE and MBE obtained from the 1-day ahead
Figure 6. Monthly average values of the daily RMSE, MAE and MBE obtained from the 1-day ahead
estimates at
estimates at the
the two
two sites. (a) Site
sites. (a) Site“Gi”;
“Gi”;(b)
(b) Site
Site “Ma”.
“Ma”.
4.2. Duration Curves of Bias and Absolute Error

4.2. Duration Curves of Bias and Absolute Error
The figures reported in this section show the error duration curves for the sites “Gi” and “Ma”,
The figures reported in this section show the error duration curves for the sites “Gi” and “Ma”,
representing the bias and the absolute errors of the estimates referring to the 1 day-ahead forecast
representing the bias and the absolute errors of the estimates referring to the 1 day-ahead forecast
with respect to the irradiance measurements. The data are averaged at 15-min time steps for one
with respect to the irradiance measurements. The data are averaged at 15-min time steps for one year.
year. As renewable sources are rapidly gaining a larger share of the market, the importance of
As renewable sources are rapidly gaining a larger share of the market, the importance of forecasting
forecasting their productivity is essential for grid operators who have always to balance electricity
their productivity is essential for grid operators who have always to balance electricity supply and
supply and demand. The evaluation of the forecast errors is helpful for the grid operator, for
demand. The evaluation of the forecast errors is helpful for the grid operator, for example, to estimate
example, to estimate to what extent the contribution of PV plants to the grid-connected local
to what extent the contribution of PV plants to the grid-connected local generation (calculated by
generation (calculated by using the 1 day-ahead forecast data) can be trustable.
using the 1 day-ahead forecast data) can be trustable.
Figure 7 shows the error duration curves of positive and negative bias, where positive biases
Figure 7 shows the error duration curves of positive and negative bias, where positive biases
correspond to estimates higher than the measurements, and vice versa. The errors are expressed in
correspond to estimates higher than the measurements, and vice versa. The errors are expressed in
per units by considering a reference value of 1 kW/m2. For both sites, the number of positive bias
per units by considering a reference value of 1 kW/m2 . For both sites, the number of positive bias
entries is higher than the number of negative bias entries, indicating a major trend to overestimate
entries is higher than the number of negative bias entries, indicating a major trend to overestimate
the irradiance values in these cases. This overestimation issue deserves some attention. In fact, using
the irradiance values in these cases. This overestimation issue deserves some attention. In fact, using
the estimated irradiance values as input data to estimate the PV power generation, an overestimation
the estimated irradiance values as input data to estimate the PV power generation, an overestimation
of the PV production creates an undue imbalance between the actual generation and the load. This
of the PV production creates an undue imbalance between the actual generation and the load. This
imbalance impacts on the need to procure further reserves for supporting the grid operation.
imbalance impacts on the need to procure further reserves for supporting the grid operation.
Figure 8 indicates that the positive bias exceeded by 5% of the quarters of hour during the year
Figure 8 indicates that the positive bias exceeded by 5% of the quarters of hour during the year
is about 0.49 for the site “Gi”, and about 0.44 for the site “Ma”. Figure 9 shows that the negative bias
is about 0.49 for the site “Gi”, and about 0.44 for the site “Ma”. Figure 9 shows that the negative bias
exceeded by 5% of the quarters of hour during the year is about −0.24 for the site “Gi”, and about
exceeded by 5% of the quarters of hour during the year is about ´0.24 for the site “Gi”, and about
−0.27 for the site “Ma”. Furthermore, Figure 10 shows the duration curves for the absolute error. In
´0.27 for the site “Ma”. Furthermore, Figure 10 shows the duration curves for the absolute error.
the zoom of Figure 11 it is shown that the absolute error exceeded by 5% of the quarters of hour
In the zoom of Figure 11 it is shown that the absolute error exceeded by 5% of the quarters of hour
during the year is about 0.43 for the site “Gi” and about 0.38 for the site “Ma”.
during the year is about 0.43 for the site “Gi” and about 0.38 for the site “Ma”.
The bias and error values obtained are compared with the pyranometer uncertainty indicated in
The bias and error values obtained are compared with the pyranometer uncertainty indicated in
Section 2.2. The absolute error exceeded in 5% of the cases is indicatively one order of magnitude
Section 2.2. The absolute error exceeded in 5% of2 the cases is indicatively one order of magnitude
higher than the expanded uncertainty (45 W/m , that is, 0.045 per units) of the pyranometer at
higher than the expanded uncertainty (45 W/m2 , that is, 0.045 per units) of the pyranometer at
confidence level 99.7%. Thereby, the measurement uncertainty plays a minor role in the interpretation
confidence level 99.7%. Thereby, the measurement uncertainty plays a minor role in the interpretation
of the results.
of the results.
18
Energies 2016, 9, 8 19 of 27
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9, page–page
1 1
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.8 0.8
positive bias positive bias
positive bias positive bias
0.6 negative bias 0.6 negative bias
0.6 negative bias 0.6 negative bias
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.2 0.2
Bias
Bias
0 0
Bias
Bias
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.6 -0.6
-0.8 -0.8
-0.8 -0.8
-1 -1
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 0
16000 2000 20000
18000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
-1 -1
number of 15-min number of 15-min
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 0 2000 4000
14000 16000 18000 20000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
(a)
number of 15-min
(b) number of 15-min
Figure 7. Duration(a)
curve of positive and negative bias for the solar irradiance(b)
estimated data with
Duration
Figure 7. respect curve of positive
to measurements and
for the year negative
2012. bias (b)
(a) Site “Gi”; forSite
the“Ma”.
solar irradiance estimated data with
Figure 7. Duration curve of positive and negative bias for the solar irradiance estimated data with
respect to measurements for the year 2012.MBE+ (GI)
(a) Site MBE+ (MA)
“Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
respect to measurements
0.8 for the year 2012. (a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
MBE+ (GI) MBE+ (MA)site “Gi”
site “Ma”
0.80.7
site “Gi”
site “Ma”
0.70.6
Bias Error
0.60.5
Bias Error
MeanBias
0.50.4
Positive
MeanBias
Positive
0.40.3 5 % of the data 95 %

