Stop, Station, and Terminal Capacity: Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual-2 Edition

Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual—2nd Edition
PART 7
STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 7-1
CHAPTER 2. STATION TYPES AND CONFIGURATIONS .................................... 7-3

Overview .......................................................................................................................... 7-3
Bus Stops........................................................................................................................... 7-3
Transit Centers................................................................................................................. 7-3
Busway Stations............................................................................................................... 7-4
Light Rail Stations ........................................................................................................... 7-4
Heavy Rail Stations ......................................................................................................... 7-4
Commuter Rail Stations.................................................................................................. 7-4
Ferry Docks and Terminals ............................................................................................ 7-5
Intermodal Terminals ..................................................................................................... 7-5
CHAPTER 3. PASSENGER CIRCULATION AND LEVEL OF SERVICE .............. 7-7

Pedestrian Circulation Concepts ................................................................................... 7-7
Pedestrian Capacity Terminology ............................................................................. 7-7
Principles of Pedestrian Flow .................................................................................... 7-8
Pedestrian Level of Service......................................................................................... 7-8
Circulation on Walkways ............................................................................................... 7-8
Speed ............................................................................................................................. 7-9
Density .......................................................................................................................... 7-9
Effective Walkway Width........................................................................................... 7-9
Levels of Service for Walkways ............................................................................... 7-10
Circulation on Stairways .............................................................................................. 7-12
Levels of Service for Stairways ................................................................................ 7-13
Occupancy in Queuing and Waiting Areas ............................................................... 7-14
Levels of Service for Queuing and Waiting Areas ................................................ 7-14
Multi-Activity Passenger Circulation Areas .............................................................. 7-15
Access for Persons with Disabilities ........................................................................... 7-16
Emergency Evacuation ................................................................................................. 7-17
Security ........................................................................................................................... 7-18
Clarity of Station Layout and Wayfinding................................................................. 7-18
Comprehensive Analysis of Passenger Circulation .................................................. 7-19
Pedestrian System Requirements ............................................................................ 7-19
Comprehensive Passenger Circulation Analysis .................................................. 7-20
Manual Method/Input to Simulation Models....................................................... 7-20
Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-i Contents

CHAPTER 4. STATION ELEMENTS AND THEIR CAPACITIES......................... 7-23

On-Street Bus Stops....................................................................................................... 7-23
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-23
Waiting Area Level of Service.................................................................................. 7-23
Evaluation Procedures .............................................................................................. 7-23
Off-Street Bus Stops ...................................................................................................... 7-24
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-24
Station Platforms ........................................................................................................... 7-26
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-26
Shelters, Waiting Rooms, and Seating ........................................................................ 7-28
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-28
Shelter or Waiting Room Level of Service.............................................................. 7-28
Walkways ....................................................................................................................... 7-29
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-29
Doorways........................................................................................................................ 7-31
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-31
Doorway Level of Service......................................................................................... 7-31
Stairways ........................................................................................................................ 7-32
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-32
Escalators ........................................................................................................................ 7-34
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-34
Escalator Capacity ..................................................................................................... 7-35
Moving Walkways ........................................................................................................ 7-37
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-37
Moving Walkway Capacity...................................................................................... 7-37
Elevators and Lifts......................................................................................................... 7-38
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-38
Elevator Level of Service .......................................................................................... 7-39
Ramps ............................................................................................................................. 7-40
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-40
Contents Page 7-ii Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY

Ramp Level of Service............................................................................................... 7-40

Fare Control Barriers, Gates, and Turnstiles.............................................................. 7-41
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-41
Fare Gate Capacity .................................................................................................... 7-42
Ticket Machines ............................................................................................................. 7-43
Design Factors............................................................................................................ 7-43
Ticket Machine Level of Service .............................................................................. 7-43
Signage and Passenger Communication Systems..................................................... 7-44
Signage and Information Displays .......................................................................... 7-44
Public Address Systems............................................................................................ 7-45
Real-Time Passenger Information Systems............................................................ 7-45
Passenger Amenities ..................................................................................................... 7-45
Bicycle Storage ............................................................................................................... 7-47
Park-and-Ride Facilities................................................................................................ 7-47
Kiss-and-Ride Facilities ................................................................................................ 7-48
CHAPTER 5. REFERENCES........................................................................................... 7-49
CHAPTER 6. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS .......................................................................... 7-51
APPENDIX A: EXHIBITS IN METRIC UNITS .......................................................... 7-67
Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-iii Contents

LIST OF EXHIBITS
Exhibit 7-1 Pedestrian Speed on Walkways .............................................................. 7-9
Exhibit 7-2 Pedestrian Flow on Walkways by Unit Width and Space................. 7-10
Exhibit 7-3 Pedestrian Level of Service on Walkways ........................................... 7-11
Exhibit 7-4 Illustration of Walkway Levels of Service ........................................... 7-11
Exhibit 7-5 Pedestrian Ascent Speed on Stairs........................................................ 7-13
Exhibit 7-6 Pedestrian Flow Volumes on Stairs ...................................................... 7-13
Exhibit 7-7 Level of Service Criteria for Stairways ................................................. 7-14
Exhibit 7-8 Levels of Service for Queuing Areas .................................................... 7-14
Exhibit 7-9 Illustration of Queuing Area Level of Service..................................... 7-15
Exhibit 7-10 Examples of Multiple Pedestrian Activities Within a Transit
Station ....................................................................................................... 7-15
Exhibit 7-11 Sample Pedestrian Flow Diagram Through a Transit Terminal ....... 7-19
Exhibit 7-12 Elements of Passenger Circulation in a Transit Station ..................... 7-19
Exhibit 7-13 Bus Loading Area (Berth) Designs and Examples.............................. 7-24
Exhibit 7-14 Maximum Capacity of Off-Street Bus Berths Under Low Dwell Time
Conditions................................................................................................ 7-25
Exhibit 7-15 Transit Station Platform Configurations.............................................. 7-26
Exhibit 7-16 Transit Platform Areas ........................................................................... 7-27
Exhibit 7-17 Observed Average Doorway Headway and Capacity....................... 7-31
Exhibit 7-18 Stairway Examples.................................................................................. 7-32
Exhibit 7-19 Escalator Configuration Examples ....................................................... 7-35
Exhibit 7-20 Nominal Escalator Capacity Values ..................................................... 7-36
Exhibit 7-21 Moving Walkway Examples (New York) ............................................ 7-37
Exhibit 7-22 Elevator Application Examples............................................................. 7-39
Exhibit 7-23 Fare Gate Examples ................................................................................ 7-41
Exhibit 7-24 Observed Average Fare Gate Headways and Capacities .................. 7-42
Exhibit 7-25 Ticket Machine Examples ...................................................................... 7-43
Exhibit 7-26 Signage and Communication System Examples................................. 7-44
Exhibit 7-27 Types of Passenger Amenities at Bus Stops ........................................ 7-45
Exhibit 7-28 Passenger Amenity Examples ............................................................... 7-46
Exhibit 7-29 Park-and-Ride Lot Examples................................................................. 7-47
Exhibit 7-30 Kiss-and-Ride Examples ........................................................................ 7-48
Contents Page 7-iv Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Part 7 of the Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual (TCQSM) presents a
discussion of the features and elements of transit stops, stations, and terminals and
contains procedures for estimating the capacities of various elements of transit
terminals.
• Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the material presented in Part 7.
• Chapter 2 is an overview of the different types of stops, stations, and
terminals, including discussions of facility sizes and amenities.
• Chapter 3 presents procedures for evaluating passenger circulation on
walkways and stairways, and in queuing areas such as platforms. ADA and
emergency evacuation needs are discussed.
• Chapter 4 contains procedures for sizing passenger waiting areas at stops and
stations and for providing passenger amenities within these areas. For bus
and rail stations, procedures are provided for sizing outside transfer
facilities, such as bus transfer, park-and-ride, and kiss-and-ride areas, as well
as the various inside-terminal elements, such as walkways, stairways,
escalators, elevators, turnstiles, ticket machines, and platforms.
• Chapter 5 contains references for material presented in Part 7.
• Chapter 6 presents example problems illustrating the sizing of stop, station,
and terminal elements.
• Appendix A provides substitute exhibits in metric units for those Part 7 Exhibits also appearing in Appendix A
exhibits that use U.S. customary units. are indicated by a margin note such
as this.
Although previous efforts have involved designing terminal facilities based on
maximum pedestrian capacity, research has shown that a breakdown in pedestrian
flow occurs when there is a dense crowding of pedestrians, causing restricted and
uncomfortable movement. For this reason, many of the procedures contained in this
chapter for sizing terminal elements are based on maintaining a desirable pedestrian
level of service.
For larger stations and terminals, the various pedestrian spaces interact with one
another such that pedestrian circulation may better be evaluated from a systems
perspective. Simulation models that assess the impact of queue spillback on
downstream facilities can be used to size internal spaces within a terminal facility,
and thus their application is discussed in this part of the TCQSM. For stations with
frequent service, the time required to clear a station platform before the arrival of a
following train or bus may be a critical consideration.
Design capacity is determined by peak conditions established by peak passenger
discharge loads, peak waiting loads, extra loads due to “regular” service disruptions,
and emergency evacuations. Specific requirements(R11) for addressing emergency
evacuation contained in the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standard for
fixed guideway transit and passenger rail stations (NFPA 130) are reviewed.
The needs of persons with disabilities should be considered throughout the
process of planning and designing transit station facilities. Both physical and
cognitive disabilities should be considered and provisions for addressing these are
referenced throughout the chapter. Specific requirements of The Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) pertinent to transit stations are discussed.
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Chapter 1—Introduction Page 7-2 Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY
CHAPTER 2. STATION TYPES AND CONFIGURATIONS
OVERVIEW
Various types of transit stops, stations, and terminals provide service tailored to
the specific needs of a transit system or a particular locale. These facilities often have
common features and elements but may display unique characteristics. The basic
types of transit stops, stations, and terminals are presented in this chapter.
BUS STOPS
Most bus stops are located along streets and consist of a waiting area integrated
with the public sidewalk, signage to mark the bus stop, and, in some cases, a bench
or small shelter. Other bus stops are located on- or off-street in conjunction with
transit centers, rail transit stations, or intermodal terminals.
On-street bus stops may be located on the near side of an intersection, the far
side after the bus has passed through the intersection, or at a mid-block location. The
choice of location is primarily related to the operational performance of the bus route
and traffic, but can also be influenced by adjacent land uses and opportunities for
easy transfers to crossing bus routes. For more discussion of bus stops as they relate
to bus operations, refer to Part 4, Bus Transit Capacity.
There is ongoing debate about the operational advantages of near-side versus Bus stop location factors.
far-side placement. In general, a far-side placement will be most advantageous when
buses operate in mixed traffic, while a near-side location will tend to be more feasible
when buses operate in an exclusive lane. However, other factors such as signal
priority for buses, location of an exclusive lane, and turning traffic patterns also
factor into this choice. With a far-side stop location at signalized intersections, it is
highly desirable to be able to pull buses into an adjacent parking lane or bus pullout
so that traffic does not back up into the intersection. If such an area is not available, a
near-side stop might be preferable. With a near-side location in mixed traffic, vehicles
waiting for the signal prevent the bus from reaching its stop, and buses stopping to
pick up or drop off passengers during a green phase block other traffic.
These factors tend not to apply when buses operate in an exclusive lane. Locating
the stop on either the far or the near side in this situation results in a slower, safer
operating speed through the intersection, which is particularly relevant for buses (or
light rail vehicles) operating on an exclusive lane. A mid-block location may be called
for when additional space is available or when a particular destination is located at
mid-block. However, issues with pedestrian crossing safety may need to be
addressed.
TRANSIT CENTERS
The term transit center is normally applied to facilities where multiple bus routes
converge, offering transfers between lines. The term can also apply to intermodal
stations that may combine local bus services with other transit services, intercity bus
or rail, and associated services such as taxi stands, concessions, and ticket sales. Both
types of facilities are normally located wholly or partially off-street and frequently
include a more elaborate and extensive shelter and more passenger amenities than
ordinary bus stops.
Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-3 Chapter 2—Station Types and Configurations
BUSWAY STATIONS
Busway stations are located along roadways dedicated for buses and are
frequently larger and more elaborate than typical bus stops, but are shorter than most
light rail stations. Like the busways they serve, these stations may be either off-street
or on-street. The length of a busway station is generally 40 to 100 ft (12 to 30 m) but
some extend to 400 ft (120 m) to serve multiple routes and services. Amenities may be
very limited, consisting of just a paved area and sign, or much more elaborate, with
shelters, seating, ticket machines, and other amenities. Busway stations in some
South American cities (such as Bogotá, Curitiba, and Quito) are enclosed with fare
collection at the station and high-level bus boarding.
TCRP Report 90, Volume 2,(R9) Busway stations usually consist of side platforms boarded from the right side of
provides guidance on
the bus, but some center platform stations are used with boarding from either the left
designing busway stations.
or right side of the bus (this requires buses designed with doors on both sides).
Center platforms can also be used when the bus lanes operate contraflow. Busway
stations may have a single lane in each direction, or a passing lane can be provided at
stations to increase operational capacity and allow for multiple services that skip
some stations.
LIGHT RAIL STATIONS

Light rail stations are typically 180 to 400 ft (55 to 120 m) long. Various platform
configurations are possible, including center, side, or split on opposite sides of an
intersection. Stations may be on-street, off-street, along a railroad right-of-way, or on
a transit mall. High and low platforms have been used, although the trend in recent
years has been the increasing use of an intermediate height for platforms that is
approximately 14 in. (0.35 m) above the top of the rail to match the floor height of
low-floor light rail vehicles. Light rail stations usually include canopies over part of
the platform, limited seating, and ticket vending machines. Fare collection on light
rail systems is typically by the proof-of-payment system, so stations do not have fare
gates or barriers.
HEAVY RAIL STATIONS

Stations on heavy rail, rapid transit, or metro systems are usually more elaborate
than light rail or many commuter rail stations. Due to the presence of third-rail
power in many of these systems, and to prevent passengers from entering the
trackway, these stations always have high-level platforms. Stations are most often
located underground or elevated, and frequently have intermediate mezzanine levels
between the street and platform levels. Both center or side platform configurations
are used, and some stations have more than two tracks. Special configurations allow
cross-platform transfers or reflect location-specific conditions. Heavy rail stations are
generally 600 to 800 ft (180 to 240 m) long. Most heavy rail stations have fare control
arrays and enclosed paid zones, although some European systems use proof-of-
payment systems.
COMMUTER RAIL STATIONS

Commuter rail stations range from suburban locations with one or two
platforms, limited service, and relatively small passenger volumes to major urban
terminals with many tracks and platforms offering a variety of local and express
services to various destinations. These stations may use either center or side
platforms or a combination of both in larger terminals. Higher-volume systems tend
to use high platforms, while lower-volume systems tend to use low or intermediate
height platforms. In some cases, passenger and freight trains share the same tracks.
Horizontal clearance requirements for freight cars may be greater than for passenger
Chapter 2—Station Types and Configurations Page 7-4 Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY
equipment and thus can impact the placement of platform features such as
wheelchair ramps. Platforms in these stations can range from 300 to more than 1,000
ft (90 to over 300 m) long.
Passenger flow on commuter rail platforms can be more complex if multiple
routes and services share the same platform and waiting areas. Where that is the case,
not all passengers waiting on platforms will board a train when it arrives, leaving
residual passenger volumes on platforms. Commuter rail cars typically have fewer
doors than heavy rail cars and may fully load or unload at a single major terminal,
increasing their boarding, alighting, and dwell times at those stations.
FERRY DOCKS AND TERMINALS

Ferry docks and terminals can vary from simple waterside facilities with limited
shelters and relatively small passenger flow volumes to major terminals with
multiple ferries receiving and discharging large numbers of passengers and vehicles.
Since waterside locations are particularly exposed to the weather, protection from the
climate can be an important factor in providing a good quality of travel. The effect of
tides, changing river levels, and waves must be adequately addressed and poses
unique challenges for passenger access, especially where extreme height changes are
experienced, potentially requiring long or steep ramps to reach the vessel.
INTERMODAL TERMINALS
The term “intermodal terminals” refers to a variety of stations and terminals that
provide key transfers between transit modes. Combinations may include local bus,
bus rapid transit, intercity bus, light rail, heavy rail, commuter rail, intercity
passenger rail, ferry, or automated guideway transit. Such facilities may have a
variety of other services and connections, including parking, drop-off, ticket vending,
and information booths, and may be integrated with retail shopping, services, and
entertainment.
Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-5 Chapter 2—Station Types and Configurations
Chapter 2—Station Types and Configurations Page 7-6 Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY
CHAPTER 3. PASSENGER CIRCULATION AND

LEVEL OF SERVICE
PEDESTRIAN CIRCULATION CONCEPTS

An important objective of a transit stop or station is to provide adequate space
and appropriate facilities to accommodate projected peak pedestrian demands while
ensuring pedestrian safety and convenience. Early efforts involved designing transit
stations based on maximum pedestrian capacity without consideration of pedestrian
comfort and convenience. Research has shown, however, that capacity is reached
when there is a dense crowding of pedestrians, causing restricted and uncomfortable
movement.(R6)
The procedures for estimating capacity presented in this section are based on a Procedures in this chapter are based
on providing a suitable passenger
relative scale of pedestrian comfort and convenience. Procedures for evaluating
LOS rather than designing for
pedestrian capacity and level of service (LOS) are contained in Fruin’s Pedestrian maximum capacity.
Planning and Design.(R6) Procedures for analyzing pedestrian circulation on sidewalks,
street corners, and crosswalks are presented in the 2000 Highway Capacity Manual
(HCM).(R8)
Pedestrian Capacity Terminology

