1.

1 Introduction :

Designing Power Factor Correction (PFC) into modern

switched mode power supply (SMPS) has evolved over
the past few years due to the introduction of many new
controller integrated circuits (ICs). Today, it is possible to
design a variety of PFC circuits with different modes of
operation, each with its own set of challenges. As the
number of choices has increased, so has the complexity
of making the choice and then executing the design. In
this Thesis, the consideration and details of operation of a
Buck + Boost type Power Factor Correction Circuit will be
provided.

Power factor correction shapes the input of off line power

supplies to maximize the real power available from the
mains. Ideally, the electrical should present a load that
immolates a pure resistor, in which case the reactive
power drawn by the device is zero. Inherent in this
scenario is that the absence of input current harmonics—
the current is a perfect replica of the input voltage (usually
a sine wave) and is exactly in phase with it. In this case
the current drawn from the mains is at a minimum for the
real power required to perform the needed work, and this
minimizes losses and cost associated not only with the
distribution of the power but also with the generation of
the power and the capital equipment involved in the
process. The freedom from harmonics also minimizes
interference with other devices being powered from the
same source.

1
1.2 What is Power Factor?

Power factor is an energy concept that is related to power

flow in electrical systems. To understand power factor, it
is helpful to understand three different types of power In
electrical systems.

 Real Power is the power that is actually converted

into useful work for creating heat, lightand motion.
Real power is measured in kilowatts (kW) and is
totalized by the electric billing meter in kilowatt-hours
(kWH). An example of real power is the useful work
that directly turns the shaft of a motor.

 Reactive Power is the power used to sustain the

electromagnetic field in inductive and capacitive
equipment. It is the non working power component.
Reactive power is measured in kilovolt-amperes
reactive (kVAR). Reactive power does not appear on
the customer billing statement

 Total Power or Apparent power is the combination of

real power and reactive power. Total power is
measured in kilovolt-amperes (kVA) and is totalized
by the electric billing meter in kilovolt-ampere-hours
(kVAH). Wyandotte Municipal Service provides
generation, transmission and distribution capacity to
supply both real and reactive power to all its
customers.

2
1.3 What does it do to my Electricity Bill ?

In a 3 phase supply, kW consumed is (VOLTS x AMPS x

1.73 x Power Factor) / 1000. The Electricity Company
supply you VOLTS x AMPS and they have to supply extra
to make up for the loss caused by poor Power Factor.
When the power factor falls below a set figure, the
electricity supply companies charge a premium on the kW
being consumed, or, charge for the whole supply as kVA.

1.4 What causes Power Factor to change?

Inductive loads cause the AMPS to lag behind the

VOLTS. The wave forms of VOLTS and AMPS are then
"out of phase" with each other. The more out of phase
they become then the lower the Power Factor. Power
Factor is usually expressed as Cos Phi. (Ø) In 3 phase
power supplies the "power" can be measured as a
triangle. ACTIVE Power is the base line and is the real
usable power measured in kW. REACTIVE power is the
vertical or that part of the supply which causes the
inductive load. The reactive power in is measured in kVAr
(kilo volt-amperes reactive)APPARENT Power is the
hypotenuse. This is the resultant of the other two
components and is measured in kVA

3
1.5 The effects of power factor :
Consider a canal boat being pulled by a horse. If the
horse could walk on water then the angle (Phi) Ø would
be zero and COSINE Ø=1. Meaning all the horse power is
being used to pull the load.
However the relative position of the horse influences the
power. As the horse gets closer to the barge, angle Ø1
increases and power is wasted, but, as the horse is
positioned further away, then angle Ø2 gets closer to zero
and less power is wasted.

4
2.1 Power factor correction :

Power factor is the name given to the ratio of the real or

usable power measured in kilowatts (KW) to the total
power supplied measured in kilo volt-amperes
(KVA).Inductive loads contribute to a reduced power
factor.

Power factor can be corrected by installing power factor

correction capacitors. Capacitors have a parallel but
opposite effect on the power source as the inductive
loads, so the two effects cancel one another. There are
two products categories, static capacitors (lower cost,
appropriate when required correction stays within a
reasonably narrow range) and switching capacitors able
to respond to changing correction requirements when, for
example, significant motors come on and off.