Positive
0.30.2 5 % of the data 95 %

Positive
5 % of the data 95 %
0.1
0.2 5 % of the data 95 %
0
0.1 0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
number of 15-min
n° of 15-min
0
Figure 8. Zoom
0 of the
80 duration
160 curves
240 of positive
320 bias
400 for 480
the solar
560irradiance
640 estimated
720 data with
800
number
respect to measurements for the year 2012 at then° of“Gi”
15-min
of 15-min
sites and “Ma”.
Figure 8. Zoom of the duration curves of positive bias for the solar irradiance estimated data with
Figure 8. Zoom of the duration curves of positive bias for the solar irradiance estimated data with
respect to measurements for the year 2012 at the sites “Gi” and “Ma”.
number
n° of 15-min
of 15-min
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600
0
5 %of the data 95 %
-0.1
BiasBias Error
5 % of the data 95 %
-0.2
Mean
Negative
-0.3
Negative
19
site “Gi”
-0.4 site “Ma”
19
-0.5 MBE- (GI) MBE- (MA)
-0.6
Figure 9. Zoom of the duration curves of negative bias for the solar irradiance estimated data with
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
site "Gi"
e Error
0.6 site "Ma"

-0.4 site “Ma”

-0.6
Figure
Energies 2016, 9.
9, 8Zoom
-0.6 of the duration curves of negative bias for the solar irradiance estimated data with
20 of 27
respect to measurements
1
for the year 2012 at the sites “Gi” and “Ma”.
0.91
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.8
site "Gi"
Error Error
0.6
0.7 site "Ma"
site "Gi"
Absolute
0.5
0.6 site "Ma"
Absolute
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0
0.1
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000
0 number of 15-min
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000
Figure 10. Duration curve of the absolute errors forof the
number solar irradiance estimated data with respect
Figure 10. Duration curve of the absolute errors
MAE (GI)
for 15-min
the solar irradiance estimated data with respect
MAE (MA)
to measurements for the year 2012.
to measurements
Figure 0.8
for
10. Duration the
curveyear
of 2012.
the absolute errors for the solar irradiance estimated data with respect
MAE (GI) MAE (MA)
to measurements for the year 2012. site “Gi”
0.8
0.7 site “Ma”
site “Gi”
0.7 site “Ma”
0.6
ErrorError
0.6
0.5
Absolute
Error
0.5
0.4
Absolute
Error
MeanAbsolute
ean
0.4 95 %
0.3 5 %of the data
M
Absolute
0.3
0.2 5 %of the data 95 %
5 %of the data 95 %
0.2
0.1 95 %
5 %of the data
0.1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0 n° ofof15-m
number in
15-min
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Figure 11. Zoom of the duration curves of the
estimated data n° ofof15-m
absolute
number in
error for the solar irradiance
15-min
with respect to measurements for the year 2012 at the sites “Gi” and “Ma”.
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Zoom
Zoom of
of the
the duration
duration curves
curves of
of the
the absolute
absolute error
error for
for the
the solar
solar irradiance
irradiance estimated
estimated data
data
with respect to measurements for the year 2012 at the sites “Gi” and
with respect to measurements for the year 2012 at the sites “Gi” and “Ma”. “Ma”.
20
20
5. AC Power Estimations Compared with Experimental Results
Figure 12 shows the application of the PV conversion model to the reference-cell irradiance data
for seven consecutive days of July 2012 in the sites “Gi” and “Ma”. For example, low deviations occur
on 23 July (an extremely variable day), meaning that the model is able to follow also huge irradiance
variations. Moreover, thanks to the days with clear sky, since the deviations are proportional to the
solar irradiance, it is possible to detect the failure of a portion of the PV arrays, becoming evident by
the occurrence of large and regular deviations between the measured values and the outputs of the
model, as reported in [20]. Thereby, a salient characteristic of the model is that it can be useful for
fault diagnosis.
irradiance variations. Moreover, thanks to the days with clear sky, since the deviations are
proportional to the solar irradiance, it is possible to detect the failure of a portion of the PV arrays,
becoming evident by the occurrence of large and regular deviations between the measured values
and the outputs of the model, as reported in [20]. Thereby, a salient characteristic of the model
Energies 2016, 9, 8
is that
21 of 27
it can be useful for fault diagnosis.
(a) (b)
Figure 12. 12.
Figure Comparison
Comparisonbetween
between PVPVpower
powermeasurements
measurements and simulations
and simulations forconsecutive
for seven seven consecutive
days
daysofofJuly
July2012.
2012. (a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site
(a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”. “Ma”.
21
The differences appearing in Figure 12 may be also attributed to the fact that average values
have been used in the representation of the sources of losses and efficiencies, with the scope of
Energies 2016, 9, 8 22 of 27
The differences appearing in Figure 12 may be also attributed to the fact that average values