Terms used in this chapter for evaluating pedestrian circulation are defined as
follows:
• Pedestrian capacity: the maximum number of people who can occupy or pass
through a pedestrian facility or element, expressed as persons per unit of
area or as persons per unit of time. Both a maximum capacity reflecting the
greatest possible number of persons who can pass through and a “design”
capacity representing the maximum desirable number of pedestrians are
applied in appropriate ways. Higher “theoretical” capacities are sometimes
identified (e.g., for escalators and moving walkways), but are not based on
practical experience and are not generally applicable in analysis or design.
• Pedestrian speed: average pedestrian walking speed, generally expressed in
units of feet or meters per second.
• Pedestrian flow rate: number of pedestrians passing a point per unit of time,
expressed as persons per minute, 15 minutes, or other time period; “point”
refers to a line across the width of a walkway, stairway, or doorway, or
through a pedestrian element such as an escalator or fare control gate.
• Pedestrian flow per unit width: average flow of pedestrians per unit of effective
walkway width, expressed as persons per inch, foot, or meter per minute.
• Pedestrian density: average number of persons per unit of area within a
walkway or queuing area, expressed as persons per square foot or meter.
• Pedestrian space: average area used by or provided for each pedestrian in a
walkway or queuing area, expressed in terms of square feet or meters per
pedestrian; this is the inverse of density, but is a more practical unit for the
analysis of pedestrian facilities. The space normally required by people
varies according to the activity they are engaged in and increases with
walking speed. It is important to consider the type and characteristics of the
pedestrians. For example, the area required by a person using a wheelchair
or transporting luggage or packages is greater than for a person standing
without items.
Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-7 Chapter 3—Passenger Circulation and Level of Service
• Pedestrian time-space: the space normally required by pedestrians for various

activities (walking, queuing, conversing, shopping, etc.) multiplied by the
time spent doing the activity within a specific area.
• Effective width or area: the portion of a walkway or stairway’s width or the
area of a space that is normally used by pedestrians. Areas occupied by
physical obstructions and buffer spaces adjacent to walls and obstructions
are excluded from effective width or area.
Principles of Pedestrian Flow

The relationship between density, speed, and flow for pedestrians is described in
the following formula:
Equation 7-1 v=S×D
where:
v = pedestrian flow per unit width (p/ft/min, p/m/min);
S = pedestrian speed (ft/min, m/min); and
D = pedestrian density (p/ft2, p/m2).
The flow variable used in this expression is the “flow per unit of width” defined
earlier. An alternative and more useful expression can be developed using the
reciprocal of density, or space, as follows:
Equation 7-2 v=S/M
where:
v = pedestrian flow per unit width (p/ft/min, p/m/min);
S = pedestrian speed (ft/min, m/min); and
Refer to Exhibits 3-25 or 5-22 M = pedestrian space (ft2/p, m2/p), adjusted as appropriate for pedestrian
for data on the space occupied
characteristics.
by pedestrians.
Pedestrian Level of Service

Pedestrian levels of service provide a useful means of evaluating the capacity
and comfort of an active pedestrian space. Pedestrian LOS thresholds related to
walking are based on the freedom to select desired walking speeds and the ability to
bypass slower-moving pedestrians. Other considerations related to pedestrian flow
include the ability to cross a pedestrian traffic stream, to walk in the reverse direction
of a major pedestrian flow, and to maneuver without conflicts with other pedestrians
or changes in walking speed.
Levels of service for queuing areas are based on available standing space,
perceived comfort and safety, and the ability to maneuver from one location to
another. Since pedestrian LOS is based on the amount of pedestrian space available,
the LOS thresholds can be used to specify desirable design features such as platform
size, number and width of stairs, corridor width, and so forth.
CIRCULATION ON WALKWAYS
The capacity of a walkway is controlled by the following factors:
• pedestrian walking speed;
• pedestrian traffic density;
• pedestrian characteristics, bikes or strollers present, and wheelchair users;
and
• effective width of the walkway at its narrowest point.
Chapter 3—Passenger Circulation and Level of Service Page 7-8 Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY
Speed
Normal walking speeds of pedestrians vary over a wide range, depending on
many factors. Walking speeds have been found to decline with age. Studies have also
shown that male walking speeds are typically faster than female walking speeds.
Other factors influencing a pedestrian’s walking speed include the following:
• time of day;
• weather and temperature;
• pedestrian traffic composition, including wheelchair users;
• trip purpose; and
• reaction to surrounding environment.
Free-flow walking speeds have been shown to range from 145 ft/min (45
m/min) to 470 ft/min (145 m/min). On this basis, speeds below 145 ft/min (45
m/min) would constitute restricted, shuffling locomotion, and speeds greater than
470 ft/min (145 m/min) would be considered as running. A pedestrian walking
speed typically used for design is 250 ft/min (75 m/min).
Density
Perhaps the most significant factor influencing pedestrian walking speed is Density is the most significant factor
influencing pedestrian walking speed.
density. Normal walking requires sufficient space for unrestricted pacing, sensory
recognition, and reaction to potential obstacles. Increasing density reduces the
available space for walking and increases conflicts between pedestrians, and
therefore, reduces walking speeds. This is an even greater concern for people who
use mobility aids such as crutches, canes, and wheelchairs.
Exhibit 7-1 shows the relationship between walking speeds and average
pedestrian space (inverse of density). Observing this exhibit, pedestrian speeds are
free-flow up to an average pedestrian space of 25 ft2 (2.3 m2) per person. For average
spaces below this value, walking speeds begin to decline rapidly. Walking speeds
approach zero, becoming a slow shuffle, at an average pedestrian space of
approximately 5 ft2 (0.5 m2) per person.
Exhibit 7-1
350 Pedestrian Speed on Walkways(R6)
300
Walking Speed (ft/min)
250
200
150
100 An alternative figure using metric

units appears in Appendix A.
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2
Pedestrian Space (ft /p)
Effective Walkway Width

The final factor affecting a walkway’s capacity is the effective width available. The full walkway width will not be
used by pedestrians.
Studies have shown that pedestrians keep as much as an 18-in. (0.5-m) buffer
between themselves and adjacent walls, street curbs, platform edges, and other
obstructions, such as trash receptacles, sign posts, and so forth. In practice, the width
of the unused buffer depends on the character of the wall or obstruction, the overall
width of the available walkway, and on the level of pedestrian congestion. In general,
18 in. (0.5 m) should be deducted next to walls and platform edges and 12 in. (0.3 m)
should be deducted next to other obstructions, including walls up to about 3 feet (1
m) tall.
Exhibit 7-2 shows the relationship between pedestrian flow per unit of effective
walkway width and average pedestrian space. Curves are shown for one-directional,
bi-directional, and multi-directional (cross-flow) pedestrian traffic. As this exhibit
shows, there is a relatively small range in variation between the three curves. This
finding suggests that reverse and cross-flow traffic do not significantly reduce
pedestrian flow rates.
Exhibit 7-2
Pedestrian Flow on 30
Walkways by Unit Width and Commuter uni-directional
Space(R6) Commuter bi-directional
Pedestrian Flow (p/ft/min)
25
Shoppers multi-directional
20
15
10
An alternative figure using 5

metric units appears in
Appendix A.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2
As shown in Exhibit 7-2, the maximum average peak flow rates (26.2, 24.7, and
23.3 p/ft/min, or 86.0, 81.0, and 76.4 p/m/min, for one-directional, bi-directional,
and multi-directional flow, respectively) occur at an average occupancy of 5 ft2 (0.5
m2) per person. While this represents the maximum possible throughput, it
represents a condition of extreme congestion, does not reflect the needs of mobility
impaired persons, and creates a potentially unsafe condition. Therefore, it should not
be used as a basis for design. Instead, the LOS approach should be used for designing
pedestrian spaces.
Levels of Service for Walkways

Exhibit 7-3 lists the criteria for pedestrian LOS on walkways in transit facilities.
These levels of service are based on average pedestrian space and average flow rate.
Average speed and volume-to-capacity ratio are shown as supplementary criteria.
Graphical illustrations and descriptions of walkway levels of service are shown in
Exhibit 7-4. Capacity is taken to be 25 p/ft/min (82 p/m/min), corresponding to LOS
“E.”
LOS thresholds for walkways Note that the LOS thresholds shown here differ from those shown in the
are not the same as the HCM’s
HCM2000. Thresholds shown in the HCM2000 are intended primarily for sidewalks
thresholds for sidewalks.
and street corners, while those shown here are typically used for transit facilities,
whether on-street or off.
Expected Flows and Speeds Exhibit 7-3

Pedestrian Avg. Speed, S Flow per Unit Width, v Pedestrian Level of Service on
LOS Space (ft2/p) (ft/min) (p/ft/min) v/c Walkways(R6)
A ≥ 35 260 0-7 0.0-0.3
B 25-35 250 7-10 0.3-0.4
C 15-25 240 10-15 0.4-0.6
D 10-15 225 15-20 0.6-0.8
E 5-10 150 20-25 0.8-1.0
F <5 < 150 Variable Variable
Expected Flows and Speeds

Pedestrian Avg. Speed, S Flow per Unit Width, v
LOS Space (m2/p) (m/min) (p/m/min) v/c
A ≥ 3.3 79 0-23 0.0-0.3
B 2.3-3.3 76 23-33 0.3-0.4
C 1.4-2.3 73 33-49 0.4-0.6
D 0.9-1.4 69 49-66 0.6-0.8
E 0.5-0.9 46 66-82 0.8-1.0
F < 0.5 < 46 Variable Variable
v/c = volume-to-capacity ratio
Exhibit 7-4
LEVEL OF SERVICE A Illustration of Walkway Levels of
Service(R6)
Walking speeds freely selected; conflicts with other
pedestrians unlikely.
LEVEL OF SERVICE B
Walking speeds freely selected; pedestrians respond to
presence of others.
LEVEL OF SERVICE C
Walking speeds freely selected; passing is possible in
unidirectional streams; minor conflicts for reverse or cross
movement.
LEVEL OF SERVICE D
Freedom to select walking speed and pass others is
restricted; high probability of conflicts for reverse or cross
movements.
LEVEL OF SERVICE E
Walking speeds and passing ability are restricted for all
pedestrians; forward movement is possible only by shuffling;
reverse or cross movements are possible only with extreme
difficulty; volumes approach limit of walking capacity.
LEVEL OF SERVICE F
Walking speeds are severely restricted; frequent,
unavoidable contact with others; reverse or cross
movements are virtually impossible; flow is sporadic and
unstable.
CIRCULATION ON STAIRWAYS
A stairway’s capacity is largely The capacity of a stairway is largely affected by the stairway width. Unlike
affected by its width.
walking on a level surface, people tend to walk in lines or lanes when traversing
stairs. The width of a stairway determines both the number of distinct lines of people
who can traverse the stair and the side-to-side spacing between people, affecting
pedestrians’ ability to pass slower-moving pedestrians and the level of interference
between adjacent lines of people. The consequence is that meaningful increases in
capacity are not directly proportional to the width, but occur in increments of about
30 in. (0.75 m).
Unlike on walkways, a minor pedestrian flow in the opposing direction on a
stairway can result in a capacity reduction disproportionate to the magnitude of the
reverse flow. As a result, a small reverse flow should be assumed to occupy one
pedestrian lane or 30 in. (0.75 m) of the stair’s width. For a stair 60 in. (1.5 m) wide, a
small reverse flow could consume half its capacity.
Critical passenger flows on Because pedestrians are required to exert a higher amount of energy to ascend
stairways occur in the
stairs as compared with descending stairs, lower flow rates typically occur in the
ascending direction.
ascending direction. For this reason, when stairs serve both directions simultaneously
or when the same stair will be used primarily in the up direction during some time
periods and primarily in the down direction during other time periods, the lower up
flow rate should be used for analysis and design.
Ascending speeds on stairs have been shown to range from 41 ft/min (12
m/min) to 68 ft/min (21 m/min), measured in the vertical dimension. Descending
speeds on stairs have been shown to range from 56 ft/min (17 m/min) to 101 ft/min
(31 m/min), measured in the vertical dimension. Ascending speeds are also slower
on longer stairs because pedestrians slow as they reach the top. For general planning
and design purposes, average speeds of 50 ft/min (15 m/min) in the up direction and
60 ft/min (18 m/min) in the down direction, measured in the vertical dimension (as
opposed to measuring along the incline), are considered reasonable. The angle of a
stair’s incline affects pedestrian comfort, safety, and speeds. While less-steep stairs
decrease pedestrian speed measured on the vertical dimension, they increase speeds
measured along the horizontal and diagonal dimensions and improve passenger
comfort and safety. The vertical dimension is the overall height or rise of a stair; the
horizontal dimension is the length or run of the stair; and the diagonal dimension is
the length of the stair measured along the incline.
Exhibit 7-5 illustrates the relationship between ascending speeds and pedestrian
space. This exhibit reveals that normal ascending speeds on stairs are approached at
an average pedestrian space of approximately 10 ft2/p (0.9 m2/p). Above
approximately 20 ft2/p (1.9 m2/p), faster walking pedestrians are able to approach
their natural unconstrained stair climbing speed and pass slower-moving people.
Exhibit 7-6 illustrates the relationship between flow rate on stairs in the
ascending direction and pedestrians’ space. As observed in this exhibit, the
maximum ascending flow rate occurs at a pedestrian space of approximately 3 ft2/p
(0.3 m2/p). For this lower pedestrian space, ascending speeds are at the lower limit of
the normal range. In this situation, forward progress is determined by the slowest
moving pedestrian. Although the maximum flow rate represents the capacity of the
stairway, it should not be used as a design objective (except perhaps for emergency
situations). At capacity, ascending speeds are restricted and there is a high
probability of intermittent stoppages and queuing.
200 Exhibit 7-5

Pedestrian Ascent Speed on
175 Stairs(R6)
Slope Speed (ft/min)
150
125
100
75
An alternative figure using metric
units appears in Appendix A.
50
25
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2
Exhibit 7-6
30 Pedestrian Flow Volumes on
Stairs(R6)
Pedestrian Flow (p/ft/min)
25
20
15
An alternative figure using metric
10 units appears in Appendix A.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2
Pedestrian queuing can also occur at the “destination” end of stairways, if people
are forced to converge on too constricted a space. This can be a serious design
deficiency in certain station facilities, with potential effects on pedestrian safety.
Levels of Service for Stairways
The required width of a stairway is based on maintaining a desirable pedestrian
LOS. Stairway levels of service are based on average pedestrian space and average
flow rate. Exhibit 7-7 summarizes the LOS criteria for stairways. The threshold from
LOS “E” to “F” (17 p/ft/min or 56 p/m/min) represents the capacity of a stairway.
Note that these thresholds differ from those given in the HCM2000; the thresholds Stairway LOS thresholds for transit
facilities are different from those
given in Exhibit 7-7 are ones typically used for transit facilities. given in the HCM.
Exhibit 7-7 Avg. Ped. Space Flow per Unit Width

Level of Service Criteria for LOS (ft2/p) (m2/p) (p/ft/min) (p/m/min) Description
Stairways(R6) Sufficient area to freely select speed and to
A ≥ 20 ≥ 1.9 ≤5 ≤ 16 pass slower-moving pedestrians. Reverse
flows cause limited conflicts.
Sufficient area to freely select speed with
some difficulty in passing slower-moving
B 15-20 1.4-1.9 5-7 16-23
pedestrians. Reverse flows cause minor
conflicts.
Speeds slightly restricted due to inability to
C 10-15 0.9-1.4 7-10 23-33 pass slower-moving pedestrians. Reverse
flows cause some conflicts.
Speeds restricted due to inability to pass
D 7-10 0.7-0.9 10-13 33-43 slower-moving pedestrians. Reverse flows
cause significant conflicts.
Speeds of all pedestrians reduced.
E 4-7 0.4-0.7 13-17 43-56 Intermittent stoppages likely to occur.
Reverse flows cause serious conflicts.
Complete breakdown in pedestrian flow with
F ≤4 ≤ 0.4 Variable Variable many stoppages. Forward progress
dependent on slowest moving pedestrians.
OCCUPANCY IN QUEUING AND WAITING AREAS

For queuing and waiting areas, the primary measure for defining LOS is the
average space available to each person. In addition to the feeling of comfort provided
by desired spacing, there is a also a direct relationship between the average space
available to each person and the degree of mobility allowed. In dense standing
crowds, there is little room to move, but limited circulation is possible as the average
space per pedestrian increases.
Levels of Service for Queuing and Waiting Areas

Passenger waiting area LOS Levels of service for passenger queuing and waiting areas are shown in Exhibit
concepts are comparable with
the street corner queuing
7-8. The thresholds were developed based on average pedestrian space, personal
concepts presented in the comfort, and degrees of internal mobility. LOS is presented in terms of average area
Highway Capacity Manual. per person and average interpersonal space (distance between people).
The LOS required for waiting within a facility is a function of the amount of time
spent waiting, the number of people waiting, and a desired level of comfort.
Typically, the longer the wait, the greater the space per person required. A person’s
tolerance of a level of crowding will vary with time. People will accept being tightly
packed on an elevator for 30 seconds, but not in a waiting area for 15 minutes.(R8)
A person’s acceptance of close interpersonal spacing will also depend on the
characteristics of the population, the weather conditions, and the type of facility. For
example, commuters may be willing to accept higher levels or longer periods of
crowding than intercity and recreational travelers.(R8)
Exhibit 7-8 Average Pedestrian Area Average Inter-Person Spacing
Levels of Service for Queuing LOS (ft2/p) (m2/p) (ft) (m)
Areas(R8) A ≥ 13 ≥ 1.2 ≥ 4.0 ≥ 1.2
B 10-13 0.9-1.2 3.5-4.0 1.1-1.2
C 7-10 0.7-0.9 3.0-3.5 0.9-1.1
D 3-7 0.3-0.7 2.0-3.0 0.6-0.9
E 2-3 0.2-0.3 <2.0 <0.6
F <2 < 0.2 Variable Variable
LEVEL OF SERVICE A Exhibit 7-9

Standing and free circulation through the queuing area possible without disturbing Illustration of Queuing Area Level
others within the queue. of Service(R8)
LEVEL OF SERVICE B
Standing and partially restricted circulation to avoid disturbing others within the
queue is possible.
LEVEL OF SERVICE C
Standing and restricted circulation through the queuing area by disturbing others is
possible; this density is within the range of personal comfort.
LEVEL OF SERVICE D
Standing without touching is impossible; circulation is severely restricted within the
queue and forward movement is only possible as a group; long-term waiting at this
density is discomforting.
LEVEL OF SERVICE E
Standing in physical contact with others is unavoidable; circulation within the queue
is not possible; queuing at this density can only be sustained for a short period
without serious discomfort.
LEVEL OF SERVICE F
Virtually all persons within the queue are standing in direct physical contact with
others; this density is extremely discomforting; no movement is possible within the
queue; the potential for pushing and panic exists.
MULTI-ACTIVITY PASSENGER CIRCULATION AREAS