The acceptance of capacitors has been due to the

following:
 Low cost
 Improve to design and manufacturing methods
 Small size and weight
 Development of outdoor, poll-type units and
standardize mounting brackets.
 Less chance of failure
 Better understanding of system benefits

The disadvantages of low power factor can be overcome

to a large extent externally. In fact, it is a practice since
the inception of AC power transmission to install reactive
power compensators, for power factor improvement. The
reactive power factor compensators are external devices,

5
with supply and compensate the lagging reactive power
consumed by the load thereby relieving the burden on AC
supply. These compensators are also known as power
factor correcting devices. The reactive power
compensators are connected across the supply terminals
to relieve the transmission lines from the excess current.
Hence, they are called shunt compensators. Thus the
function of the shunt compensators is to minimize the
voltage fluctuation at given terminal and to improve the
supply power factor by compensating the load reactive
power. In general the problem of compensation by
reactive power compensators is viewed from two aspects.
 Load compensation.
 Voltage support.

6
2.2 Need of Power Factor Improvement :

Reactive power (VAR) compensation or control is an

essential part in a power system to minimize power
transmission losses. To maximize power transmission
capability and to maintain the supply voltage within
desired level.

In an ideal electro energetic system, the voltage and the

frequency in the various point of power distribution must
be constant, presenting only the fundamental component
and near-unity power factor. In particular, these
parameters must be independent of the size and the
characteristics of the consumers load; This can be
obtained only if these loads are equipped with reactive
power compensators to make the network independent
from probable changes that appear in the distribution
points. Compensation of the loads is one of techniques for
the controlling reactive power, so to improve the quality of
the energy in the ac transmission lines; This technique is
generally used for the compensation of individual or a
group of loads.

This has Three essential objectives :

 Power factor correction.

 Improvement of the voltage regulation.
 Load balancing.

It is noted that power factor correction and load balancing

are the desired even when the supply voltage is virtually
constant and independent of the load.

7
Power factor correction is the capacity of generating or
absorbing the reactive power to a load without the use of
the supply. The major industrial loads have an inductive
load ( they absorb reactive power ); Hence the current
tends to go beyond the necessary value to active power
absorption alone. But active power is usually used for the
power conversion, and an excessive load current
represents a loss for the consumers, who not only pays
for the over-dimensioning of the cable but also for the
excess power loss in the cables. The electric companies
do not want to transport the useless reactive power of the
alternators toward the loads, these and the distribution
network can not be used at high efficiency, and the
voltage regulation in the various points becomes
complicated. The pricing used by these electric
companies almost always penalizes the low power factor
of the clients; Hence the development of systems for
Power factor improvement for industrial processes is
necessary.

8
2.2.1 Generalities on power factor correction:

In alternating current circuits, the current absorbed by a

load can be represented by two components:

 The active component IR, in phase with the

supply voltage, is directly related to the output
(and therefore to the part of electric energy
converted into energy of different types:
mechanical energy, light energy, thermal
energy…)

 The reactive component IQ, in quadrature to

the voltage, is used to generate the flow
necessary for the conversion of powers through
the electric or magnetic field and it is index of
the transfer of energy between supply and load.
Without this, there could be no net transfer of
power, for example, thanks to the magnetic
coupling in the core of a transformer or in the air
gap of a motor.

In the most common case, in the presence of ohmic

inductive type loads, the total current I lags with respect
to the active component IR. Therefore, in an electrical
installation, it is necessary to generate and transmit, in
addition to the active power P, a certain reactive power Q,
which is essential for the conversion of the electrical
energy but is not available to the load because exchanged
with the network. The complex of the power generated

9
and transmitted constitutes the apparent power S. Power
factor cosϕ is defined as the ratio between the active
component IR and the total value of the current I; ϕ is the
phase angle between the voltage and the current. For a
given phase voltage V, it results:

10
Table : showing the typical power factors of some
electrical equipment :

Improving the power factor means taking the necessary

steps to increase the power factor in a defined section of
the installation by locally delivering the necessary reactive
power so that the value of the current and consequently of
the power flowing through the upstream network can be
reduced, at the same required output power. In this way,
the lines, the generators and the transformers can be
sized for a lower apparent power.
11
From a strictly technical point of view, a suitably sized
installation can operate properly also in case of a low
power factor; for this reason there aren’t standards
prescribing the precise value of power factor that an
electrical installation should have.