have been used in the representation of the sources of losses and efficiencies, with the scope of
estimating both clear sky and and variable
variable conditions
conditions without
without varying
varying the
the efficiencies
efficiencies in function of thethe
sky conditions.
the calculation
For the calculationofofthe
thepower
powerPAC P AC to used
to be be used in Equation
in Equation (9),reference-cell
(9), the the reference-cell irradiance
irradiance data
data gathered
gathered on theon tilted
the tilted
plane GtcellG, tcell
plane , averaged
averaged on on 15-min
15-min basis,
basis, areare usedasasinputs
used inputsofof the
the model
model
previously described.
described. The Theresults
resultsofoferror
errorcalculation
calculationfor for the
the estimated
estimated power
power profiles
profiles areare reported
reported in
in the
the following
following figures.
figures. TheThe error
error durationcurves
duration curvescalculated
calculatedforforP∆Pare
arerepresented
represented with
with averaging
time step of 15 min and on an annual basis. Figure Figure 1313 shows
shows the
the duration
duration curves
curves ofof positive
positive and
and
negative P∆P errors. At At both
both sites,
sites, the number of negative errors errors ∆P
P isis higher
´
− higher than
than the
the number
number of
∆P+`, ,but
positive errors P butthe
thepositive
positiveerrors
errorsmay maybe bequantitatively
quantitativelyhigher.
higher. This
This aspect
aspect is
is confirmed
confirmed by
comparing the results shown in the zoom of of Figure
Figure 14 (for
(for positive
positive estimation
estimation errors)
errors) and Figure 15
(for negative estimation errors). The The corresponding
corresponding errors exceeded by 5% of the number of quarters
of hour in one year are of about 120–130 kW for the positive errors at the two sites, and of about about
kW and kW for the negative errors at the sites “Gi” and
−60 kW and −100 kW for the negative errors at the sites “Gi” and “Ma”, respectively.
´60 ´100 “Ma”, respectively.
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Duration
Duration curve
curve of
of positive
positive and
and negative
negative estimation
estimation errors
errors of
of the
the AC
AC power
power profiles
profiles with
with
respect to experimental results for the year 2012. (a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
respect to experimental results for the year 2012. (a) Site “Gi”; (b) Site “Ma”.
22
Energies 2016, 9, 8 23 of 27
Figure 14. Zoom of the duration curves of positive estimation errors of the AC power profiles with
Figure 14. Zoom of the duration curves of positive estimation errors of the AC power profiles with
respect to experimental results for the year 2012 at the sites “Gi” and “Ma”.
Figure
respect 14. Zoom of the results
to experimental durationforcurves of 2012
the year positive estimation
at the sites “Gi”errors of the AC power profiles with
and “Ma”.
Figure 15. Zoom of the duration curves of negative estimation errors of the AC power profiles with
6. Conclusions
This paper has presented the comparison of irradiance and AC power estimates with respect to
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
the experimental results gathered from meteorological stations and energy meters in grid-connected
This paper has presented the comparison of irradiance and AC power estimates with respect to
PV systems.
This paper Thehasdata used refer
presented to two PV of
the comparison sites located and
irradiance in Southern
AC power Italy. The solar
estimates with irradiance
respect to
the experimental results gathered from meteorological stations and energy meters in grid-connected
forecasts
the up to 3 days
experimental ahead
results on the
gathered horizontal
from plane, available
meteorological from
stations and a weather
energy forecast
meters provider at
in grid-connected
PV systems. The data used refer to two PV sites located in Southern Italy. The solar irradiance
geographic
PV systems.coordinates
The data usedclose refer
to the
toPV
twoplants, have
PV sites been used
located to obtain
in Southern estimated
Italy. The solardatairradiance
patterns.
forecasts up to 3 days ahead on the horizontal plane, available from a weather forecast provider at
It has been
forecasts upestablished to what
to 3 days ahead on extent the estimated
the horizontal plane, data referring
available fromtoa the 1 day-ahead
weather forecast forecast
providerare
at
geographic coordinates close to the PV plants, have been used to obtain estimated data patterns.
better than coordinates
geographic the estimated datatodetermined
close the PV plants,fromhave
the been
2 andused
3 days-ahead forecasts, by
to obtain estimated calculating
data patterns.
It has been established to what extent the estimated data referring to the 1 day-ahead forecast are
some
It has classical average to
been established errors.
whatAextent
methodthe to classify each
estimated hour of atoday
data referring theby using threeforecast