Some areas of transit stations include a variety of pedestrian activities within the Time-space analysis is used to study
complex passenger circulation
same general space. People may be walking through, standing in line to buy tickets,
patterns involving multiple activities.
waiting to meet someone, and shopping within the same space. Portions of these
spaces may also be of little use to pedestrians, such as a corner beyond the major flow
of pedestrians or concentrations of other activities.
Exhibit 7-10
Examples of Multiple Pedestrian
Activities Within a Transit Station
(a) Grand Central Terminal (New York) (b) Victoria Station (London)
In such cases, the method of pedestrian analysis is referred to as time-space

analysis.(R3) Time-space analysis incorporates the space per person thresholds
embodied in the LOS approach and factors them by the time spent engaging in a
specific activity within a given space.
The space required for a particular activity is represented by the formula:
TSreq = Σ Pi × Si × Ti Equation 7-3
where:
TSreq = time-space required (ft2-s, m2-s);
Pi = number of people involved in activity i;
Si = space required for activity i (ft2, m2); and
Ti = time required for activity i (s).
The total time space requirements of all of the activities are then compared with
the time-space available, represented by the formula:
TSavail = Savail × Tavail
Equation 7-4
where:
TSavail = time-space available (ft2-s, m2-s);
Savail = space available within the area analyzed (ft2, m2); and
Tavail = time available as defined for the analysis period (s).
The approach to applying time-space analysis varies depending on the situation

being analyzed and the specific issues or options to be addressed. A typical
application might involve the following steps:
Steps for applying a time- 1. Establish pedestrian origins and destinations within and at the edges of the
space analysis.
space analyzed.
2. Assign pedestrian routes through the pedestrian network for each origin-
destination pair.
3. Sum the volumes of persons passing through each analysis zone.
4. Identify the walking time within each zone for pedestrians. This may vary
depending on their route through each zone.
5. Determine the percentage of people passing through each zone who stop
and dwell in that zone for various specific purposes, such as waiting for a
train, buying tickets, shopping, etc.
6. Determine the time spent dwelling in each zone for each purpose.
7. Calculate the time-space demand by multiplying the number of persons and
the number dwelling by the time for walking through and the dwell time for
various activities and by the space used by a person engaged in each activity.
8. Calculate the time-space available by multiplying the usable floor area by
the duration of the analysis period.
9. Calculate the demand-supply ratio by dividing time-space demand by time-
space available.
10. Apply an LOS based on ranges of demand-supply ratios.
Computer simulation models for pedestrian circulation are under development,
but to date have generally involved significant manual input or have been limited in
their ability to represent the complex multi-directional movements of pedestrians.
Two approaches are possible. In the first, pedestrians are assigned to discrete
pedestrian spaces through which they would pass, as defined by the analyst. A time-
space analysis is then performed for each discrete space based on the number of
pedestrians passing through and their activities within each space. The second
approach utilizes micro-simulation methods to follow the movements of individual
pedestrians and analyzes congestion and queuing. The latter approach has been
developed for evacuation analyses, where pedestrians have a single purpose, but has
not yet been successfully applied to general circulation.
ACCESS FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

The ADA requires all new transit stations in the United States to be accessible to
persons with disabilities. It also requires that key stations in existing systems be
made accessible and that major remodeling of any station incorporate accessible
features. The act includes provisions both for persons with mobility impairments,
who may use wheelchairs, and for persons with other sensory or cognitive
impairments, including visual and hearing limitations.
Specific regulations relating to transit stations, including provision of accessible

routes, appropriate architectural features, and accessible communications elements
and features are contained in the Architectural Barriers Act of 1999(R1).
Rather than being an afterthought or an add-on in the planning of a transit
station, these issues should be addressed at each stage of the planning and design
process. For example, opportunities may be found to incorporate ramps into the
design that serve passengers with disabilities, but that also serve movement by other
passengers. Elements addressing the needs of persons with disabilities can be worked
into a facility’s overall aesthetic design.
EMERGENCY EVACUATION
Provisions for evacuation during an emergency are an important consideration NFPA 130 establishes standards for
the evacuation of fixed guideway
in the design of transit stations and terminals. Design and performance standards for
transit and passenger rail stations.
emergency evacuation are presented in NFPA 130.
The key provisions of NFPA 130 (2000 edition) related to station capacity are
summarized as follows:(R11)
1. Sufficient exit capacity shall be provided to evacuate station occupants
(including those on trains) from platforms in 4.0 min or less.
2. Sufficient exit capacity shall be provided to permit evacuation from the most
remote point on a platform to a point of safety in 6.0 min or less.
3. A second means of egress at least 44 in. (1.12 m) wide and remote from the
major egress route shall be provided from each platform.
4. The maximum distance to an exit from any point on a platform shall be not
more than 300 ft (91.4 m).
5. Escalators shall not provide more than half of the exit capacity from any
level and one escalator, resulting in the most adverse exiting condition, shall
be assumed to be out of service and unavailable for egress.
Consult the current edition of NFPA 130 for more detailed information on the
evacuation standards and calculation procedures. In particular, note that the NFPA 130 specifies facility element
standard specifies design capacities and pedestrian travel speeds that should be used capacities and pedestrian speeds to
for evacuation analysis. These capacities and speeds are often different than those be used in evacuation analysis.
presented in Part 7 of the TCQSM for designing for daily passenger circulation.
Evacuation analysis should be performed in conjunction with analysis and
planning for daily circulation patterns. While in some cases the overall requirements
for evacuation exceed the requirements for daily circulation, the two circulation
patterns are dramatically different and each may result in different requirements at
particular points in a station. While evacuation must be provided, this represents a
rare circumstance, with daily circulation defining the passengers’ normal experience;
hence, evacuation should not be the only consideration in station design.
The requirements of daily passenger circulation and emergency evacuation
should be considered in tandem both in overall station planning and in the design of
individual station systems, such as vertical circulation or mezzanines, and in the
design of individual elements. One example of overall station planning where both
requirements need to be addressed is the issue of center versus side platforms. In
more complex or higher-capacity stations, the number of platforms may also need to
be addressed from both daily use and emergency perspectives. The number and
configuration of platforms directly affects potential platform access, particularly
when vertical circulation is required to access and egress platforms.
When multi-level stations are considered, the typical peak period circulation
pattern may differ greatly from an emergency situation. For example, the daily flow
pattern in a particular rail transit station may emphasize intra-station transfers and
large numbers of passengers passing through on trains without boarding or
alighting. During an emergency, the same station would experience much higher
exiting volumes than normal, including the normal exiting volumes, those
passengers who normally remain on trains passing through the station, and
passengers who transfer at the station but normally do not exit there.
Circulation elements that are normally used for entering a station can largely be
used for exiting during an emergency condition. Thus, stairs normally used by
entering passengers can be used by those exiting, and inbound-moving escalators can
be turned off or switched to the outbound direction. Although not specified in NFPA
130, some consideration should be given to the need for emergency crews to enter a
station as it is being evacuated.
SECURITY
Public security in transit stations has important consequences for transit
ridership. Both actual security, as measured by reported and unreported incidents,
and perceived security are important for passengers. If passengers feel that a station
is unsafe, they will try to avoid it, even if the actual level of crime is low.
Law enforcement personnel, video cameras, and emergency call boxes can play
an active role in station security. However, factors such as visibility, lighting, and the
presence of other people also play key roles. Visibility applies both within an
enclosed station and from a street or other nearby land uses into a station. TCRP
Synthesis 21(R13) provides summaries of strategies that transit agencies have used
effectively to reduce crime and/or improve passengers’ perceptions of security.
Acts of violence on transit property have increased worldwide since the 1980s.
TCRP Synthesis 27(R4) provides information on practices of transit agencies to prevent
and respond to these acts. The FTA’s Office of Safety and Security can provide
http://transit- additional information developed in the wake of the 2001 World Trade Center attack.
safety.volpe.dot.gov/
CLARITY OF STATION LAYOUT AND WAYFINDING

In more complex transit stations and terminals, the passengers’ ease in finding
their way around the station becomes important. While signage is an indispensable
element in wayfinding, station layout and design can do much to make a station
more understandable and easier to navigate. For example
• Open ceilings and glass walls can provide visual connections to other levels
and between points inside and outside the station;
• Alternate materials and colors can distinguish between alternate routes or
services; these should be used consistently systemwide;
• Center platforms allow passengers who have missed their intended stop to
easily reverse direction and do not require passengers to identify the correct
platform before reaching it, reducing confusion;
• Tactile signage and audible information offers direction and information to
persons with visual impairments;
• Cross-platform transfers for dominant passenger movements reduce
passenger demand on vertical circulation elements, shortens passenger
walking distances, and makes connections easier to find; and
• The same design elements that contribute to wayfinding can also contribute
to real and perceived safety within the station and passenger comfort.
COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF PASSENGER CIRCULATION

The more complex a station and its functions, the more complex its planning and Comprehensive analysis of passenger
flow in a station applied using a
design will be. A systematic approach can be taken with more complex stations. systems approach.
Multiple levels in a station present particular challenges, but also opportunities. The
capacity of a station and its elements to carry passenger volumes are important.
However, other aspects should be considered as well, including the clarity of station
layout and wayfinding, access for persons with disabilities, and integrating the
station with the surrounding community.
Pedestrian System Requirements

An initial step in evaluating a transit station design is to outline the pedestrian
system requirements. Determining passenger circulation and queuing requirements
begins with a detailed understanding of the pedestrian flow process through a
station in the form of a flowchart. Exhibit 7-11 presents a sample flow diagram,
although the elements and their order depend on the particular station. Properly
done, the system diagram serves as a checklist and a reminder of the
interrelationship of the various functional elements of the station. Exhibit 7-12 shows
possible elements and components to be considered in a system diagram for the
evaluation of pedestrian flows at a transit station.
Exhibit 7-11
Non-Vehicle
Sample Pedestrian Flow Diagram
Arrivals -
Through a Transit Terminal(R5)
Walk-ins
Kiss and
Ride
Street
Station Free Paid Vertical

Parking Lot Platform
Entrance Area Area Movement
Feeder
Free Transit
Bus/
Entry/ Vehicle
Loading
Exit in Station
Unloading
Line Haul Transit

Vehicle Guideway
Interchange = Function (type of vehicle system)
Exhibit 7-12
Element Components Elements of Passenger Circulation
Train Arrival On- or off-schedule; train length; number and locations of doors in a Transit Station(R6)
Passengers Number boarding and alighting; boarding and alighting rates, passenger
characteristics; mobility device use, baggage or packages carried,
bicycles and strollers, etc.
Platform Length, width, and effective area; locations of columns and obstructions;
system coherence: stair and escalator orientation, lines of sight, signs,
maps, and other visual information
Pedestrians Walking distance and time; numbers arriving and waiting; effective area
per pedestrian; levels of service
Stairs Location; width; riser height and tread; traffic volume and direction;
queue size; possibility of escalator breakdown
Escalators Location; width; direction and speed; traffic volume and queue size;
maintainability
Elevators Location; size and speed; traffic volume and queue size; maintainability;
alternate provisions for disabled passengers when elevator is non-
functioning
After the system elements have been described schematically, they should be
described quantitatively. Often this can be done following the same basic format and
sequence as the system description. Pedestrian volumes can be scaled to size and
plotted graphically to illustrate volume and direction. Pedestrian walking times,
distances, and waiting and service times can also be entered into this diagram.
The characteristics of users at a particular station should be assessed and
considered in planning and design. Passenger characteristics include such factors as
trip purpose, regular use (commuters) versus new or infrequent users, persons with
disabilities, age stratification, and so forth. Trip purpose will relate to whether
passengers carry luggage, packages, recreational equipment, or other items.
Comprehensive Passenger Circulation Analysis

The proximity of various station components to each other and the number of
transit passengers those components must process impact station capacity. To allow a
comprehensive assessment of the interaction of different station components on
capacity, a broader evaluation of the pedestrian network should be conducted for
larger, more complex stations. Simulation models, with varying degrees of manual
input, can assist in the evaluation of alternate transit station designs as to their ability
to effectively process transit passengers within certain LOS parameters.
Platform exit capacity is a key A key capacity analysis for larger transit stations is the platform exit capacity
consideration in heavily used
needed to accommodate passenger demands during the peak period. This capacity
stations.
ensures that each station platform is clear before the next train arrives. The general
solution is as follows:
Passengers/train
Equation 7-5 ≤ Train headway (minutes)
Capacity (passengers/minute)
or
Passengers/train
Equation 7-6 Capacity (passengers/minute) ≥
Train headway (minutes)
Because people may not use, or be able to use, all available exits, some safety
factor is needed. This could be as much as 20 to 30%.
Manual Method/Input to Simulation Models

In the absence of a transit station simulation model, a basic assessment of the
interactions of different station components on capacity can be assessed by
establishing and evaluating a link-node network.(R7) These network data also serve as
typical inputs into computer simulation models. The methodology includes the steps
described below.
Step 1: Define the System as a Link-Node Network

Paths passengers take through a terminal (origin-destination pairs) are
transformed into a network of links and nodes. Each link, representing a horizontal
and/or vertical circulation element, is described by four factors: (1) type—walkway,
ramp, stairway, escalator, or elevator; (2) movements allowed—one-way or two-way
(shared or not shared); (3) length—in feet or meters; and (4) minimum width—in feet
or meters. Nodes are queuing points and/or decision points. They are typically fare
collection devices, doors, platform entrances or exits, and junctions of paths.
Step 2: Determine Pedestrian Volumes for the Identified Analysis Period

For each pedestrian origin-destination pair within a station, a pedestrian volume
is assigned for the identified analysis period (typically the peak hour or the peak 5 to
15 minutes within the peak hour). Origin-destination pairs distinguish between

inbound and outbound passengers. Adjustments may be made as appropriate for
passenger characteristics.
Step 3: Determine Path Choice

The particular path or alternate paths that a passenger can or must traverse
between a particular origin and destination pair (for both inbound and outbound
passengers) are identified.
Step 4: Load Inbound Passengers onto the Network

Inbound passenger volumes for the analysis period are assigned to applicable
links and nodes.
Step 5: Load Outbound Passengers onto the Network

Outbound passenger volumes for the analysis period are assigned to applicable
links and nodes.
Step 6: Determine Walk Times and Crowding on Links

In order to calculate the walk times and crowding measures on a link, the flow
on that link should be adjusted to reflect peak-within-the-peak-hour conditions
(typically 5 to 15 minutes).
Effective widths of links and nodes are the actual minimum widths or doorway
widths. When a wall is located on one side of a corridor, 1.5 ft (0.5 m) is typically
subtracted. A buffer of 2 ft (0.6 m) is typically subtracted for obstructions placed in
corridors, such as trashcans and lockers. A buffer of 1 ft (0.3 m) is typically subtracted
for walls in stairwells because transit users on the outside often use handrails.
Finally, 3 ft (1 m) is typically subtracted to compensate for two-way movements on
stairs.
The adjusted flow is divided by the effective width to determine the number of
pedestrians per foot or meter width per minute. For a given LOS, the average space
mean speed can be identified from Exhibit 7-3 for walkways, Exhibit 7-7 for
stairways, and Exhibit 7-20 for escalators.
Step 7: Determine Queuing Times and Crowding at Nodes

Passenger queues at critical nodes can be estimated either by observation or
analytical means. Queuing patterns vary depending on specific conditions at each
location, particularly the arrival pattern of people at the constrained point. For
example, queuing may occur at platform stairs immediately after a train or bus
arrives, but it may be of short or long duration.
Step 8: Determine Wait Times for Transit Vehicles

Wait times for transit vehicles are a key input to determining required queuing
areas on platforms. A typical assumption used, when service is frequent (10 minute
headways or less), is that wait time is half the bus or train headway.
Step 9: Add Travel Time Components and Assess Overall Level of Service
Overall travel times for different origin-destination pairs can be totaled and
averaged to identify an average passenger processing time through a particular
transit station. This can then be translated into an overall passenger processing LOS.
CHAPTER 4. STATION ELEMENTS AND THEIR CAPACITIES
ON-STREET BUS STOPS
Design Factors
On-street bus stops typically share sidewalk space with other activities. The
objective of analyzing the area needed or available for a bus stop is to provide
adequate space both for those who are waiting for a bus and for those who are
passing by. The recommended procedures for computing the size of passenger
waiting areas is based on maintaining a desirable LOS. Depending on passenger
volumes and available space, a bus stop may be as simple as a signpost along a
sidewalk of minimal width, or more complex, with a larger paved area with a shelter
and other amenities.
Waiting Area Level of Service

Levels of service for passenger waiting areas applicable to bus stops are shown in Passenger waiting area LOS utilizes
Exhibit 7-8. The LOS desired for waiting at a bus stop is a function of the amount of concepts from the Highway Capacity
time spent waiting, the number of people waiting, and the surrounding conditions. Manual.
Typically, the longer the wait, the greater the space per person required. Also, the
required space per person may vary over time. For example, those waiting in the
beginning will want a certain amount of space initially, but will be willing to accept
less space as additional people arrive.(R8)
A person’s acceptance of interpersonal spacing will also depend on the
characteristics of the population, the weather conditions, and the type of facility. For
example, a small number of passengers at a sidewalk bus stop may spread out more
than a larger number that form an ordered queue at an urban bus stop.
The presence of passengers who use wheelchairs, strollers, or bicycles, or carry
large luggage or packages should be assessed and suitable provision made in station
space. Studies have shown that pedestrians keep as much as an 18-in. (0.5-m) buffer
between themselves and the edge of a street curb. This suggests that the effective
width of a bus stop should be computed as the total width minus 18 in. (0.5 m).
Evaluation Procedures
Determining Required Passenger Waiting Area