However, improving the power factor is a solution which

allows technical and economic advantages; in fact,
managing an installation with a low cosϕ implies an
increase
of costs for the power supply authority, who consequently
applies a tariff structure which penalizes the withdrawal of
energy with low power factors.

The legislative measures in force in the different countries

allow the national power supply authorities to create a
more or less detailed tariff system; without going deeply
into details, such system is structured so that the
absorbed reactive energy exceeding that corresponding to
a cosϕ equal to 0.9 must be paid according to defined
amounts depending on the voltage level of the supply
(low, medium or high) and on the power factor.

According to the tariff system applied, the consumer can

determine the amount of his own additional charge and
therefore can evaluate the savings on the penalties
to be paid in comparison with the cost of an installation for
power factor correction.

12
2.3 Technical advantages of power factor correction :

As previously mentioned, by correcting the power factor of

an installation supplying locally the necessary reactive

power, at the same level of required output power, it is

possible to reduce the current value and consequently the
total power absorbed on the load side; this implies
numerous advantages, among which a better utilization of
electrical machines (generators and transformers) and of
electrical lines (transmission and distribution lines). In the
case of sinusoidal waveforms, the reactive power
necessary to pass from one power factor cosϕ1 to a
power factor cosϕ2 is given by the relation (valid for both
three-phase as well as single-phase systems) :

13
where:
• P is the active power;
• Q1, ϕ1 are the reactive power and the phase
displacement
angle before power factor correction;
• Q2, ϕ2 are the reactive power and the phase
displacement
angle after power factor correction;
• Qc is the reactive power for power factor correction.

Example :

Suppose we wish to increase from 0.8 to 0.93 the power

factor in a three-phase plant (Un=400 V) absorbing an
average power of 300 kW.

The absorbed current shall be:

By applying the formula previously described, the reactive

power to be locally generated by Qc can be obtained :

Due to the effect of power factor correction, the absorbed

current decreases from 540 A to :

14
For what said above, the main advantages of power factor
correction can be summarized as follows:

• better utilization of electrical machines;

• better utilization of electrical lines;
• reduction of losses;
• reduction of voltage drops.

2.3.1 Better utilization of electrical machines :

Generators and transformers are sized according to the

apparent power S. At the same active power P, the
smaller the reactive power Q to be delivered, the smaller
the apparent power. Thus, by improving the power factor
of the installation, these machines can be sized for a
lower apparent power, but still deliver the same active
power.

As an example, Table shows the variation of the

transmissible power for MV/LV three-phase transformers
as a function of the cosϕ of the load.

15
From the above table it results that to supply 170 kW total
power with cosϕ=0.7 to a series of loads, a 250 kVA
transformer must be used. If the loads absorbed the same
power with cosϕ=0.9, instead of 0.7, it would be sufficient
to use a 200 kVA transformer. The same is valid also for
generators.

16
2.3.2 Better utilization of electrical lines :

Power factor correction allows to obtain advantages also

for cable sizing. In fact, as previously said, at the same
output power, by increasing the power factor the current
diminishes. This reduction in current can be such as to
allow the choice of conductors with lower cross sectional
area.

To make it clear through a practical example, take into

consideration a load requiring a power Pn equal to 170
KW with cosϕ = 0.7, at a voltage Un= 400 V; the absorbed
current I(0.7) is:

When choosing a copper single-core cable with EPR

insulation, installed flat on a perforated tray, under
standard
conditions, a cross sectional area of 120 mm2 shall be
necessary. By locally correcting the power factor so as to
obtain a cosϕ value of 0.9, the required current shall be :

With this value of current, the cable can have a cross

sectional area of 70 mm2.