1 day-ahead categories
are
better than the estimated data determined from the 2 and 3 days-ahead forecasts, by calculating
(variable,
better thancloudy, or clear) has
the estimated databeen implemented.
determined from the Examining the resultsforecasts,
2 and 3 days-ahead month byby month, it hassome
calculating been
some classical average errors. A method to classify each hour of a day by using three categories
possible average
classical to determine
errors.the number to
A method ofclassify
successfuleachand
hourunsuccessful
of a day by classifications provided(variable,
using three categories by the
(variable, cloudy, or clear) has been implemented. Examining the results month by month, it has been
1 day-ahead
cloudy, or clear)estimated
has beendata with respect
implemented. to the pyranometer
Examining measurements.
the results month by month, The low
it has number
been of
possible
possible to determine the number of successful and unsuccessful classifications provided by the
clear-sky
to determinedays,theespecially
number of insuccessful
spring and andsummer, can beclassifications
unsuccessful explained by provided
the air turbidity,
by the 1e.g., due to
day-ahead
1 day-ahead estimated data with respect to the pyranometer measurements. The low number of
pollution deriving
estimated data withfrom human
respect activities.
to the Deep measurements.
pyranometer cloudy weather The caseslow
cannumber
be reproduced when
of clear-sky the
days,
clear-sky days, especially in spring and summer, can be explained by the air turbidity, e.g., due to
WRF forecasts indicate low irradiance values and the polynomial spline connecting these points
pollution deriving from human activities. Deep cloudy weather cases can be reproduced when the
remains well below the clear sky conditions.
WRF forecasts indicate low irradiance values and the polynomial spline connecting these points
remains well below the clear sky conditions. 23
23
Energies 2016, 9, 8 24 of 27
especially in spring and summer, can be explained by the air turbidity, e.g., due to pollution deriving
from human activities. Deep cloudy weather cases can be reproduced when the WRF forecasts
indicate low irradiance values and the polynomial spline connecting these points remains well below
the clear sky conditions.
The results obtained for the ISBC effect have shown that this particular effect contributes to
determine variable sky conditions. Assessing the ISBC effect is useful to explain the presence of
power production peaks even higher than the rated power specified at STC of irradiance and cell
temperature. The ISBC effect, even if noticeable on 1-min scale, is smoothed on the 15-min scale and
considering the aggregation of more locations.
For the comparison between estimated and measured data, the statistical indicators RMSE,
MAE and MBE have been calculated. Considering positive and negative MBE, the error duration
curves have been obtained for 15-min averaged irradiance values on an annual basis. Finally,
the combination of irradiance estimation and PV conversion model provides interesting results to
boost the PV penetration into the grid. Considering the error of the AC power calculated from the
PV model with respect to the AC power measured by the meters on the real grid-connected PV
system, the error duration curve allows us determine which positive or negative errors occur for
an established percentage of the data analyzed.
The categorization of the types of sky for each period of the day, associated with the short-term
estimation of the weather conditions, is a specific information that can be used to quantify the
additional reserve necessary to balance the fluctuations of the PV generation in periods in which
high fluctuations are expected, without requiring such reserve to be continuously available [55,56].
The connection of PV power to the grid, like in the case of wind power, requires additional reserve
with respect to the normal reserve required for the balance control of the grid [57]. For this purpose,
the information on the PV forecasting uncertainty can be handled to assist the assessment of the
amount of reserves needed to integrate the uncertain PV generation into the electrical system. For this
purpose, persistence models, Markov chains and neural networks can be applied [56–58]. These
results are also useful to estimate the contribution of PV in the definition of capacity value and
capacity credit of renewable energy sources [59–61].
Acknowledgments: Part of the research leading to these results has received funding from the European
Union Seventh Framework Programme FP7 under grant agreement No. 309048, project SiNGULAR (Smart and
Sustainable Insular Electricity Grids Under Large-Scale Renewable Integration).
Author Contributions: The authors contributed equally to the work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Error Assessment of Solar Irradiance Forecasts and AC Power From Energy Conversion Model in Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems

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Error Assessment of Solar Irradiance Forecasts and AC Power From Energy Conversion Model in Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems

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Error Assessment of Solar Irradiance Forecasts and

Abstract: Availability of effective estimation of the power profiles of photovoltaic systems is

Keywords: photovoltaic systems; weather forecasts; photovoltaic (PV) conversion model;

Energies 2016, 9, 8; doi:10.3390/en9010008 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

The strengths of this paper are that:

2. Solar Irradiance Models and PV System Description

2.1. Models for Extraterrestrial and Ground Level Irradiance

2.2. Description of the Two Meteorological Stations and PV Systems

wind speed wss..

2.3. Definition of the PV Conversion Model

ηth “ 1 ´ lth “ 1 ´ γth pTC ´ TSTC q (4)

∆P “ PAC ´ Pmeas (9)

3. Clear, Variable and Cloudy Sky Classification

3.1. Determination of the Diffuse Contribution in the Global Irradiance

Site Real Latitude Real Longitude WRF Latitude WRF Longitude

3.2. Representation of Measured, Forecast and Estimated Data

3.3. A specific aspect

Table 2. Number of passes for all the months of 2012.

(a) Site “Gi”

Table 3. Number of fails for all the months of 2012.

(a) Site “Gi”

Max Clear-Sky Irradiance (W/m2 ) on a 30˝ Plane

Number of ISBC Events (Year 2012)

4. Accuracy of the Estimated Values

εG “ Gest ´ Gmeas (11)

‚ the root mean square error (RMSE):

‚ the mean absolute error (MAE):

RMSE 1-day RMSE 2-days RMSE 3-days

MBE 1-day MBE 2-days MBE 3-days

4.2. Duration Curves of Bias and Absolute Error

0.40.3 5 % of the data 95 %

0.30.2 5 % of the data 95 %

0.6 site "Ma"

-0.5 MBE- (GI) MBE- (MA)

Energies 2016, 9, page–page

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