As discussed above, the procedures to determine passenger waiting areas at bus
stops are based on maintaining a desirable pedestrian LOS. For most bus stops, the
design LOS should be “C” to “D” or better. The following is a list of steps
recommended for determining the desired bus stop size:
1. Based on the desired LOS, choose the average passenger space from Exhibit
7-8.
2. Estimate the maximum demand of passengers waiting for a bus at a given
time.
3. Calculate the effective waiting area required by multiplying the average
passenger space by the maximum passenger demand.
4. Calculate the total required waiting area by adding an 18-in. (0.5-m) buffer
width (next to the roadway) to the effective waiting area.
Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-23 Chapter 4—Station Elements and Their Capacities
OFF-STREET BUS STOPS
Design Factors
Larger bus stops, serving multiple bus routes, are often located off-street. They
may be part of an all-bus transit center or may be provided in conjunction with a rail
transit station, providing transfer to and from the rail service. For small transit
stations, the number of loading areas (berths) is small, with a fairly simple access and
layout configuration. For larger terminals, numerous berths and more sophisticated
designs are applied. The Transbay Bus Terminal in San Francisco, for example, has 37
berths (not all currently used), serving 20,000 peak-hour passengers, while the Port
Authority Bus Terminal in New York has 210 gates serving 200,000 passengers on a
typical weekday.
Exhibit 7-13 illustrates various loading area arrangements. Four types of bus
berths are typically applied: linear, sawtooth, angled, and drive-through.
Exhibit 7-13 (a) Linear
Bus Loading Area (Berth) Linear berths are less efficient than other berth types and
Designs and Examples are typically used when buses will occupy the berth for a
short time (for example, at an on-street bus stop).
(b) Sawtooth
Sawtooth berths allow independent movements by buses
into and out of berths and are commonly used at bus
transfer centers.
(c) Angled
Angled berths require buses to back out, but allow a
number of berths in a compact area. They are typically
used when buses will occupy the berth for a long time
(for example, at an intercity bus terminal).
(d) Drive-Through
Drive-through berths allow bus stops to be located in a
compact area, and also can allow all buses to wait with
their front destination sign facing the direction
passengers will arrive from (e.g., from a station exit).
Photo locations:
(a) Newport, Rhode Island
(b) Olympia, Washington
(c) Newark Airport, New Jersey
(d) Vail, Colorado
Chapter 4—Station Elements and Their Capacities Page 7-24 Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY
Linear berths can operate in series and have capacity characteristics similar to on-
street bus stops. Angled berths are limited to one bus per berth, and they require
buses to back out. Drive-through berths can accommodate multiple vehicles. Shallow
“sawtooth” berths are popular in urban transit centers and are designed to permit
independent movements into and out of each berth. Individual berths may serve only
Example Problem 1 illustrates limiting
one bus route, especially where service on the route is frequent, or they may serve the number of routes using a single
more than one route where frequencies on each route are long enough to avoid berth.
conflict at the bus stop.
The National Transportation Safety Board recommends that transit facility
designs incorporating sawtooth berths, or other types of berths that may direct errant
buses towards pedestrian-occupied areas, should include provisions for positive
separation (such as bollards) between the roadway and pedestrian areas sufficient to
stop a bus operating under normal parking area speed conditions from progressing
into the pedestrian area.(R12)

Levels of service for passenger waiting areas at off-street bus stops are the same
as those for on-street bus stops (see Exhibit 7-8). However, because off-street facilities
are larger and more complex, they incorporate spaces for pedestrian circulation that
may be analyzed using the walkway thresholds presented in Exhibit 7-3.
The bus stop capacity procedures given in Part 4 are only applicable for
relatively low bus dwell times (3 minutes or less). These procedures are applicable to
off-street stops in the case of through-routed buses that do not layover at the stop,
and for buses that coordinate their arrival times with certain train or express bus
arrivals. When applying Equation 4-7, a g/C ratio of 1.00 is applicable when no traffic
signals prevent buses from pulling into or out of the off-street facility. In addition, the
minimum 10-second clearance time is applicable, representing the minimum time
required for a bus to accelerate out of and clear the loading area, and for the next bus
to pull in. Exhibit 7-14 identifies the estimated maximum loading area (berth)
capacity under this condition.
Dwell Time (s) Berth Capacity (bus/h) Exhibit 7-14
15 116 Maximum Capacity of Off-Street
30 69 Bus Berths Under Low Dwell Time
45 49 Conditions
60 38
75 31
90 26
Note that these are maximum
105 23
capacities based on a 25% failure
120 20 rate. Lower failure rates may be
180 14 desirable to provide better schedule
NOTE: Assumes 10-second clearance time, 25% failure rate, 60% coefficient of variation, and g/C ratio of 1.0. For reliability, resulting in lower
multiple linear berths, multiply the above values by the number of equivalent berths, from Exhibit 4-14. For capacities.
multiple sawtooth or drive-through berths, multiply the above values by the number of berths.
For larger bus stations, and for bus routes laying over or terminating at a station,
the typical design practice is to provide for individual berths for each route direction.
In these cases, Exhibit 7-14 does not apply, and the number of berths required will be
the sum of the number of routes terminating at the station, plus twice the number of
routes passing through the station (in order to provide separate berths for each
direction).
STATION PLATFORMS
Design Factors
Transit platforms function as queuing areas for passengers waiting for a transit
vehicle to arrive and as circulation areas for both departing and arriving passengers.
The effective platform area required is based on maintaining a minimum LOS for
queuing and circulation. It is important to note that transit platforms have critical
passenger holding capacities, which if exceeded, could result in passengers being
pushed onto tracks or roadways. It is important to consider the characteristics of
passengers and provide for passengers who may require additional space. Exhibit 7-
15 illustrates typical side and center platform configurations at stations.
Exhibit 7-15
Transit Station Platform
Configurations
(a) Center Platform (Philadelphia) (b) Side Platform (Boston)
ADA considerations for station The ADA affects the design of various platform elements, including platform
platforms.
edge treatments. For example, stairs with an open sloping underside must be
protected so that persons with a visibility impairment will encounter a barrier before
potentially striking their head against the sloped bottom of the stairway. ADA does
not directly affect the overall area or width required for a platform, but an accessible
route at least 36 in. (915 mm) wide must be maintained along the platform. When the
accessible route is next to the platform edge, the 24-in. (610-mm) platform edge
treatment area is not included, so the clear width along a platform edge must be 60
in. (1,525 mm).
Similarly, NFPA 130 does not directly affect overall platform area unless
obstacles require additional platform width to provide egress capacity past the
obstacle, such as a stairway.(R11) The standard does specify, however, that egress
routes must be at least 5 feet 8 in. (1.73 m) wide. When such a route passes between
the edge of a platform and an obstacle, such as a stairway, an additional width of 1
foot 6 in. (457.2 mm) must be provided at the platform edge and 1 foot (304.8 mm)
must be provided next to the obstruction, so that a minimum clear width of 8 feet 2
in. (2.5 m) is required in such a case.

Queuing area levels of service for transit platforms are the same as for bus stop
waiting areas, and are defined in Exhibit 7-8. The LOS thresholds are based on
average space per person, personal comfort, and degrees of internal mobility.
Passenger congestion in the LOS “E” range is experienced only on the most crowded
elevators or transit vehicles. LOS “D” represents crowding with some internal
circulation possible; however, this LOS is not recommended for long-term waiting
periods.
The shape and configuration of a platform is dictated by many system-wide
factors. Platform length is typically based on transit vehicle length and the number of
transit vehicles using the platform at any one time. Platform width is dependent
upon structural considerations, passenger queuing space, circulation requirements,
and entry/exit locations.
Transit platforms can be divided into the following areas:(R3)
• Walking areas;
• Waiting areas;
• Waiting area buffers (adjacent to the platform edge and to waiting areas),
with the platform edge denoted by a 18-in. (0.5-m) detectable warning strip;
• Dead areas between bus loading areas or train doors;
• Space taken up by seats, pillars, and other obstructions; and
• Queue storage.
Exhibit 7-16 illustrates the use of these areas for a transit platform serving buses.
Bus Bus Bus Bus

Exhibit 7-16
Transit Platform Areas(R3)
Waiting Area Dead Dead Dead

Waiting Area Waiting Area Waiting Area
Area Area Area
Stair Stair There are several different platform
components which impact capacity
and size requirements.
Queue Storage Walking Area Queue Storage
Walking and waiting do not occur evenly over the platform area. Some areas are
used primarily for walking (e.g., near entry/exit locations and along the back edge of
the platform) while other areas are used primarily for waiting (e.g., loading areas).
Areas that are generally not used by passengers are termed “dead areas.” These areas
are typically present between buses at a bus terminal or in front of or behind a train
at a rail terminal. Dead areas should be taken into consideration when choosing the
size and configuration of a platform.
Platform Sizing
The procedures to determine the size of a transit platform are based on
maintaining a desirable pedestrian LOS. For transit platforms, the design LOS should
be “C” to “D” or better. The following is a list of steps recommended for determining
the desired platform size:
1. Based on the desired LOS, choose the average pedestrian space from Exhibit
7-8;
2. Adjust as appropriate for passenger characteristics;
3. Estimate the maximum passenger demand for the platform at a given time;
4. Calculate the required waiting space by multiplying the average space per
person by the maximum passenger demand;
5. Calculate the additional walkway width needed by using the appropriate
procedures for walkways described previously;
6. Calculate the queue storage space required for exit points (at stairs,
escalators, and elevators) by using the appropriate procedures described in
the following sections;
7. Consider the additional platform space that will be unused, including dead
areas and physical obstructions;
8. Add a 3-ft (1-m) buffer zone (18 in., or 0.5 m, on each side) to the width of
the platform; and
9. Calculate the total platform area by summing the required waiting space,
walkway width, queue storage at exit points, dead areas, and buffer zone
width.
SHELTERS, WAITING ROOMS, AND SEATING
Design Factors
Shelters provide protection Shelters are typically used with bus stops or transit stations that are largely
from rain, wind, and sun.
unenclosed to provide protection from rain, wind, and sun. In some cases they may
also be heated. The design of shelters is influenced both by local climate and the
desired level of amenity. For example, in colder, windier climates, shelters may be
more enclosed with walls whereas in milder climates they may have only partial
walls to act as a wind break. In a bus rapid transit system, station shelters may
incorporate the additional function of providing a fare-controlled area and may
encompass a raised platform to provide high-level boarding.
Waiting rooms are typically associated with larger bus terminals or rail stations
and tend to provide a greater degree of climate control than shelters. While shelters
may have a very limited number of seats or benches, waiting rooms tend to provide
more. Waiting rooms may also contain ticket windows, ticket machines, telephones,
and vending machines, and may provide a climate-controlled area for passengers to
use those facilities.
Seating may be provided anywhere in a station. Providing seating in different
areas, such as on a platform and in a waiting room, offers passengers the opportunity
to select seating most convenient to them. Seating is particularly useful for the elderly
and when transit service is less frequent, resulting in increased passenger waiting
times in a station. When designing seating and determining the desired number of
seats, it should be recognized that closely spaced seats may not be used due to
discomfort at close interpersonal spacing or partial occupancy by a person sitting in
the next seat, even though additional people may wish to sit.
Shelter or Waiting Room Level of Service

No specific LOS has been suggested for shelters, waiting rooms, or seating. The
space provided within shelters or waiting rooms can be assessed using the LOS
thresholds for queuing spaces, as presented in Exhibit 7-8. These thresholds are based
on average pedestrian space, personal comfort, and degrees of mobility within the
space. However, local circumstances must be taken into consideration when
determining what the projected or desirable occupancy is, since such spaces are
rarely used by all passengers and may only be used to the maximum extent on
limited days of the year, depending on local climates. For example, shelters may be
used on a daily basis for 6 months of the year in a colder northern climate but may be
used only a few days a month in warmer, dryer climates. As a result, it may be more
desirable to handle full stop or station loads in the more adverse climate, but provide
more limited capacity relative to station passenger volumes where the shelter is used
less often.
The LOS for persons standing in a shelter or waiting room may be assessed using
the LOS criteria for queuing spaces, as presented in Exhibit 7-8. In larger waiting
rooms where circulation is to be maintained or other activities such as ticket selling
are occurring, the time-space analysis approach described in Equations 7-3 and 7-4
can be applied. A simpler analysis could be conducted using a space per pedestrian
that is between the walking criteria shown in Exhibit 7-3 and the queuing criteria
presented in Exhibit 7-8.
The desirable number of seats is a question of the maximum number of people
who would choose to sit and such design issues as the space available for seating and
the cost of installing and maintaining seats. One approach to assessing the desired
number of seats in an existing station is to temporarily locate more than the
anticipated number of seats in a station, using movable stacking chairs, and count the
number of people who choose to sit in them during peak periods. The temporary
seats can then be replaced with permanently mounted seats and benches.
WALKWAYS
Design Factors
The capacity of a walkway is controlled by the following factors:
• Pedestrian walking speed,
• Pedestrian traffic density, and
• Walkway width.
It is not desirable to design walkways based on total capacity, but on a desired
pedestrian LOS. The desirable pedestrian environment allows sufficient space for the
pedestrian to
• Walk at a preferred speed, For daily circulation, design walkways
based on a desired pedestrian level of
• Bypass slower pedestrians, service, not capacity.
• Avoid conflicts with oncoming or crossing pedestrians, and

• Interact visually with surroundings.
The levels of service given in Exhibit 7-3 provide a relative scale for achieving
this desirable pedestrian environment.
Pedestrian Demand
When estimating the pedestrian demand for a particular facility, it is important
to consider short peak periods and surges within the peak. For general design
purposes, a 15-minute peak period is usually recommended. However, because
micro-peaks (temporary higher volumes) are likely to occur, consequences of these
surges within the peak should be considered. Due to the incidence of intensive peaks
just after a transit vehicle arrives and discharges passengers, analysis of a shorter
time period may be appropriate for walkway segments close to a transit platform.
Where headways are very close, the time between trains or buses may define the
period of analysis on these segments. Micro-peaking may result in increased
crowding for a given time period, but the short duration may justify the temporary
increase in congestion and short duration queuing.
Determining Required Walkway Width

The procedures to determine the required walkway width for a transit terminal
corridor are based on maintaining a desirable pedestrian LOS. Exhibit 7-3 lists the
criteria for pedestrian LOS on walkways. These levels of service are based on average
pedestrian spaces and average flow rates. It is generally desirable for peak-period
pedestrian flows at most transit facilities to operate at LOS “C” or above. The
following is a list of steps recommended for determining the required walkway
width:
1. Based on the desired LOS, choose the maximum pedestrian flow rate
(p/ft/min or p/m/min) from Exhibit 7-3.
2. Estimate the peak 15-minute pedestrian demand for the walkway.
Refer to Exhibits 3-25 or 5-22 3. Multiply by an appropriate adjustment factor to account for pedestrians who
for data on the space occupied
use additional space, such as wheelchair users and those transporting large
by pedestrians.
items. Consideration should also be given for pedestrians who use service
animals.
4. Compute the design pedestrian flow (p/min) by dividing the 15-minute
demand by 15.
5. Compute the required effective width of walkway (in feet or meters) by
dividing the design pedestrian flow by the maximum pedestrian flow rate.
6. Compute the total width of walkway (in feet or meters) by adding 3 ft (1 m),
with an 18-in. (0.5-m) buffer on each side to the effective width of walkway.
Determining Walkway Capacity

The capacity of a walkway is taken to be 25 p/ft/min (82 p/m/min),
corresponding to LOS “E.” Therefore, for a given walkway width, the following steps
may be used to compute the capacity:
1. Compute the effective width of walkway (ft or m) by subtracting 3 ft (1 m) or
other appropriate buffer zones from the total walkway width.
2. Compute the design pedestrian flow (p/min) by multiplying the effective
width of walkway by 25 p/ft/min (82 p/m/min).
3. Adjust for special pedestrian characteristics, as appropriate.
4. Compute the pedestrian capacity (p/h) by multiplying the design pedestrian
flow by 60.
Designing for Emergency Evacuation

For emergency evacuation design purposes, the NFPA 130 capacity and
pedestrian travel speed values for platform, corridor, and ramps of 4% slope or less
should be used in place of the values presented above. In the 2000 edition, these
values were a pedestrian flow rate of 2.27 p/in/min (27.2 p/ft/min, or 89.3
p/m/min), and a travel speed of 200 ft/min (61 m/min).(R11) The larger walkway
width resulting from the two calculations—design LOS or emergency evacuation—
should be selected.
DOORWAYS
Design Factors
Doorways or constrictions in the width of a walkway limit the capacity of a
walkway by imposing restricted lateral spacing. Because of this restriction on
capacity, doorways will impact the overall capacity of a pedestrian walkway within a
transit station, and therefore will require additional design considerations. Doorways
http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/
are required to comply with the ADA Accessibility Guidelines. Revolving doors or html/adaag.htm
gates are not considered part of an accessible route.
The effect of doorways on pedestrian flow will depend on the headway between
pedestrians. When a pedestrian reaches a doorway, there must be sufficient time-
headway separation to allow that pedestrian to pass through the doorway or fare
gate before the next pedestrian arrives. If time-headways between successive
pedestrians are too close, a pedestrian queue will develop.
The capacity of a doorway is therefore determined by the minimum time
required by each pedestrian to pass through the entrance. Exhibit 7-17 summarizes
observed average headways for different types of doorways. Although it is
recommended that headways be recorded at doorways similar in design and
operation to the one under investigation, the values in Exhibit 7-17 may be used if
field data are not available, with the lower value representing closer to a minimum
headway.
Exhibit 7-17
Observed Average Equivalent Pedestrian Observed Average Doorway
Type of Entrance Headway (s) Volume (p/min) Headway and Capacity(R6)
Free-Swinging 1.0-1.5 40-60
Revolving, per direction 1.7-2.4 25-35
Doorway Level of Service

The LOS criteria used for evaluating doorways are the same as those used for
evaluating walkways (see Exhibit 7-3). The objective is to maintain a desirable
average pedestrian flow rate (or walking speed) throughout the walkway system.
The capacity of a doorway will be based solely on the width of the doorway if it is
normally open, but will be reduced if the door is normally closed so that pedestrians
have to open it. The capacity of a normally closed door is thus further affected by the
difficulty of opening the door, although this effect is reduced if a steady flow of
pedestrians keeps the door open for extended periods.
Determining the Number of Doorways

Similar to the evaluation procedures for walkways, the procedure to determine
the required number of doorways is based on maintaining a desirable pedestrian
LOS. Consideration should be made of pedestrian characteristics, including
provisions for passengers with luggage, bicycles, strollers, wheelchairs, or other
mobility aids. The following is a list of steps recommended for determining the
required number of doorways:
1. Based on the desired LOS, choose the maximum pedestrian flow rate from
Exhibit 7-3.
2. Estimate the peak 15-minute pedestrian demand.
3. Compute the design pedestrian flow (persons per minute) by dividing the
15-minute demand by 15.
4. Compute the required width of the doorway (in feet or meters) by dividing
the design pedestrian flow by the maximum pedestrian flow rate.
5. Compute the number of doorways required by dividing the required
entrance width by the width of one doorway (always round up).
6. Determine whether the design pedestrian flow exceeds the entrance capacity
by following the procedures below.
Determining Doorway Capacity

As discussed above, the capacity of a doorway is based on the width of the
doorway and the number of people who can pass through per minute. The following
steps may be used to compute the capacity for a given number of entrances:
1. Determine the number of pedestrians who can pass through in 1 minute.
Since doorways may display different characteristics, this should be done
through field observations at the doorway or one of similar configuration. If
field observations are not possible, the lower volume value from Exhibit 7-17
may be used.
2. Compute total entrance capacity (persons per minute) by multiplying the
equivalent pedestrian volume by the number of doorways.
3. Adjustments should be made as appropriate to reflect special pedestrian
characteristics.
4. Compute hourly pedestrian capacity by multiplying the total doorway
capacity by 60.