17
Table : Current carrying capacity copper single core
cables on perforated tray

18
2.3.3 Reduction of losses :

The power losses of an electric conductor depend on the

resistance of the conductor itself and on the square of the
current flowing through it; since, with the same value of
transmitted active power, the higher the cosϕ, the lower
the current, it follows that when the power factor rises, the
losses in the conductor on the supply side of the point
where the power factor correction has been carried out
will decrease.
In a three-phase system the losses are expressed as
follows :

since :

where:

• I is the current flowing through the conductor;

• R is the resistance of the conductor;
• S is the apparent power required by the load;
• P is the active power required by the load;
• Q is the reactive power required by the load;
• Un is the rated supply voltage.

The reduction in the losses Δp after power factor

correction
is given by :

19
where:

• p1 are the losses before power factor correction;

• cosϕ1 is the power factor before power factor correction;
• cosϕ2 is the power factor after power factor correction.

From the last formula it results that, for example, by

increasing the power factor from 0.7 to 0.9, about 39.5%
saving on losses is obtained. Table 2.3 shows the saving
on losses obtained by increasing the power factor from an
initial cosϕ1 to the final value of 0.9 and 0.95.

By improving the power factor, a reduction of power

losses is obtained in all the parts of the installation
upstream the point where the power factor has been
improved.

20
2.3.4 Reduction of voltage drop :

The drop of the line-to-line voltage in a three-phase line

can be expressed as follows:

where:
• R and X are respectively the resistance and the
reactance of the line;
• P is the transmitted active power;
• I is the current;
• Un is the rated voltage.

At the same level of transmitted active power, the voltage

drop shall be the smaller, the higher the power factor. As it
can be noticed in the following figures showing the
diagrams of the phase voltage drop ΔV, the smaller the
phase displacement angle ϕ between voltage and current
(with the same active component of the load current and
therefore with the same active power) the smaller the
voltage variation; moreover, this variation is minimum if
there is no reactive power absorption (current in phase).

Fig : phasor diagram without power factor correction displaying the voltage
drop

21
 on the line.

Fig : phasor diagram with total power factor correction displaying the voltage
drop on the line in case of a purely ohmic load.

22
2.4 Economic advantages of power factor correction :

Power supply authorities apply a tariff system which

imposes penalties on the drawing of energy with a
monthly average power factor lower than 0.9. The
contracts applied are different from country to country and
can vary also according to the typology of costumer : as a
consequence, the following remarks are to be considered
as a mere didactic and indicative information aimed at
showing the economic saving which can be obtained
thanks to the power factor correction. Generally speaking,
the power supply contractual clauses require the payment
of the absorbed reactive energy when the power factor is
included in the range from 0.7 and 0.9, whereas nothing is
due if it is higher than 0.9. For cosϕ < 0.7 power supply
authorities can oblige consumers to carry out power factor
correction. It is to be noted that having a monthly average
power factor higher than or equal to 0.9 means requesting
from the network a reactive energy lower than or equal to
50% of the active energy:

Therefore no penalties are applied if the requirements for

reactive energy do not exceed 50% of the active one. The
cost that the consumer bears on a yearly base when
drawing a reactive energy exceeding that corresponding
to a power factor equal to 0.9 can be expressed by the
following relation:

23
where:
• CEQ is the cost of the reactive energy per year in €;
• EQ is the reactive energy consumed per year in kvarh;
• EP is the active energy consumed per year in kWh;
• EQ - 0.5 · Ep is the amount of reactive energy to be
paid;
• c is the unit cost of the reactive energy in €/kvarh.

If the power factor is corrected at 0.9 not to pay the

consumption of reactive energy, the cost of the capacitor
bank and of the relevant installation will be:

where:
• CQc is the yearly cost in € to get a power factor equal to
0.9;
• Qc is the power of the capacitor bank necessary to have
a cosϕ of 0.9, in kvar;
• cc is the yearly installation cost of the capacitor bank in
€/kvar.