For emergency evacuation design purposes, the NFPA 130 capacity value for
doors and gates should be used in place of the values presented above. In the 2000
edition, this value was a pedestrian flow rate of 2.27 p/in/min (27.2 p/ft/min, or
89.3 p/m/min), with a minimum door width of 36 in. (914.4 mm).(R11) The larger
number of doorways resulting from the two calculations—design LOS or emergency
evacuation—should be selected.
STAIRWAYS
Design Factors
In stations where the platform area is grade-separated from the rest of the station
and the adjacent outside area, stairways traditionally have been applied as the
primary vertical pedestrian movement system. Exhibit 7-18 shows typical treatments.
Exhibit 7-18
Stairway Examples
(a) Los Angeles (b) Portland, Oregon
The capacity of a stairway is largely affected by its width. The width of stairway
affects the pedestrians’ ability to pass slower-moving pedestrians and to choose a
desirable speed. Unlike walkways, a minor pedestrian flow in the opposing direction
on a stairway can cut capacity in half; therefore, stairway design should consider
directionality of flow.
Passenger queuing can occur at the “destination” end of stairways, if people are Critical passenger flows on stairways
occur in the ascending direction.
forced to converge on too constricted a space. This can be a serious design deficiency
in certain terminal facilities, with potential liability exposure. This is at least as
important as ensuring that adequate space is provided at entry points.
The LOS thresholds for stairways are based on average flow rate. Exhibit 7-7
summarizes the LOS criteria for stairways. The threshold between LOS “E” and “F”
(17 pedestrians per foot of width per minute or 55.8 p/m/min) represents the
maximum capacity of a stairway.
When designing stairways, the following factors should be taken into
consideration:(R6)
• Clear areas large enough to allow for queuing pedestrians should be
provided at the approaches to all stairways;
• Riser heights should be kept below 7 in. (0.18 m) to reduce energy
expenditure and to increase traffic efficiency; and
• When a stairway is placed directly within a corridor of the same width, the
stairway will have a lower pedestrian capacity than the corridor and will be
the controlling factor in the design of the walkway section.
When minor, reverse-flow traffic volumes frequently occur on a stair, the
effective width of the stair for the major-direction design flow should be reduced by a
minimum of one traffic lane, or 30 in. (0.75 m).
The following are the steps necessary to calculate the width of stairway, stairway
capacity, and queuing area required for a given peak pedestrian volume.
Stairway Width
The procedures to determine the required stairway width are based on
maintaining a desirable pedestrian LOS. For normal use, it is desirable for pedestrian
flows to operate at or above LOS “C” or “D.” However, in most modern terminals,
escalators would be provided to accommodate pedestrians. Stairs, therefore, are
typically provided as a supplement to the escalators to be used when the escalators
are over capacity or out of service due to a mechanical failure, maintenance outage,
or power failure. Under these circumstances, maximum stair capacity, or LOS “E” (17
p/ft/min or 51.8 p/m/min) may be assumed. Consideration of pedestrian
characteristics at a stair location should be incorporated into the analysis.
The following is a list of steps recommended for determining the required
stairway width:
1. Based on the desired LOS, choose the maximum pedestrian flow rate from
Exhibit 7-7.
2. Estimate the directional peak 15-minute pedestrian demand for the stairway.
3. Compute the design pedestrian flow (persons/minute) by dividing the 15-
minute demand by 15.
4. Compute the required width of stairway (in feet or meters) by dividing the
design pedestrian flow by the maximum pedestrian flow rate.
5. Increase the stairway width by a minimum of one traffic lane (30 in., or 0.75
m) when minor, reverse-flow pedestrian volumes occur frequently.
Stairway Capacity
As discussed above, the capacity of a stairway is taken to be 17 p/ft/min (51.8
p/m/min), or LOS “E.” Therefore, for a given stairway width, the following steps
may be used to compute the capacity:
1. Compute the design pedestrian flow (ped/min) by multiplying the width of
stairway by 17 p/ft/min (51.8 p/m/min).
2. Adjust for friction due to bi-directional flows by deducting 0 to 20%,
depending on the pattern of flows. Little or no deduction should be applied
when all flow is in one direction or when flows are fairly balanced. Up to a
20% deduction may be appropriate for conditions with a relatively small
reverse direction flow.
3. Compute the pedestrian capacity (p/h) by multiplying the design pedestrian
flow by 60.
Size of Stair Queuing Area

1. Compute the capacity of the stairway using the above procedures.
2. Compute the maximum demand by determining the maximum number of
pedestrians arriving at the approach of the stairway at one time.
3. Determine the number of arriving pedestrians exceeding capacity by
subtracting the capacity from the demand.
4. Compute the required queue area by multiplying the number of pedestrians
exceeding capacity by 5 ft2 (0.5 m2) per pedestrian.

For emergency evacuation design purposes, the NFPA 130 capacity and
pedestrian travel speed values for stairs, stopped escalators, and ramps over 4%
slope should be used in place of the values presented above. In the 2000 edition, these
values were the following for the up direction: a pedestrian flow rate of 1.59 persons
per inch per minute (19.1 p/ft/min or 62.6 p/m/min), and a vertical component of
travel speed of 50 ft/min (15.24 m/min). In the down direction, the values were a
pedestrian flow rate of 1.82 p/in/min (21.8 p/ft/min or 71.6 p/m/min) and a
vertical component of travel speed of 60 ft/min (18.3 m/min).(R11) Exit stairs should
be a minimum 44 in. (1.12 m) wide; 48 in. (1.22 m) wide if adjacent to an “area of
rescue assistance” as defined by the ADA. The larger walkway width resulting from
the two calculations—design LOS or emergency evacuation—should be selected.
ESCALATORS
Design Factors
Escalators (Exhibit 7-19) have been installed in many transit stations where there
are grade separations between the platforms, other areas of the station, or the outside
areas. Typically, escalators are used to supplement stairways and, in many cases, the
two facilities are located adjacent to one another. When possible, co-location of stairs,
escalators, and one end of an elevator is important for pedestrians with visual
impairments or service animals, as these pedestrians do not use escalators and guide
dogs are trained to avoid escalators.
Exhibit 7-19
Escalator Configuration Examples
(a) Denver (b) Los Angeles
The capacity of an escalator is dependent upon the entry width and operating
speed. In the United States and most other countries, the normal angle of incline of
escalators is 30 degrees, and the stair width is either 24 or 40 in. (0.6 or 1.1 m) (at the
tread). Operating speed is typically 90 ft/min (27.4 m/min), but a higher speed of 120
ft/min (36.6 m/min) is occasionally used when allowed by code and insurance
underwriters. These operating speeds are within the average range of stair-climbing
speeds.
Studies have shown that increasing the speed of an escalator from 90 to 120
ft/min (27.4 to 36.6 m/min) can increase the capacity by as much as 12%. An
interesting finding is that the practice of walking on a moving escalator does not
significantly increase escalator capacity. An escalator’s capacity is established at its
entrance and a moving pedestrian must occupy two steps at a time, thereby reducing
the standing capacity of the escalator.
As with stairways, both ends of an escalator require some queuing area if The size of the queuing area provided
at the exiting end of an escalator is
passenger demand exceeds the capacity of the facility. A clear area at the end of an
an important consideration.
escalator is especially important, as passengers are unable to queue on a moving
escalator and will be pushed into the area at the end. The area at the end of an
escalator should be wider than the escalator to allow people to quickly pass anyone
who has stopped at the end of the escalator, and this area should be free of any
queues, such as for another escalator, fare gate, ticket machine, vending machine, or
automated teller machine. This clear area should generally be at least 20 ft (6 m) in
length.
Escalator Capacity
Escalator manufacturers rate the maximum theoretical capacity of their units
based on 100% step utilization. Studies have shown, however, that 100% utilization is
never obtained. Escalator steps not being utilized under a heavy demand may be due
to any of the following factors:
• Intermittent pedestrian arrival process,
• Pedestrian inability to board quickly,
• Pedestrians carrying baggage or packages, and
• Pedestrians’ desire for a more comfortable space.
Because 100% utilization is typically not attainable, nominal design capacity
values have been developed (see Exhibit 7-20). These values represent a step
utilization of 1 person every other step on a 24-in. (0.6-m) wide escalator and one
person per step (or two people every second step) on a 40-in. (1.1-m) wide escalator.
Exhibit 7-20 Width at Tread Incline Speed Nominal Capacity

Nominal Escalator Capacity Type (in.) (m) (ft/min) (m/min) (p/h) (p/min)
Values(R6) 90 27.4 2,040 34
Single-width 24 0.6 120 36.6 2,700 45
90 27.4 4,080 68
Double-width 40 1.0
120 36.6 5,400 90
Number of Escalators
The procedures to determine the required number of escalators are based on the
width and speed of the escalator being considered. The following is a list of steps
recommended for determining the required number of escalators:
1. Estimate the directional peak 15-minute pedestrian demand for the escalator.
2. Compute the design pedestrian flow (persons per minute) by dividing the
15-minute demand by 15.
3. Based on the width and speed of the escalator, choose the nominal capacity
(pedestrians per minute) from Exhibit 7-20.
4. Compute the required number of escalators by dividing the design
pedestrian flow by the nominal capacity of one escalator.
Size of Queuing Area

The possibility that escalators can generate large queues, even at pedestrian
demands below nominal capacity, should be considered. Queues may generate when
demand exceeds capacity or when pedestrian arrival is intermittent or persons are
carrying baggage or luggage. For these situations, an adequate queuing area should
be placed at the approach of an escalator based on an average pedestrian space of 5
ft2 (0.5 m2) per person. (Where alternative stationary stairs are conveniently available,
the maximum wait time for an escalator may be assumed to be 1 minute.) Sufficient
space should also be provided at the discharge end of an escalator to avoid conflicts
with other traffic streams. The following are steps for computing the required size of
a queuing area at the approach to an escalator:
1. Determine the capacity of the escalator from Exhibit 7-20.
2. Compute the maximum demand by determining the maximum number of
pedestrians arriving at the approach of the escalator at one time. (Assume
pedestrians having to wait more than 1 minute at the escalator will take the
stairs, if available.)
3. Determine the number of arriving pedestrians exceeding capacity by
subtracting the capacity from the demand.
4. Compute the required queue area by multiplying the number of pedestrians
exceeding capacity by 5 ft2 (0.5 m2) per pedestrian.

For emergency evacuation design purposes, the NFPA 130 standard allows both
stopped and running escalators, equipped to operate in both directions, to be
considered as emergency exits. The 2000 NFPA 130 values for stopped escalator
capacity and pedestrian travel speed may be found in the preceding section on
stairways. Escalators shall not account for more than one-half of the exit capacity, and
one escalator shall be considered to be out of service.(R11)
MOVING WALKWAYS
Moving walkways (Exhibit 7-21) have been installed in a number of transit
stations and terminals around the world and are very common in larger airports.
Moving walkways are normally installed where large numbers of pedestrians
traverse medium and longer distances, from approximately 100 to 1,000 ft (30 to 300
m). Individual moving walkways can be constructed in varying lengths, but are
rarely more than 400 ft (120 m) in length, with longer distances being covered by a
series of moving walkways with a circulation space between each successive
walkway.
Exhibit 7-21
Moving Walkway Examples
(New York)
Moving walkways normally operate at a speed of 100 ft/min (30 m/min) but
some operate at up to 160 ft/min (50 m/min). Thus, most moving walkways operate
at less than walking speed. Moving walkways that accelerate pedestrians to a faster
speed are under development. Some designs use sequential rubber belts or metal
rollers to accelerate pedestrians at the beginning of the moving walkways, then
decelerate them at the end of the run. Other designs use metal pallets somewhat like
those in escalators and achieve acceleration and deceleration by compressing
overlapping pallets or by moving on a non-linear course.
Design Factors
When planning moving walkways, the following factors should be considered:
• The pedestrian volumes moving in each direction. For longer multi-unit
moving walkway systems, the volumes may differ in various segments as
pedestrians access intermediate destinations.
• Adequate space, measured in corridor width, for moving walkways and a
parallel walkway (1) to carry those who cannot or do not wish to use the
moving walkway and (2) to serve as an alternate route when a walkway is
undergoing maintenance. Similar to escalators, it may not be possible to
enter and walk on a moving walkway that is undergoing maintenance if the
end plates have been removed.
• The ongoing cost of operating and maintaining the moving walkway.
Moving Walkway Capacity

The capacity of a moving walkway is primarily dependent on its width at its
entrance, as this determines the number of people who can enter the walkway. The
speed of the walkway only affects the capacity to the extent that it affects the spacing
of people as they enter. Walking on a moving walkway increases the pedestrian’s
travel speed and reduces travel time, but does not affect capacity because it does not
affect the rate of entry to the moving walkway. Likewise, systems that accelerate
pedestrians to higher speeds do not increase the capacity compared with a standard
moving walkway of the same width because the capacity at the entrance is the same
as a standard speed unit.
Manufacturers of moving walkways sometimes state theoretical capacities based

on square feet of walkway per minute. These theoretical capacities are generally
much higher than practical capacities and should not be used in passenger flow
analysis. Studies have shown that the practical capacity of a double-width moving
walkway is comparable with the capacity of a double-width escalator of equal width,
or approximately 90 persons per minute or 5,400 persons per hour.
The procedures to determine the required number of moving walkways and the
queuing areas at each end are similar to the procedure for escalators. If volumes in
either direction are expected to approach or exceed the estimated capacity of 90
persons per minute for a double-width moving walkway, field studies at a moving
walkway of comparable width and speed are recommended to confirm capacity.

The NFPA 130 standard(R11) does not address moving walkways. It is prudent to
calculate emergency evacuation flow under the assumption that power is off.
ELEVATORS AND LIFTS
Design Factors
Elevators, lifts, or ramps are Elevators, lifts, or ramps are required in all new transit or modified transit
required in new or modified
stations in the United States to meet ADA requirements when level changes are
grade-separated facilities to
meet ADA requirements. required to access or move within a station. These requirements are defined in the
ADA Accessibility Guidelines. Elevators may be provided at one end of a platform or
http://www.access-board.gov/ in the center. Separate elevators may be needed between the street and the concourse
adaag/html/adaag.htm
(mezzanine), and between the concourse and the platforms. Side platform stations
generally require at least two elevators, whereas a center platform station may only
require one. In the case of especially deep stations, as in New York City (e.g., 168th,
181st, and 191st Streets), Washington, DC (Forest Glen), and Portland, Oregon
(Washington Park), elevators are the sole means of passenger access to and from
stations, not including emergency stairs. Open lifts are sometimes used in stations to
move passengers using mobility aids between levels a few feet apart, in locations
where a ramp is not feasible.
On-going elevator Good, on-going elevator maintenance is important for maintaining accessibility
maintenance is important for
for mobility-impaired passengers at transit stations. As a cost-saving measure, most
keeping stations consistently
ADA accessible. transit stations provide only one elevator per platform, or from the concourse level to
the street. However, when any of these elevators is out of service, the station is
effectively inaccessible to mobility-impaired passengers. Although these passengers
can be served during these times by directing them to alternate stations and
providing them with paratransit bus service to their destination, it is much less
convenient for these passengers and serves to reduce the accessibility and
convenience of the transit system as a whole to passengers with disabilities.
Exhibit 7-22 shows a typical elevator location in a transit station. Traffic flow on
elevators differs from other vertical pedestrian movers. As opposed to escalators and
stairs, which provide constant service, elevators provide on-demand service. Because
of its characteristics, determining the capacity of an elevator is similar to determining
the capacity of a transit vehicle.
Exhibit 7-22
Elevator Application Examples
(a) Station Access (Portland, Oregon) (b) Station Circulation (Los Angeles)
Elevator Level of Service

The LOS of an elevator system is typically based both on wait time and on the
level of crowding. The tolerance level for an acceptable waiting time for elevator
service at a transit terminal is around 30 seconds but also depends on the vertical
distance traveled and alternate means. Average pedestrian space will be less
important, unless inadequate capacity causes excessive crowding or causes people to
miss an elevator, increasing their travel time and raising frustration. It is important to
consider the maneuverability of wheelchairs in an elevator. This is particularly
important in crowded situations or where the person using a wheelchair needs to
turn to access the control panel or to exit.
Waiting Time
In evaluating wait time for an elevator, both the maximum and average wait
times can be measured. The maximum wait time with a single elevator is the cycle
time for the elevator to depart, make one or more intermediate stops, and return to its
starting point ready to return in the initial direction. This represents the time spent by
a person who arrived just as the elevator doors were closing but was unable to board.
The average waiting time will generally be half of the cycle time. The effect on
waiting times of multiple elevators depends on the coordination of their operation. If
electronic controls space elevator departures, waiting times will be reduced by a
factor of the number of elevators. In practice, the reduction is usually somewhat less,
particularly if passengers hold elevator doors.
Elevator Capacity
The capacity of an elevator system depends on the following four factors:
• Entering and exiting patterns of users;
• User characteristics, including luggage, strollers, bicycles, and wheelchairs;
• Elevator travel time; and
• Practical capacity of the elevator cab.
Boarding and alighting times will depend on the door width and whether
passengers are carrying baggage or luggage. The number of passengers boarding
may also affect boarding rates. Studies that have investigated boarding rates for
transit vehicles have found that boarding rates increase as the number of passengers
increase due to “peer pressure.” To determine average boarding and alighting times
for a particular elevator system, it is recommended that field data be collected.
Elevator travel time will be based on the operating characteristics of the elevator,
including the following:
• Distance traveled (height of shaft),
• Elevator speed,
• Elevator acceleration and deceleration rates, and
• Elevator door opening and closing times.
The above factors will remain constant for a particular elevator system. The
practical capacity of an elevator in a transit station will be based on the following:
• Presence of heavy winter clothing, and
• Presence of baggage or luggage.
The presence of heavy clothing and baggage or luggage increases the required
area per person and, therefore, reduces standing capacity. Although the crush
capacity of an elevator is approximately 1.8 ft2 (0.17 m2) per person, most people
require 3.0 ft2 (0.28 m2) or more to feel comfortable in an elevator and this is a suitable
design standard. As mentioned above, riders of elevators are more willing to accept
less personal space due to the short time period associated with the elevator ride.

Elevators are not considered part of an evacuation route, and their capacity
should not be included in evacuation design.
RAMPS
Design Factors
Ramps may be provided primarily to serve people with disabilities, but are also
useful to passengers with baby carriages, wheeled luggage, or heavy packages. Some
persons with disabilities who can negotiate stairs will prefer a ramp and will use it if
it is available and convenient. Ramps may also be designed for general passenger use
in place of stairs or steps. While ramps generally should not have a slope greater than
1:12 (8.3%), an even more gradual slope (1:20 to 1:16, or 5% to 6.25%) is preferred
wherever feasible. The ADA requires level landings at the ends of each ramp, and at
the end of each ramp run. In addition, the ADA limits the lengths of individual ramp
runs, and the maximum rise of each run.
Used as an alternative to elevators or lifts, ramps have the advantage that they
require little maintenance, have no operating cost, and are available to a broader
spectrum of passengers who may choose them.
Ramp Level of Service

LOS thresholds have not been established for ramps, but would be comparable
with those for walkways.
In many applications, ramps are considered auxiliary to the main circulation
routes in a station, provided to serve only a small portion of a station’s total users. In
these cases, their capacity will not be critical to the analysis of passenger flow and
they need not be evaluated in terms of LOS. Where ramps are used in place of stairs
as a primary pedestrian circulation element, they can be treated much like level
walkways. Grades of up to 6% have been found to have negligible effect on
pedestrians, while a slope of 10% has reduced speeds by about 12%.

The NFPA 130 standard specifies ramp capacities and pedestrian travel speeds
for use in emergency evacuation design. The 2000 NFPA 130 treats ramps with a
grade of 4% or less the same as level walkways, while ramps with a grade over 4%
are treated as stairways. The corresponding capacity and pedestrian travel speed
values can be found in the previous sections on walkways and stairways.(R11)
FARE CONTROL BARRIERS, GATES, AND TURNSTILES
Design Factors
Fare gates limit the capacity of a walkway by imposing restricted lateral spacing Different types of fare gates have
different capacity characteristics.
and by requiring pedestrians to perform an activity that consumes additional time.
Because of these restrictions on capacity, fare gates will impact the overall capacity of
a pedestrian walkway system within a transit terminal, and therefore will require
additional design considerations. Fare gates or turnstiles are typically applied at
heavy rail stations to control fare payment. They are applied to a lesser extent at
commuter rail and light rail stations, due to the proof-of-payment system associated
with most of these systems. Fare gates are required to comply with the ADA http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/
html/adaag.htm
Accessibility Guidelines, although turnstiles and some types of gates are not
considered part of an accessible route.
Exhibit 7-23 illustrates the placement and operation of fare gate configurations in
a transit terminal. There are three different types of fare gates applied in stations:
1. Free admission (a barrier only),
2. Coin- or token-operated, and
3. Automatic ticket reader.
Coin-operated fare gates may have single or double slots to accept change.
Automatic fare gates, using magnetic stripe farecards, have been used on newer
heavy rail systems with distance-based fares, such as BART in the San Francisco Bay
Area and Metro in Washington, DC, and are increasingly being used in other systems
such as MTA-New York City Transit. Some agencies—particularly ferry systems—
use staff to check and collect tickets before allowing passengers access to the waiting
area or vessel. This form of gate is little used for rail transit applications in North
America and Western Europe, except during special event situations, such as at
sports stadia. Systems using automated fare gates generally also have a channel
available next to the station agent’s booth to accommodate checking users with non-
standard tickets (e.g., visitor passes with scratch-off dates).
Exhibit 7-23
Fare Gate Examples
(a) New York (b) San Francisco
The effect of fare gates on pedestrian flow will depend on the headway between
pedestrians. When a pedestrian reaches a fare gate, there must be sufficient time
separation to allow that pedestrian to pass through the fare gate before the next
pedestrian arrives. If the times between successive pedestrians are too close, a
pedestrian queue will develop.
The capacity of a fare gate is therefore determined by the minimum time
required by each pedestrian to pass through. Exhibit 7-24 summarizes observed
average headways for different types of fare gates. Although it is recommended that
headways be recorded at fare gates that are of a similar design and operation to those
under investigation, the values in Exhibit 7-24 may be used if field data are not
available, with the lower value representing closer to a minimum headway.
Exhibit 7-24 Observed Average Equivalent Pedestrian
Observed Average Fare Gate Type of Entrance Headway (s) Volume (p/min)
Headways and Capacities(R6) Free admission (barrier only) 1.0-1.5 40-60
Ticket collection by staff 1.7-2.4 25-35
Single-slot coin- or token-operated 1.2-2.4 25-50
Double-slot coin-operated 2.5-4.0 15-25
Card reader (various types) 1.5-4.0 25-40
High entrance/exit turnstile 3.0 20
High exit turnstile 2.1 28
Exit gate, 3.0 ft (0.9 m) wide 0.8 75
Fare Gate Capacity

Fare gates and turnstiles are evaluated based on a design volume-to-capacity
(v/c) ratio, rather than a design LOS. The selected v/c ratio should allow some room
for growth in passenger flow.
Determining the Required Number of Fare Gates

The procedure to determine the required number of fare gates is based on
determining the capacity of individual fare gates in either direction (entering and
existing) and providing enough capacity to handle peak period conditions and allow
for some growth. Special provisions may be made for periodic high volumes such as
after a major public event. Consideration should be given to pedestrian
characteristics, including provisions for passengers with luggage, bicycles, strollers,
wheelchairs, or other mobility aids. The possibility of one or more gates being
unavailable due to malfunction or maintenance should be considered. The following
is a list of steps recommended for determining the required number of fare gates:
1. Estimate the peak 5- to 15-minute passenger demand.
2. Compute the design pedestrian flow (passengers per minute) by dividing
the demand by the number of minutes.
3. Compute the number of gates, turnstiles, or combination required by
dividing the passenger flow by the capacity of individual units, or
subtracting the capacity of units if more than one type is to be used (always
round up or add one extra unit for each direction of flow). One gate should
always be provided for reverse flow, even if the reverse flow is relatively
minor.
Determining Fare Gate Capacity

When possible, the capacity of a specific fare gate type should be determined
through field observations of an identical or similar gate in the same system or a
system with a similar fare structure and fare medium. Observations should be made
when a fare gate is operating at maximum capacity, as evidenced by a queue at the
entry to the gate. As an alternative, an estimated capacity from Exhibit 7-24 can be
used. Compute the total capacity of a fare control array by summing the capacity of
all the gates in the array. Adjustments should be made as appropriate to reflect
special pedestrian characteristics.

For emergency evacuation design purposes, the NFPA 130 divides fare gates into
two categories: (1) fare collection gates that provide barrier-free egress in emergency
mode and (2) turnstiles that free wheel in the exit direction in emergency mode. The
2000 NFPA 130 capacity values are 50 persons per minute for the former and 25
persons per minute for the latter.(R11)
TICKET MACHINES
Design Factors
At a transit station, passengers pay their fares at ticket machines or pay booths
before they enter the platform area. Exhibit 7-25 illustrates different ticket
machine/booth configurations at transit stations. At larger heavy rail stations, several
ticket machines are typically provided to handle peak passenger demand for tickets.
At light rail stations, at least one ticket machine is provided on each platform, but
some redundancy is desirable in case one machine is out of service. Conversely, a
ticket machine may not be provided on a light rail or bus rapid transit platform that
is used primarily for alighting, especially if ticket machines elsewhere are readily
accessible. Staffed ticket booths are used at older heavy rail stations and at many
commuter rail stations.
Transit systems are increasingly using either electronic fare media or proof-of-
payment systems. Electronic media increase the importance and the complexity of
ticket vending machines, with varying effects on the fare control systems.
Ticket Machine Level of Service

Passenger processing times at ticket vending machines vary widely depending
on the particular characteristics of the ticket vending machine and the fare structure
of the transit system. Passenger processing time at ticket machines increases with
complex zone fare systems, which require some deciphering by the passenger at the
machine prior to paying the correct fare. Infrequent passengers require more time to
purchase fares than regular commuters who have had practice using the machines.
Ticket vending machines must be made accessible for persons with disabilities,
including Braille writing and other design features.
Exhibit 7-25
Ticket Machine Examples
(a) San Francisco (b) New Jersey
To identify the required number of ticket machines at a station, pre-testing of the
particular machine to be purchased could prove beneficial to approximate an average
passenger processing time. In many cases, the number of machines or booths will be
restricted by space, personnel, or cost constraints.
SIGNAGE AND PASSENGER COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Signage and Information Displays

Station signage, illustrated in Exhibit 7-26, provides information to passengers
both in the station and on transit vehicles. Signs can direct passengers to loading
areas or platforms for various transit services, nearby destinations, and emergency
evacuation routes. System maps, schedules, fare information, and neighborhood
maps provide information for passengers. While most stations or stops will include at
least minimal signage, more complex stations require more extensive wayfinding
systems. Signage and information is particularly important to the occasional transit
passenger, but reinforces the transit experience and options for all passengers.
Signage should be accessible to persons with disabilities, including Braille
signage, and should be placed so that they are accessible to wheelchair users.
Exhibit 7-26
Signage and Communication
System Examples
(a) Posted System Information (b) Real-Time Schedule Information
(c) Wayfinding Information (d) Video Security Monitors
Photo locations:
(a) San Diego
(b) Denver
(c) New York
(d) New York
(e) Boston
(f) San Francisco (e) Emergency Call Box (f) Elevator Availability Information
Public Address Systems

Public address systems may be provided in stations both for public information
and for security. A public address system can be activated by on-site personnel or
may be connected to a remote central control facility. It may be combined with
passenger call boxes allowing passengers to call for information or emergency
assistance. Video monitors allow staff to monitor conditions and events in the station
and to record them for law enforcement purposes. The presence of video cameras
and call boxes also acts as a deterrent to some crimes.
Real-Time Passenger Information Systems

In recent years, new electronic technology has been developed to provide
improved traveler information systems. For transit stations, “real-time” passenger
communications can assist in managing passenger flows and queues. This can
include providing information on bus and train departure times, bus and train berth
locations, and out-of-service elevators and other facilities.
PASSENGER AMENITIES
Passenger amenities are those elements provided at a bus stop or transit station Placement of passenger amenities at
bus stops and in stations impacts
to enhance comfort, convenience, and security for the transit patron. Amenities
space required for circulation and
include such items as shelters, benches, vending machines, trash receptacles, lighting, waiting areas.
phone booths, art, and landscaping. The effects that particular amenities have on
transit ridership is not well known. Amenities at most bus stops or transit stations are
placed in response to a human need or a need to address a local condition. Some
advantages and disadvantages of various passenger amenities are summarized in
Exhibit 7-27. Examples of passenger amenities at transit stops and stations are
illustrated in Exhibit 7-28.
Amenity Advantages Disadvantages Exhibit 7-27
Shelters • Provides comfort for waiting • Requires maintenance, trash Types of Passenger Amenities at
passengers collection Bus Stops(R15)
• Provides protection from climate • May be used by graffiti artists
(sun, glare, wind, rain, snow)
• Help identify the stop/station
Benches • Provides comfort for waiting • Requires maintenance
passengers • May be used by graffiti artists
• Help identify the stop/station
• Low-cost when compared with
installing a shelter
Vending • Provides reading material for • Increases trash accumulation
Machines waiting passengers • May have poor visual appearance
• Reduces circulation space
• Can be vandalized
Lighting • Increases visibility • Requires maintenance
• Increases perceptions of comfort • Can be costly
and security
• Discourages “after hours” use of
bus stop facilities by indigents
Trash • Provides place to discard trash • May be costly to maintain
Receptacles • Keeps bus stop and surroundings • May be used by customers of
clean nearby land uses
• May have a bad odor
• May be removed for security
reasons
Telephones • Convenient for transit patrons • May encourage loitering at bus
• Provides access to transit stop
information and emergency • May encourage illegal activities at
services bus stop
Exhibit 7-28
Passenger Amenity Examples
(a) Shelter & Bench (Denver) (b) Telephones (Denver)
(c) Vending Machines (Brisbane, Australia) (d) Lighting (Cleveland)
(e) Trash Receptacle (Albuquerque) (f) Art (Los Angeles)
The space needed for passenger waiting at transit stops and stations should
account for space taken by shelters, benches, information signs, and other amenities.
Amenities at bus stops and transit stations should be placed so that they do not
interfere with the landing area for a lift or ramp for people with disabilities and so
that their spacing or placement does not constrict movement by wheelchair users.
When shelters are provided at light rail and busway stations, they typically do
not cover the entire station platform. The extent of coverage depends on local climate,
impacts on surrounding properties, circulation, and passenger waiting patterns. If
most passengers wait for trains or buses on one platform and alight on the other
platform, then canopies may be provided only on the side of the station where
passengers wait, or there may be fewer or smaller canopies on the alighting side of
the station.
BICYCLE STORAGE
Bicycle storage may be provided at transit stations where demand exists and
space allows. Bike racks provide a simple, relatively low-cost approach and can hold
a large number of bicycles in a relatively small space, but the bicycles are subject to
potential damage and theft. Enclosed bicycle lockers provide added protection from
theft and from weather, but are more costly and require more space. The demand for
bicycle spaces will vary greatly by station and may be best assessed by observation
and test provision of facilities.
PARK-AND-RIDE FACILITIES
At selected transit stations, park-and-ride facilities for autos are provided. Park-and-ride facilities are sized
based on estimated demand.
Generally, park-and-ride facilities are located along the outer portions of a rail line or
busway, in the outer portions of central cities, and in the suburbs in metropolitan
areas. At many locations, park-and-rides are integrated with bus transfer facilities.
Their size can vary from as few as 10 to 20 spaces at minor stations to more than 1,000
spaces at major stations. Most park-and-ride facilities are surface lots, with pedestrian
connections to the transit station. Parking structures are used where land is at a
premium and where a substantial number of parking spaces are required.
Exhibit 7-29
Park-and-Ride Lot Examples
(a) Cleveland (b) Houston
Surface parking lots around transit stations occupy potentially valuable space
that could be used for transit-oriented development. Instead, parking for commuters
can be integrated with transit-oriented development. One option is to utilize parking
structures in place of surface parking to free additional land for mixed-use
development. Parking garages can also contain street-level commercial space to
better integrate them with surrounding development. Parking, whether structured or
surface, can also be moved 100 to 300 ft (35 to 100 m) from the station if the area
between is developed in a pedestrian-friendly manner. In a mixed-use development,
the same parking spaces used by commuters during the daytime can also serve
residents, shoppers, and diners during the evening and weekend.
The required number of park-and-ride spaces at a transit station typically
involves identifying the demand for such parking, and then relating the space
demand to the ability to physically provide such a facility within cost constraints.
Parking spaces in park-and-ride facilities typically have a low turnover during the
day, as most persons parking at transit stations are commuters gone most of the day.
In larger urban areas, the regional transportation model will have a mode split
component which will help identify park-and-ride demand at transit station
locations. This information is particularly applicable for new rail line or busway
development. Where the regional model does not have the level of sophistication to
provide such demand estimates, then park-and-ride demand estimation through user
surveys and an assessment of the ridership sheds for different station areas would be
appropriate.
KISS-AND-RIDE FACILITIES
Kiss-and-ride facility capacity is Kiss-and-rides are dedicated auto loading areas at stations, where transit patrons
governed by space required
for passenger pick-ups.
can be dropped off and picked up by another person in a vehicle. Short-term parking
is based on the need to serve vehicles waiting to pick up transit riders, as the drop-off
requires no parking maneuver (though curb space is needed to handle the drop-off).
As with park-and-ride facilities, the sizing of kiss-and-ride facilities is reflective of the
demand and physical constraints of the site. Several rail stations in Toronto use a
“carousel” design incorporating an enclosed waiting area.
Exhibit 7-30
Kiss-and-Ride Examples
(a) Denver (b) Boston
(c) Toronto
CHAPTER 5. REFERENCES
1. Americans with Disabilities Act Access Guidelines for Buildings and