The saving for the consumer shall be:

It is necessary to note that the capacitor bank represents

an “installation cost” to be divided suitably for the years of
life of the installation itself applying one or more economic
coefficients; in the practice, the savings obtained by
correcting the power factor allow the payback of the

24
installation cost of the capacitor bank within the firstyears
of use.
Example :

A company absorbs active and reactive energy according

to table :

By assuming a unit cost of the reactive energy equal to

0.0421 €/kvarh, the total cost per year is:

CEQ = (EQ- 0.5 · Ep) · c = (79405 - 0.5 · 93746) · 0.0421

=1370 €

25
Table : showing the reactive power necessary to
increase the power factor up to 0.9 :

If an automatically-controlled capacitor bank for power

factor correction with Qc=30 kvar, against a total
installation cost per year cc of 25 €/kvar, a total cost of
750 € is obtained. The saving for the consumer, without
keeping into account the payback and the financial
charges, shall be:

CEQ - CQc = 1370 - 750 = 620 €

26
2.5 Types of power factor correction :

In the previous chapters the technical and economic

advantages of power factor correction have been
discussed.
Now it is important to understand where the capacitors are
to be installed for a better exploitation of such advantages.
There are no general rules applicable to every type of
installation and, in theory, capacitors can be installed at
any point, but it is necessary to evaluate the relevant
practical and economical feasibility.

According to the location modalities of the capacitors, the

main methods of power factor correction are:

 Distributed power factor correction.

 Group power factor correction.
 Centralized power factor correction.
 Combined power factor correction.
 Automatic power factor correction.

27
2.5.1 Distributed power factor correction :

Distributed power factor correction is achieved by

connecting a capacitor bank properly sized directly to
theterminals of the load which demands reactive power.
The installation is simple and inexpensive; capacitor and
load can use the same protective devices against
overcurrents and are connected and disconnected
simultaneously.
This type of power factor correction is advisable in the
case of large electrical equipment with constant load and
power and long connection times and it is generally used
for motors and fluorescent lamps.

Fig : the common connection diagrams for the power factor correction of
motors.

In case of direct connection (diagrams 1 and 2), the

following
risk may be run: after the disconnection from the supply,
the motor will continue to rotate (residual kinetic energy)
and self-excite with the reactive energy drawn from the
capacitor bank, and may turn into an asynchronous

28
generator. In this case, the voltage on the load side of the
switching and control device is maintained, with the risk of
dangerous over voltages (up to twice the rated voltage
value). When using diagram 3, the compensation bank is
connected only after the motor has been started and
disconnected in advance with respect to the switching off
of the motor supply. With this type of power factor
correction the network on the supply side of the load
works with a high power factor; on the other hand, this
solution results economically onerous.

2.5.2 Group power factor correction :

It consists in improving locally the power factor of groups

of loads having similar functioning characteristics by
installing a dedicated capacitor bank. This is the method
reaching a compromise between the inexpensive solution
and the proper management of the installation since the
benefits deriving from power factor correction shall be felt
only by the line upstream the point where the capacitor
bank is located .

29
2.5.3 Centralized power factor correction :

The profile of loads connected during the day has a

primary importance for the choice of the most convenient
type of power factor correction. For installations with many
loads, where not all the loads function simultaneously
and/or some loads are connected for just a few hours a
day, it is evident that the solution of distributed power
factor correction becomes too onerous since many of the
installed capacitors stay idle for a long time. Therefore the
use of one compensation system only located at the origin
of the installation allows a remarkable reduction of the
total power of the installed capacitors.

In centralized power factor correction automatic

assemblies are normally used (see below automatic
power factor correction) with banks divided into steps,
installed directly in the main distribution boards; the use of
a permanently connected bank is possible only if the
absorption of reactive energy is quite constant all day
long. The centralized solution allows an optimization of the
costs of the capacitor bank, but presents the disadvantage
that the distribution lines on the load side of the power

30
factor correction device shall be sized keeping into
account the full reactive power absorbed by the loads.

2.5.4 Combined power factor correction :

This solution derives from a compromise between the two

solutions of distributed and centralized power factor
correction and it exploits the advantages they offer. In
such way, the distributed compensation is used for high
power electrical equipment and the centralized modality
for the remaining part. Combined power factor correction
is prevailingly used in installations where large equipment
only are frequently used; in such circumstances their
power factor is corrected individually, whereas the power
factor of small equipment is corrected by the centralized
modality.

2.5.5 Automatic power factor correction :

In most installations there is not a constant absorption of

reactive power for example due to working cycles for
which machines with different electrical characteristics are
used. In such installations there are systems for automatic
power factor correction which, thanks to a monitoring
varmetric device and a power factor regulator, allow the
automatic switching of different capacitor banks, thus
following the variations of the absorbed reactive power

31
and keeping constant the power factor of the installation
constant.

An automatic compensation system is formed by:

 Some sensors detecting current and voltage signals.

 An intelligent unit which compares the measured
power
factor with the desired one and operates the
connection
and disconnection of the capacitor banks with the
necessary reactive power (power factor regulator).
 An electric power board comprising switching and
protection devices
 Some capacitor banks.

To supply a power as near as possible to the

demanded
one, the connection of the capacitors is implemented step
by step with a control accuracy which will be the greater
the more steps are foreseen and the smaller the
difference is between them.

32
2.6 Calculation of the power factor :

For the dimensioning of the capacitor bank to be installed

in order to improve the power factor of a plant, it is
necessary to calculate correctly the power factor
according to the consumption or to the load cycle of the
plant; this in order to avoid the intake of excess reactive
energy, which is a condition normally forbidden by power
supply authorities. To carry out distributed or group power
factor correction, it is necessary to calculate the cosϕ of
the single load or of the group of loads (factory areas); this
can be carried out as follows:

 directly, through direct measuring by means of a

powerfactor meter.
 indirectly, through the reading of the active and
reactiveenergy meters

The power-factor meter is a measuring instrument able to

display the power factor cosϕ according to which the load
is absorbing energy. The reading of the instrument shall
be carried out in different moments of the load cycle, so
that an average power factor value can be obtained.

If the readings of the active and reactive energy absorbed

by the load or by the whole of the loads constituting the
factory areas during a work cycle are available, the
average power factor can be calculated as follows :

33
where:

• EPi and EQi are the values of active and reactive

energy
read at the beginning of the work cycle;
• EPf and EQf are the values of active and reactive
energy read at the end of the work cycle.
To carry out a centralized power factor correction, the
average monthly power factor can be obtained as
previously
illustrated or directly from the bills of the power supply
authority.

34
3.1 Capacitors for power-factor improvement :

Whatever the power factor is, however, the generating

authority must install machines capable of delivering a
particular voltage and current even though, in a particular
case, not all the voltage and current products is being put
to good use. The generators must be able to withstand the
rated voltage and current regardless of the power
delivered. For example, if an alternator is rated to deliver
1000A at 11000 volts, the machine coils must be capable
of carrying rated current. The apparent power of such a
machine is 11 M V A and if the load power factor is unit
this 11 MVA will be delivered and used as 11 MW of
active power i.e. the alternator is being used to the best of
its ability. If, however, the load power factor is say, 0.8
lagging, then only 8.8 MW are taken and provide revenue,
even though the generator still has to be rated at 1000A at
11 kV. The lower the power factor, the worse the situation
becomes from the supply authorities’ viewpoint.
Accordingly, consumers are encouraged to improve their
load power factor and in many cases are penalized if they
do not. Improving the power factor means reducing the
angle of lag between supply voltage and supply current

35
It can be seen from the diagram that, voltage being
constant, reduction in supply current means reduction in
kVA load, that is the demand; the kVA approaches the kW
as the angle between them is progressively reduced,
which is ideal. This can be achieved by supplying the
required leading RKVA, to wipe out the inductive KVA, by
connecting capacitor banks. Hence all industries employ
capacitor banks.

To calculate the capacitance required in RKVA, a simple

numerical multiplier can be derived, as shown below:

From the sketch the following formula can be derived:

Capacitance required in kVAr = Average Max. demand

* Average P.F.*(tanΦ1 – TanΦ2)

Or,

Cap. Reqd. kVAr = M.D. * P.F. * (Tan (Cos -1 Present

P.F.) – Tan (Cos-1 Preferred P.F.)

36
3.2 Banks of static capacitors :

A capacitor is a passive dipole consisting of two

conductingsurfaces called plates, isolated from one
another by a dielectric material.

The system thus obtained is impregnated to prevent the

penetration of humidity or of gas pockets which could
cause electrical discharges.

The last generation capacitors are dry-type and

undergoes a specific treatment which improve their
electrical characteristics.Using dry-type capacitors there is
no risk of pollution because of the incidental leak of the
impregnating substance.