Facilities: Architectural Barriers Act Accessibility Guidelines, NPRM Vol. 64
FR 62248, November 18, 1999.
2. Benz, Gregory P. Application of the Time-Space Concept to a Transportation
Terminal Waiting and Circulation Area. In Transportation Research Record
1054, TRB, National Academy Press, Washington, DC (1986).
3. Benz, Gregory P., Pedestrian Time-Space Concept: A New Approach to the
Planning and Design of Pedestrian Facilities, Second Edition, Parsons
Brinckerhoff, Inc., New York, NY (1992).
4. Boyd, Annabelle and John P. Sullivan, TCRP Synthesis of Practice 27:
Emergency Preparedness for Transit Terrorism, TRB, National Academy Press,
Washington, DC (1997).
http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/tcrp/tsyn27.pdf
5. Demetsky, Michael J., Lester A. Hoel, and Mark A. Virkler, Methodology for
the Design of Urban Transportation Interface Facilities, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Program of University Research, Washington, DC (1976).
6. Fruin, John J., Pedestrian Planning and Design, Revised Edition, Elevator
World, Inc., Mobile, AL (1987).
7. Griffths, John R., Lester A. Hoel, and M. J. Demetsky, Transit Station
Renovation: A Case Study of Planning and Design Procedures, U.S. Department
of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration,
Washington, DC (1979).
8. Highway Capacity Manual. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC
(2000).
9. Levinson, Herbert S., Samuel Zimmerman, Jennifer Clinger, James Gast,
Scott Rutherford, and Eric Bruhn, TCRP Report 90: Bus Rapid Transit, Volume
2: Implementation Guidelines, TRB, Washington, DC (2003).
http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_90v2.pdf
10. Levinson, Herbert and Texas Transportation Institute, Conceptual Planning
and Design: Lockwood Transit Center (1983).
11. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 130 Standard for Fixed Guideway
Transit and Passenger Rail Systems, 2000 Edition, Washington, DC (2000).
12. National Transportation Safety Board, “Highway Accident Summary Report:
Bus Collision with Pedestrians, Normandy, Missouri, June 11, 1997,” Report
PB98-916201, NTSB, Washington, DC (1998).
13. Needle, Jerome A. and Renée M. Cobb, J.D., TCRP Synthesis of Practice 21:
Improving Transit Security, TRB, National Academy Press, Washington, DC
(1997). http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/tcrp/tsyn21.pdf
14. TRB Special Report 209: Highway Capacity Manual, TRB, National Research
Council, Washington, DC (1985).
15. Texas Transportation Institute, “Guidelines for the Location and Design of
Bus Stops,” TCRP Report 19, TRB, National Academy Press, Washington, DC
(1996). http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_19-a.pdf
Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-49 Chapter 5—References
Chapter 5—References Page 7-50 Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY
CHAPTER 6. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Suburban transit center design

2. Stairway sizing
3. Platform sizing
4. Escalator queuing area
5. Multiple pedestrian activities in a facility
6. Complex multi-level station
Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-51 Chapter 6—Example Problems
Example Problem 1
Derived from a problem in the
1985 HCM.(R10,R14) The Situation
A transit agency plans to construct a suburban transit center.
The Question
What are the “base year” 2000 and “design year” 2015 berth requirements?
The Facts
• The bus lines serving the proposed transit center are identified below. Year
2000 data are based on actual schedules, while year 2015 data are based on a
growth forecast of 60% for local bus service and 100% for freeway bus
service.
• Bus berths will be assigned according to principal geographical destinations.
• Bus dwell times will be approximately 5 minutes per bus passing through
the center and 8 minutes for buses that begin and end trips there.
Peak Direction Buses Off-Peak Dir. Buses Service
Rte. # Route Name 2000 2015 2000 2015 Type
LOCAL SERVICE
42 Holman Crosstown 8 13 0 0 Terminating
68 Brays Bayou Crosstown 4 6 0 0 Terminating
76 Lockwood Crosstown 4 6 4 6 Through
77 MLK Limited 6 10 6 10 Through
Subtotal Local 22 35 10 16
EXPRESSWAY SERVICE
242 Clear Lake Park-and-Ride 3 6 1 2 Through
245 Edgewood Park-and-Ride 3 6 1 2 Through
250 Hobby Park-and-Ride 2 4 1 2 Through
255 Fuqua Park-and-Ride 4 8 1 2 Through
41 Garden Villas Limited 2 4 1 2 Through
147 Sagemont Express 2 4 1 2 Through
Subtotal Express 16 32 6 12
TOTAL 38 67 16 28
Comments
• In 2000, 22 local buses and 16 express buses use the transit center in the peak
direction, while 10 local buses and 6 express buses will use it in the off-peak
direction.
• Bus dwell times are longer than the 3-minute passenger service time needed
to fill an empty bus to seated capacity, assuming that exact fares are paid on
the bus, to allow for schedule irregularities and (for the terminating routes)
driver layover time.
Steps
The table on the next page provides estimated berth requirements for 2000 and
2015. The berths were estimated as follows:
1. The bus routes were grouped by geographic destination in 3 categories.
2. The “capacity” of each type of service was obtained by the equation c = 60 /
td, where td was the specified dwell time (clearance time was neglected, as it
is short in comparison with the dwell times at the transit center). Thus a 5-
minute dwell time could accommodate 12 buses/berth/hour; an 8-minute
dwell time, 7.5 buses/berth/hour.
Chapter 6—Example Problems Page 7-52 Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY
3. The number of inbound berths for the a.m. peak hour was computed by
dividing the number of buses by the berth capacity. Thus, for lines 42 and 68,
in 2000, 12 buses need 12 / 7.5 or 1.6 berths, rounded up to 2 berths.
4. The bus routes that start at the center need only inbound berths. The other
bus routes need an equal number of outbound berths to accommodate p.m.
peak hour bus flows and to ensure that each major geographic destination
would have its own specified area.
The Results
For the year 2000, the following calculations result:
Dwell Buses/ A.M.
Service Time/Bus Berth/ Inbound Inbound Max. Outbound Total
Route Type (min) Hour Buses Berths Berths for P.M. Berths
LOCAL SERVICE
42-68 Start 8 7.5 12 2 0 2
76 Through 5 12 4 1 1 2
77 Through 5 12 6 1 1 2
Subtotal 22 4 2 6
EXPRESSWAY SERVICE
All Through 5 12 16 2 2 4
TOTAL 38 6 4 10
For the year 2015, the following calculations result:

Dwell Buses/ A.M.
Service Time/Bus Berth/ Inbound Inbound Max. Outbound Total
Route Type (min) Hour Buses Berths Berths for P.M. Berths
LOCAL SERVICE
42-68 Start 8 7.5 19 3 0 3
76 Through 5 12 6 1 1 2
77 Through 5 12 10 1 1 2
Subtotal 35 5 2 7
EXPRESSWAY SERVICE
All Through 5 12 32 3 3 6
TOTAL 67 8 5 13
The total berth requirements represent the sum of the inbound and outbound
berths. As a result, 10 loading positions are needed for year 2000 conditions, and 13
loading positions are needed for year 2015 conditions. Ideally, 15 loading positions
should be provided to account for growth and traffic fluctuations within the peak
hour.
Note that 38 inbound buses with a berth capacity of 10 buses/berth/hour would
require only 4 inbound loading positions in 2000 if routes were not separated
geographically. However, this is not advisable when one considers clarity to the
riding public, so 6 berths are anticipated based on the grouping shown above.
Example Problem 2
The Situation
A new rail station will be constructed below grade. This three-level station
(platform, mezzanine, and surface) will serve a new transit center and an adjacent
urban university campus. The initial concept is to connect the single center platform
to the mezzanine at two locations: at one end of the platform and halfway down the
platform. A pair of double-width (40-in.) escalators with a stairway in between
would be located at each platform access point. One elevator between each level
would also be provided.
The Question
Based on the estimated demand under typical peak 15-minute conditions and
evacuation conditions, how wide should the stairways be?
The Facts
All values reflect design conditions 25 years in the future, rather than conditions
when the station first opens.
• For the design year, four-car trains are expected to run at 7 to 8 minute
headways (i.e., 8 trains/hour/direction).
• The a.m. peak hour exiting demand is estimated to be 3,200 passengers per
hour. The corresponding a.m. peak hour entering demand is estimated to be
500 p/h. The estimated p.m. peak hour demands are 2,900 p/h entering and
500 p/h exiting.
• During the peak 15 minutes of the a.m. peak hour, the average inbound train
entering the station will have 700 passengers on board, while the average
outbound train will have 300 passengers on board. During the peak 15
minutes of the p.m. peak hour, the average inbound train entering the
station will have 200 passengers on board, and the average outbound train
will have 500 passengers on board.
• The maximum schedule load of a car is 200 passengers.
• The average peak hour factor currently observed on the system is 0.714.
• The system operates on a proof-of-payment basis; thus, no fare gates are
required.
• Sporting events are held at off-campus sites and do not impact peak demand
conditions at this station.
Comments
LOS “C” is a reasonable design level for a station under typical daily conditions.
The NFPA 130 evacuation standard(R11) is conservative in its assumptions of the
number of people that will need to be evacuated. The number of people that should
be designed for includes:
• The loads of one train on each track during the peak 15 minutes, assuming
each train is running one headway late (i.e., is carrying twice its normal load,
but no more than a full [maximum schedule] load); and
• Passengers waiting on the platform to board trains during the peak 15
minutes, assuming their trains are running one headway late.
Outline of Solution
Conditions during both peak hours will be checked to see which controls
different elements of the design. Next, the stairways will be sized to accommodate
the design conditions during the peak 15 minutes. The resulting width will then be
compared with the width required to evacuate the platform within 4 minutes. The
larger width will control design.
Steps
Design Periods
Peak-hour volumes should be converted to peak 15-minute volumes by
multiplying by the peak hour factor:
Ph
P15 =
4( PHF )
For example, the peak-15-minute exiting volume during the a.m. peak hour is:
3,200
P15 = = 1,120 p
4(0.714)
The corresponding peak-15-minute entering volume is 175 passengers during the
a.m. peak hour. During the p.m. peak-15-minute period, 1,015 passengers will be
entering and 175 passengers will be exiting.
The number of people that may need to be evacuated is based on the train loads
and passengers waiting to board. During the a.m. peak hour, this number is
calculated from the following:
• Inbound train: an average train carries 700 people during the peak 15
minutes. A train operating one headway late would have a demand of twice
this number, or 1,400 people, but only 800 of those people (the maximum
schedule load of a four-car train) would actually have been able to board the
train.
• Outbound train: an average train carries 300 people during the peak 15
this number, or 600 people, which is less than the train’s capacity.
• Waiting on platform: At an average headway of 7.5 minutes between trains in
a given direction, up to half of the entering volume during the peak 15
minutes typically would be present if the trains arrived on schedule.
However, the design should assume that the trains are one headway late
and, therefore, twice the typical number of waiting passengers should be
used. This results in (175)(0.5)(2), or 175 people.
The total number of people to be evacuated during the a.m. peak hour is the sum
of these three components, or 1,575 people. During the p.m. peak hour, the
corresponding numbers are 400 inbound, 800 outbound, and 1,015 platform, for a
total of 2,215 people.
The greatest exiting or entering volumes under typical daily conditions occur
during the a.m. peak hour. The greatest number of people that may need to be
evacuated occurs during the p.m. peak hour.
Stairway Width
Exhibit 7-7 gives stairway pedestrian flows of 7 to 10 p/ft/min for a design LOS
“C.” Because the users are commuters, the high end of the range can be used,
resulting in the following stairway width:
1,120 p
Stairway width = = 7.5 ft (90 in.)
15 min × 10 p/ft/m
As the exiting volume is split between two stairways, each stairway would only
need to be about 45 in. wide to serve exiting flows. An additional 30 in. should be
provided to accommodate the small number of entering passengers, resulting in a
total width of 75 in. for each stair.
Because escalators are being provided to supplement the stairs, the stairs would
only be totally used in the event of unscheduled maintenance, power failures, or
similar situations. Maximum stair capacity, or LOS “E,” could be used:
1,120 p
Stairway width = = 4.4 ft (53 in.)
15 min × 17 p/ft/m
Dividing the result by two (because there are two stairways), and adding 30 in.
to accommodate the small reverse flow, results in a total width of 57 in., which could
be rounded up to the nearest foot (60 in.). Either width is greater than the NFPA
minimum for an exit stair (44 in.).
Under emergency evacuation conditions, 2,215 people would need to be
evacuated from the platform within 4 minutes. One of the four escalators should be
assumed to be out of service. A stopped escalator can serve 1.59 p/in/min in the up
direction, according to the NFPA 130 standard;(R11) thus a 40-in. escalator can serve
(40 in.)(1.59 p/in./min), or 63 p/min. In 4 minutes, three escalators could serve (4
min)(3 escalators)(63 p/min/escalator), or 756 people, leaving 1,459 people to be
served by stairs. The total stairway width required to serve these people in 4 minutes
is:
1,459 p
Stairway width = = 229 in. (19.1 ft)
4 min × 1.59 ped/in./m
The Results
Two 10-foot stairways would be required. Evacuation needs, in this case, control
the stairway size.
Although not addressed in this example problem, the evacuation capacity of the
routes from the station’s mezzanine level to the surface would also need to be
evaluated. Further, the maximum time required for a passenger to reach a point of
safety (generally either the surface or a point beyond fire doors) would need to be
evaluated. The NFPA 130 standard provides example calculations for these
situations.
Example Problem 3
The Situation
A new rail station will be constructed below grade with a mezzanine and a single
center platform. The initial concept for the platform level is to connect it to the
mezzanine at two locations: at one end of the platform and halfway down the
platform. A pair of double-width (40-in.) escalators with a stairway in between
would be located at each platform access point. One elevator between each level
would also be provided. Each stair will be 10 feet wide.
The Questions
Based on the estimated demand under typical peak 15-minute conditions, how
wide should the platform be? What would the capacity of the platform be to handle
delayed train conditions?
The Facts
• For the design year, four-car trains are expected to run at 7 to 8 minute
headways (i.e., 8 trains/hour/direction). Each car will be 75 feet long and
will have a maximum schedule load of 200 persons.
• The a.m. peak hour exiting and entering demands are estimated to be 3,200
passengers per hour. The corresponding a.m. peak hour entering demand is
estimated to be 500 p/h. The estimated p.m. peak hour demands are 2,900
p/h entering and 500 p/h exiting.
• During the peak 15 minutes of the a.m. peak hour, the average inbound train
entering the station will have 700 passengers on board, while the average
outbound train will have 300 passengers on board. During the peak 15
minutes of the p.m. peak hour, the average inbound train entering the
station will have 200 passengers on board, and the average outbound train
will have 500 passengers on board.
• The average peak hour factor currently observed on the system is 0.714.
Comments
LOS “C” is a reasonable design level for a station under typical daily conditions.
The NFPA 130 standard(R11) is conservative in its assumptions of the number of
people that will need to be evacuated. The number of people that should be designed
for includes:
• The loads of one train on each track during the peak 15 minutes, assuming
each train is running one headway late (i.e., is carrying twice its normal load,
but no more than a full [maximum schedule] load); and
• Passengers waiting on the platform to board trains during the peak 15
minutes, assuming their trains are running one headway late.
Steps
Design Periods
Peak-hour volumes should be converted to peak 15-minute volumes by
multiplying by the peak hour factor:
Ph
P15 =
4( PHF )
For example, the peak-15-minute exiting volume during the a.m. peak hour is:
3,200
P15 = = 1,120 p
4(0.714)
The corresponding peak-15-minute entering volume is 175 passengers during the
a.m. peak hour. During the p.m. peak-15-minute period, 1,015 passengers will be
entering and 175 passengers will be exiting.
The number of people that may need to be evacuated is based on the train loads
and passengers waiting to board. During the a.m. peak hour, this number is
calculated from the following:
• Inbound train: an average train carries 700 people during the peak 15
this number, or 1,400 people, but only 800 of those people (the maximum
schedule load of a four-car train) would have been able to board the train.
• Outbound train: an average train carries 300 people during the peak 15
this number, or 600 people, which is less than the train’s capacity.
• Waiting on platform: At an average headway of 7.5 minutes between trains in
a given direction, up to half of the entering volume during the peak 15
minutes typically would be present if the trains arrived on schedule.
However, the design should assume that the trains are one headway late
and, therefore, twice the typical number of waiting passengers should be
used. This results in (175)(0.5)(2), or 175 people.
Platform Size
Since arrivals exceed departures at the station in the morning and departures
exceed arrivals in the evening, the peak platform condition in the station will be in
the p.m. peak period when passengers are queuing on the platform to wait for trains.
Therefore, the platform analysis will focus on that period. The steps given in the
section on sizing platforms will be followed:
1. Choose a design pedestrian space. To achieve LOS “C,” at least 7 ft2/p is
required for queuing space (from Exhibit 7-8) and at least 15 ft2/p is required
for walking space (from Exhibit 7-3).
2. Adjust as appropriate for passenger characteristics. No special characteristics
(e.g., passengers with luggage) were identified; therefore, no adjustment is
made in this case.
3. Estimate the maximum passenger queuing demand for the platform. Under typical
conditions, with trains running on schedule, up to 507 passengers would be
on the platform when trains arrived. (A total of 1,015 people enter the station
during the peak p.m. 15 minutes, two trains arrive in each direction during
the 15 minutes, and thus one-half of 1,015 people could be present.)
4. Calculate the required waiting space. Multiplying 507 passengers by 7 ft2/p
results in a required area of 3,549 ft2 under typical conditions. At the end of
this process, non-typical conditions will be checked to make sure
overcrowding will not occur.
5. Calculate the additional walking space required. Circulation area is required for
arriving passengers to walk to the platform exits. This passenger demand is
highly peaked, corresponding to individual train arrivals. During the p.m.
peak 15 minutes, approximately 175 passengers will arrive on four trains.
Approximately 70% of these passengers (500/700) will arrive on the two
outbound trains, or about (175)(0.7)/2 = 61 passengers per outbound train.