37
According to the geometry of the metal plates, it is
possible to have:

 Plane capacitors.
 Cylindrical capacitors.
 Spherical capacitors.

The main parameters which characterize a capacitor

are:

 The rated capacitance Cn: the value obtained from

the rated values of power, voltage and frequency of
the capacitor.
 The rated power Qn: the reactive power for which
the capacitor has been designed
 The rated voltage Un: the r.m.s. value of the
alternating voltage for which the capacitor has been
designed.
 The rated frequency fn: the frequency for which the
capacitor has been designed.

38
When an alternating voltage is applied across the plates,
the capacitor is subjected to charge and discharge cycles,
during which it stores reactive energy (capacitor charge)
and injects such energy into the circuit to which it is
connected (capacitor discharge).
Such energy is given by the following relation:

where:

• C is the capacitance;
• U is the voltage applied to the terminals of the capacitor.

Because of their capability of storing and delivering

energy, capacitors are used as basic element for the
realization of power factor correction banks (for all voltage
levels) and of static devices for the regulation of reactive
power.

In particular, the power factor correction capacitors used

for low voltage applications are constituted by singlephase
components of metalized polypropylene film and can be of
the self-healing type. In these capacitors, the dielectric
part damaged by a discharge is capable of self-restoring;
in fact, when such situations occur, the part of the
polypropylene film affected by the discharge evaporates
due to the thermal effect caused by the discharge itself,
thus restoring the damaged part.

39
3.3 Location of power-factor improvement capacitor
banks:

Any installation including the following types of machinery

or equipment, is likely to have low power factor which can
be corrected, with a consequent saving in charges, by
way of reduced demand charges, lesser low power factor
penalties:

 Induction motors of all types (which from by far the

greatest industrial load on a. c. mains).
 Power thyristor installation (for d.c. motor control and
electro-chemical processes).
 Power transformers and voltage regulators.
 Welding machines
 Electric-arc and induction furnaces.
 Choke coils and magnetic system.
 neon sins and fluorescent lighting.

The actual power factor can vary from installation to

installation. Apart from penalties like maximum demand
charges, penalty for low power factor, the factory cabling
and supply equipment can be relieved of a considerable
wattles or reactive load, which will enable additional
machinery to be connected to the supply without enlarging
these services. Additionally, the voltage drop in the
system is reduced.

The method employed to achieve the improvements

outlined involves introducing reactive kVA (kvar) into the
system in phase opposition to the wattles or reactive
current mentioned above the effectively cancels its effect
in the system. This is achieved either with rotary machines
(synchronous condensers) or static capacitors.

40
It is usually found that the expense of correcting a low per
factor by means of static capacitors is less than the saving
effected in the first 18 months; subsequent annual savings
are there after clear profit.

3.3.1 The points to be considered in any installation

are:

1. Reliability of the equipment to be installed.

2. Probable life.
3. Capital cost.
4. Maintenance cost.
5. Running Costs.
6. Space required and ease of installation.

3.4 Individual correction:

Where loads consist of reasonably-sized motors, say 7.5

kW and above, operating with a low-diversity factor, or
where there are special drives running continuously, then
individual correction of each motor can be considered.
The main advantage of individual correction is that both
motor and capacitor are switched as one unit and no
additional control gear is required for control of the
capacitor.

Apart from reducing the demand, which is separately

charged by the power utilities, it can be seen that the
current drawn is reduced by applying capacitors and
41
improving power factor; and consequently, the l2R losses
in the distribution elements, i.e., cables, transformers,
busses etc.,
Hence, the most appropriate location at which the
capacitor bank to be installed is as near as possible to the
inductive loads, mainly the motors, If not possible due to
environment or areas classifications, they have to be
installed at the nearest distribution board.