At an LOS “C” flow of 15 ft2/p, and assuming that three-quarters of the
passengers from each train would be on the platform simultaneously results
in total walking area of (61)(0.75)(15), or 686 ft2.
6. Calculate the queue storage space required for exit points. From Exhibit 7-20, the
capacity of a double-width escalator is 68 p/min at a typical incline speed of
90 ft/min. As two up escalators will be provided, the capacity provided (136
p/min) is much greater than the maximum p.m. peak demand (58 p/train);
thus no queue should develop. See Example Problem 4 for an example of
how to calculate queue storage space.
7. Consider the additional platform space that will be unused. A typical rail transit
car has multiple doors along its length, minimizing dead areas. However, an
underground station with a center platform will have other unused platform
space, including elevator shafts, stairs and escalators, benches, and
potentially advertising or information displays, trash cans, or pillars. In this
case, a total of 550 ft2 will be assumed to be used by the central stairs and
escalators, the elevator shaft, and assorted benches and displays.
8. Calculate the required buffer zone. A buffer 1.5 ft wide is required on each side
of the platform. Since the platform needs to be 300 ft long to accommodate a
four-car train, and buffers are required on both sides of a center platform,
this results in a total of 900 ft2.
9. Calculate the total platform area. Adding up the results of steps 4 through 8,
and rounding, results in a 5,685 ft2 platform area for LOS “C” conditions.
Based on the initial design concept, the platform would need to be at least 31 feet
wide to accommodate the central stairs (10 ft, from above) and escalators (5 ft each), a
4-ft walkway on either side, and a 1.5-ft buffer zone adjacent to each track. This
would result in a total platform area of 9,300 ft2, which is much more than is
required. (The tracks would typically be parallel through the station, to avoid
creating gaps between the cars and the platform at the car doors.) The width could be
reduced by placing the platform exit and entry escalators and/or the stairs in
separate locations along the platform length.
The platform size can also be evaluated for non-typical situations. For example, if
there was a disruption in service, how long would it take for the platform to become
overcrowded? Based on the initial design concept, a total of (9,300 – 900 – 550 – 686),
or 7,164 ft2 of space is available for queuing passengers, while leaving circulation
space available for arriving passengers. A typical minimum design value for
passenger waiting areas is 5 ft2/p, which allows passengers to wait without touching
one another. At this level of crowding, 1,432 people could be accommodated on the
platform. This is about 40% higher than the peak 15-minute entering demand. At a
minimally tolerable crowding level of 3 ft2/p, about 2,388 people could be
accommodated, representing about 80% of the p.m. peak hour entering demand.
However, most passengers would find this amount of crowding to be uncomfortable,
and it is greater than the design evacuation load of 2,215 people calculated in the
previous example problem (note that this design load evacuation load includes 1,400
passengers requiring evacuation from trains). The transit agency should plan to limit
platform access under either circumstance to limit the amount of crowding.
The Results
The initial design concept appears to produce a wider platform than required to
accommodate either typical or non-typical conditions. Alternative designs could
involve spreading out the exit points to narrow the platform; this would also have
the benefit of shortening the distance to the nearest platform exit.
Example Problem 4
Derived from a problem in Fruin.(R6) The Situation

A subway platform on an urban heavy rail line will be modified to install an up
direction escalator at the center of a subway platform.
The Question
What is the pedestrian queuing and delay for the proposed installation?
The Facts
• Field counts of passengers discharged by the subway trains show that
maximum traffic occurs during a short micro-peak, when two trains arrive
within 2 minutes of each other, carrying 225 and 275 passengers,
respectively.
• The remaining trains in the peak period are on 4-minute headways.
• The platform is 275 meters long, and 4.6 meters wide.
• Field observations of other subway stations in this city with similar
passenger volumes reveal a maximum escalator capacity of 100 p/min (for
the assumed 36.6 m/min, 1-meter-wide escalators in this example), as
opposed to the nominal capacity of 90 p/min/minute given in Exhibit 7-20.
Steps
Construction of the Time Clearance Diagram

1. A graph is constructed (see the figure on the next page), with time, in
minutes, as the horizontal axis, and pedestrians as the vertical axis.
2. The escalator capacity of 100 p/min is then drawn (dashed sloped line).
3. The arrival rate at the escalator is a function of the train discharge time and
walking time required to reach the escalator. If it is assumed that pedestrians
are discharged uniformly along the length of the platform and the escalator
is located in the center of the platform, arrival time can be approximately
represented on the clearance diagram by determining the time required to
walk half the platform length. A commuter walking speed of 91.4 m/min
(300 ft/min) is used in this example.
1/2 platform length 137.5 m
Total arrival time = = = 1.5 min
average walking speed 91.4 m/min
The two train arrivals, with 225 and 275 passengers, are plotted as solid lines
on the diagram.
700
600 LEGEND
2nd Train Arrival

1st Train Arrival
, Total Pedestrian
Waiting Time
500
Arriving Passengers
Cumulative Plot, Arrivals

at Escalator (150 p/min)
400 Cumulative Plot, Escalator

Service Rate (100 p/min)
, Passenger Discharge
300 and Walking Time
3rd Train Arrival

, Maximum Queue
Length
200
, Maximum Ped Wait
Platform Clearance Interval:

100
= +
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Elapsed Time (min)
Maximum Queue Size and Maximum Wait

Assuming that all the passengers will use the escalator and not the stairs, the
clearance diagram illustrates a number of significant facts. The shaded area between
the pedestrian arrival rate (solid line), and the escalator service rate (dashed line),
represents total waiting time.
Dividing the waiting time area by the number of arriving passengers gives
average passenger waiting time. The maximum vertical intercept between these two
lines represents maximum passenger queue length. The maximum horizontal intercept
represents the clearance interval of the platform.
The clearance diagram shows that a maximum queue size of 75 persons would
be generated by the first train arrival, if all persons seek escalator service. It also
shows that 25 persons will still be waiting for the escalator service when the next
train arrives.
The maximum waiting time for escalator service after the first train arrival is 1
minute. The average passenger waiting time is 15 seconds. After the second train
arrival, the maximum waiting and maximum queue size builds up to 1.5 minutes and
150 passengers, respectively. If it is assumed that passengers will divert to the stairs if
the maximum escalator wait exceeds 1 minute, a 1-minute-wide horizontal intercept
on the graph shows that maximum queue size will not likely get larger than 50
persons. This is about the limit observed for low-rise escalators of this type, where
alternative stationary stairs are conveniently available.
Example Problem 5
Derived from a problem in Benz.(R2) The Situation

A new cross passageway (depicted below) will provide access to and from the
ends of platforms at a busy commuter rail terminal that currently has access at one
end only. The passageway is essentially a wide corridor that will run perpendicular
to and above the platforms, with stairs connecting the passageway to each platform.
The cross passageway is connected to the surface at several points.
Vertical
Circulation
to Street
y
wa
a ge
ss
Pa
o ss
Cr
Vertical
Circulation
to Street
The Question
Can the corridor meet the space requirements of both queuing passengers and
circulating passengers within a portion of the cross passageway adjacent to a
departure gate?
The Facts
• Surveys at the station show that passengers departing on trains typically
start to gather in front of a gate about 23 minutes before the train’s scheduled
departure time and assemble at the following rates:
Time Before Departure (min): 20 15 10 5 1
Departing Passengers (% gathered): 9 26 53 86 100
• The maximum accumulation of passengers outside the gate to the train

platform occurs just before the opening of the gate—typically 10 minutes
before train departure when 53% of the passengers leaving on the train are
present. The accumulation of waiting passengers, if large enough, can easily
affect the cross passageway width available to handle longitudinal flow.
• As shown in the figure on the next page, the cross passage way is 140 ft long
with an effective width of 25 ft (i.e., the width actually available for
passenger activities: the wall-to-wall dimension minus the width occupied
by obstructions and columns and the boundary or “cushion” maintained by
pedestrians along walls). During the 1 minute before the opening of the
departure gate, 194 people will be waiting in the cross passageway. The flow
rate of people walking along the corridor during this time is 167 p/min.
To Vertical Circulation Space To Vertical

Circulation Circulation
to Street to Street
Queue Space
Gate Gate Gate
Stairs to Platforms
Platforms
Comments
• The problem is to examine whether the corridor can meet the space
requirements of both queuing passengers and circulating passengers within
a portion of the cross passageway adjacent to a departure gate.
• The analysis period is the 1 minute before the opening of the gate when the
maximum accumulation of waiting passengers will occur.
Steps
With a design criterion of LOS “B,” the average pedestrian queuing area is 10
ft2/ped (see Exhibit 7-8). This classification reflects the unordered (random) nature of
the queue in this space, the need for some circulation and movement within the
queue, and the comfort level expected by commuter rail passengers. The 194 people
waiting will require:
194 p × 10 ft2/p = 1,940 ft2
The shape of the queue has to be estimated in order to determine the portion of
the 25-ft-wide cross passageway that the queue will occupy. For this example, the
waiting passengers, occupying 1,940 ft2 are assumed to be evenly distributed along
the 140-foot linear dimension of the space. Therefore, the queue is expected to require
the following width at the widest point:
1,940 ft 2
= 13.9 ft
140 ft
This leaves 11.1 feet available for the flow of the 167 circulating passengers who
would walk through the cross passageway during the 1-minute peak queue period.
The unit width flow rate available is:
167 p/min
= 15.0 p/ft/min
11.1 ft
The Results
From Exhibit 7-3, this identified pedestrian flow rate equates to LOS “C” to “D.”
In this level of service range, walking speeds and passing abilities are becoming
restricted but are generally considered adequate for peak period conditions. There
will be some conflicts between opposing pedestrian traffic streams.
Example Problem 6
Derived from a study of Town
Hall Station in Sydney, NSW, The Situation
Australia.
A complex urban rail transit station currently experiences congestion during
peak periods and is expected to witness significant ridership growth over the next 20
years. Various improvement and expansion schemes will be developed and tested to
increase the capacity of the station and improve passenger comfort and convenience.
The Question
In order to identify potential improvements within the station, it is desirable to
identify congested areas throughout the station, both on the platforms and on vertical
circulation elements. Alternate station improvement and expansion schemes would
then be laid out and tested in the same manner as the existing configuration.
The Facts
• The station has three levels underground: a concourse level and two
platform levels that each have two platforms and three tracks. As shown in
the following figure, the concourse level includes a paid area surrounded by
a free area lined with narrow retail establishments. The second figure shows
the upper platform level with vertical circulation passing through to reach
the lower platform level. On each level one platform operates as an island
serving two tracks and the other serves the third track.
• Because the station is an important transfer point, it experiences significant
numbers of transfers, including same-track and cross-platform transfers, and
transfers requiring changes between platforms and levels.
• Extensive surveys have been conducted to count the number of people
passing through each entrance and using each vertical circulation element.
Passenger interviews have been conducted to identify patterns of movement
between platforms and the various access points and transfers within the
station.
Station Concourse
Upper Platform Level
Approach
The station is subdivided into discrete circulation zones including areas of the
concourse and platform levels and each of the vertical circulation elements. Zones
and their identifying codes are shown in the concourse and platform plans on the
previous page. Extensive spreadsheets are used to assign peak-period pedestrians
moving between distinct origin and destination points within the station to routes
that either pass through or stay within each zone within the station. Additional
spreadsheets organize data on the area of each zone, distinguish between persons
walking and standing in each zone, and calculate levels of service in each zone.
Due to the extensive nature of this type of analysis, which is only practical with
large spreadsheet models, this example presents the sequence of spreadsheets
applied to the task without showing the lengthy formulas, which, due to extensive
cross-referencing of tables, are only meaningful in the spreadsheet environment.
Steps
Analysis is conducted on a series of custom spreadsheets as follows:
Pedestrian Volumes by Origin and Destination

The station has a total of 16 possible origins and destinations, comprising six
platforms and ten external access/egress points. A pedestrian volume worksheet
presents existing or future forecast volumes between any combination of the 16
origin/destination (O/D) points and any other, including those who transfer from
platform to platform and pedestrians who enter the free area of the concourse, but do
not enter the station. Allowance is also made for those who may transfer to a
different train on the same platform or enter and leave the concourse by the same
door, as a person might do when visiting one of the shops on the concourse.
The data is input into the model in the form of a.m. and p.m. peak 5-minute
origin-destination matrices.
Routing Assignment
This worksheet includes an assignment by percent of people traveling between
each of the 16 origins and destinations (256 combinations) to any of the 171 elements
or zones (resulting in 43,776 assignment cells). Due to a change in direction of two
escalators from the morning to the evening and different use of ticket gates at one
entrance, different assignments are needed for each period. Additional modified
routing assignment tables are required to analyze any proposed physical changes to
the station.
Walk Volumes
This worksheet calculates the pedestrian volumes passing through each zone by
multiplying the origin and destination volumes with the percentage assignment for
each zone.
Walk Time
This worksheet includes the approximate time in seconds to walk through each
analysis zone. Different walk times through a zone, representing different paths, can
be associated to each origin and destination pair. The three typical choices are (1) the
full length of the zone, (2) half the length, either as an average for people who end
their walk in the zone or cut through it diagonally, or (3) a cross measurement that
may be used for particular routes across some zones. Walk time is calculated based
on distance in feet or meters divided by an assumed walking speed of 4.0 ft/s (1.2
m/s).
Dwell Percent
This worksheet indicates the percent of pedestrians passing through a particular
zone that dwell within that zone, either to wait for a train, to purchase a ticket, to
make a purchase, or for other purposes. No dwell time is assumed on stairs,
escalators, or fare control barriers but may be applied to the zones approaching these
elements.
Dwell Time
This worksheet includes an average time in seconds that pedestrians who dwell
in a zone spend there. On platforms it is related to train headways. On a system with
very frequent service where people do not time their arrivals, this will generally be
half the average headway. On a system with less frequent service where passengers
time their arrivals to a train schedule, it will generally be less than half of the average
headway. Appropriate times are also assigned for ticketing, browsing, or other dwell
activities based on observations. A function based on volumes through circulation
elements (turnstiles, stairs, escalators) representing crowding at the approach to these
circulation elements may be added to this worksheet. The dwell time for the zones
prior to the circulation elements, at the base of escalators and stairs, is based on a
function related to the capacity of the element. When the circulation element tends
toward capacity, the dwell times in the prior zones are increased by the formula.
Time-Space Demand
The demand for walk time-space is calculated for each analysis zone by
multiplying pedestrian volumes in each zone by the walk time required and by an
assumed design standard of 1.4 m2 per person. The demand for dwell time-space is
calculated by multiplying pedestrian volumes in each zone by the dwell percent, the
average dwell time, and an assumed dwell space of 0.65 m2 per person. The two are
totaled for a combined time-space demand in each zone.
Level of Service
The operating condition of each zone is assessed by levels of service. Design
capacity for all elements is considered to be the break point between LOS “C” and
“D.” In order to calculate an LOS from a combination of walking and standing, the
time-space demand is converted into a volume-to-design capacity ratio for each zone
or element that is proportional to the LOS standards, as shown in the following table.
Volume-to-Design Capacity Ratios
Level of Service for Walk/Standing Zones for Escalators/Fare Controls
LOS A < 0.4 < 0.6
LOS B 0.4 – 0.6 0.6 – 0.8
LOS C 0.6 – 1.0 0.8 – 1.0
LOS D 1.0 – 1.5 1.0 – 1.1
LOS E 1.5 – 2.8 1.1 – 1.2
LOS F 2.8 + 1.2 +
NOTE: Ratios have no units and may be applied with any units of measure.
The Results
The product of this analysis is an LOS for each platform or mezzanine zone and
each stairway, and a volume-to-capacity ratio for each fare control array and
escalator. To provide a spatial representation of passenger congestion, station plans
can be colored based on the rating for each zone using a geographic information
system or other graphic software. By using a suitable range of colors to represent
free-flow to congested conditions, the relative congestion of areas throughout the
station can be observed.
APPENDIX A: EXHIBITS IN METRIC UNITS
Exhibit 7-1m
100
Pedestrian Speed on Walkways(R6)
90
Walking Speed (m/min)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
2
Pedestrian Space (m /p)
Exhibit 7-2m
100 Pedestrian Flow on Walkways by
Commuter uni-directional Unit Width and Space(R6)
90
Pedestrian Flow (p/m/min)
Commuter bi-directional
80 Shoppers multi-directional
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Pedestrian Space (m2/p)
Exhibit 7-5m
50 Pedestrian Ascent Speed on
45 Stairs(R6)
40
Slope Speed (m/min)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
2
Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-67 Appendix A: Exhibits in Metric Units
Exhibit 7-6m
90
Pedestrian Flow Volumes on
Stairs(R6) 80
Pedestrian Flow (p/m/min)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
2
Appendix A: Exhibits in Metric Units Page 7-68 Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY

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Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual—2nd Edition

CHAPTER 2. STATION TYPES AND CONFIGURATIONS .................................... 7-3

CHAPTER 3. PASSENGER CIRCULATION AND LEVEL OF SERVICE .............. 7-7

Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-i Contents

CHAPTER 4. STATION ELEMENTS AND THEIR CAPACITIES......................... 7-23

Contents Page 7-ii Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY

Ramp Level of Service............................................................................................... 7-40

CHAPTER 5. REFERENCES........................................................................................... 7-49

CHAPTER 6. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS .......................................................................... 7-51

APPENDIX A: EXHIBITS IN METRIC UNITS .......................................................... 7-67

Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY Page 7-iii Contents

Contents Page 7-iv Part 7/STOP, STATION, AND TERMINAL CAPACITY

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CHAPTER 2. STATION TYPES AND CONFIGURATIONS

LIGHT RAIL STATIONS

HEAVY RAIL STATIONS

COMMUTER RAIL STATIONS

FERRY DOCKS AND TERMINALS

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CHAPTER 3. PASSENGER CIRCULATION AND

PEDESTRIAN CIRCULATION CONCEPTS

Pedestrian Capacity Terminology

• Pedestrian time-space: the space normally required by pedestrians for various

Principles of Pedestrian Flow

Pedestrian Level of Service

100 An alternative figure using metric

Effective Walkway Width

An alternative figure using 5

Levels of Service for Walkways

Expected Flows and Speeds Exhibit 7-3

Expected Flows and Speeds

200 Exhibit 7-5

Exhibit 7-7 Avg. Ped. Space Flow per Unit Width

OCCUPANCY IN QUEUING AND WAITING AREAS

Levels of Service for Queuing and Waiting Areas

LEVEL OF SERVICE A Exhibit 7-9

MULTI-ACTIVITY PASSENGER CIRCULATION AREAS

In such cases, the method of pedestrian analysis is referred to as time-space

The approach to applying time-space analysis varies depending on the situation

ACCESS FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

Specific regulations relating to transit stations, including provision of accessible

CLARITY OF STATION LAYOUT AND WAYFINDING

COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF PASSENGER CIRCULATION

Pedestrian System Requirements

Station Free Paid Vertical

Line Haul Transit

Interchange = Function (type of vehicle system)

Comprehensive Passenger Circulation Analysis

Manual Method/Input to Simulation Models

Step 1: Define the System as a Link-Node Network

Step 2: Determine Pedestrian Volumes for the Identified Analysis Period

15 minutes within the peak hour). Origin-destination pairs distinguish between

Step 3: Determine Path Choice

Step 4: Load Inbound Passengers onto the Network

Step 5: Load Outbound Passengers onto the Network

Step 6: Determine Walk Times and Crowding on Links

Step 7: Determine Queuing Times and Crowding at Nodes

Step 8: Determine Wait Times for Transit Vehicles

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