3.4.1 Individual power factor correction of motors:

As seen, the best location of connecting the capacitor

bank is across the terminal of an induction motor, but care
should be taken in deciding the kVAr rating of the
capacitor in relation to the magnetizing kVA of the
machine. If the rating is too high, damage may result to
both motor and capacitor, as the motor, while still
revolving after disconnection from the supply, may act as
a generator by self excitation and produce a voltage
higher than the supply voltage. If the motor is switched on
again before the speed has fallen to about 80% of the
normal running speed, the high voltage will be
superimposed on the supply circuits and there may be a
risk of damaging other types of equipment. As a general
rule the correct size of capacitor for individual correction of
a motor should have a kvar rating not exceeding 85% of
the normal no load magnetizing k VA of the machine.
However, 85% does not constitute an invariable rule, and
for slip-ring motors and direct-on-line started squirrel cage
motors on drives which never entail running over
synchronous speed, the figure may be exceeded,
although never beyond 90%.

42
3.5 Power losses in capacitors – The dielectric loss:

In practice, every dielectric excepting vacuum, has some

resistance, which allows a small current in phase with the
supply voltage pass through, an consume power, this is
known as dielectric loss.When the dielectric of a capacitor
is a vacuum, no losses take place in it, and the current
taken by a capacitor leads the applied voltage by exactly
90o, the power being zero. With any other dielectric,
however, there is a loss, known as the dielectric loss,
which has the result that the current does not lead the
voltage by the full 90o. The phase angle by which the lead
falls short 90o is called the loss angle. If this angle is
represented by the sign δ, then the phase angle is (90 o –
δ) and the power factor of the capacitor is cot. (90- δ),
which equals tan g. Because of the small value of the
angle g, the loss factor is normally referred to as ‘tan δ’.
The current taken by a capacitor is equal to l = s CV, and
the power absorbed by a capacitor is equal to VI cos δ
which is equal to VI tan δ (as shown in figure) for low
values of δ, below 0.1.
The dielectric absorption may be considered to be
equivalent to a low resistor in series with the capacitor or
a high resistance parallel shunt in the capacitor; these are
related by the equation.

rCw = 1/RCw

Where r is the low series resistance and R the high

parallel resistance. Losses in power capacitors are
expressed in terms of watts per Kvar, e.g. tan g = 0.0006,
loss = 0.6 watts/kvar. Since our aim is to reduce the
losses or increase the utilization of the available power to

43
the maximum, we have to select capacitors with lowest
power loss. While ordering the capacitors, we have to
insist on test certificate from the vendors specifying this
loss.

3.6 MPP Film:

With the promotion of electronics in the country metalized

film came to be used for manufacture of electronic
capacitors. In this case, PP film was neutralized with a
thin layer of aluminium deposited on one side under
vacuum, so that the need for separate aluminum foil was
totally eliminated.

3.6.1 Advantages of MPP Film :

1. High dielectric strength of PP film:

The voltage stress that PP film can withstand is 45V to

60V per micron, a Pp film of 10 micron thickness will be
adequate for low voltage applications up to 440V. If paper
were to be used instead with dielectric strength of almost
50% a thickness of 20 micron paper will be required for
the same purpose.
Because of reduction in thickness due to use of P film, the
capacitor becomes much smaller in size for the same
output.

2. High temperature with standability:

44
While paper can withstand temperature up to about 85
degree C. polypropylene can withstand temperature up to
115 degree C.

3. Low dielectric loss:

While mixed dielectric capacitors employing paper have

dielectric losses ranging from 1.8 to 2.5 watts/ kVAr,
polypropylene capacitors have losses ranging from 0.4 to
0.8 watts/ kVAr.

4. Low weight and compact size:

Polypropylene film due to its lower thickness being much

lighter than paper, and aluminium foil of 6 micron
thickness normally used being substituted by an
aluminium deposit of 0.2 micron thickness, the total weight
of each winding for the same number of turn is
considerably reduced. As a result, the total size and
weight of the capacitor with MPP technology as compared
to mixed dielectric technology is hardly 30%.

5. Self-healing property:
Because of these advantage, capacitors of MPP
technology have totally replaced capacitors of mixed
dielectric design and are more readily accepted by
customers due to their fail-safe operation and easy site
repairs if at all any outage takes place.

45
3.6.2 Technical specifications of MPP L.T. capacitors:

a) MPP capacitors are self healing type where in any

internal fault will be removed by self-healing, thereby
reducing the output to a very small extent, keeping
the balance unit intact.
b) With use of CRCA metal container and oil
impregnate, better cooling is achieved for 5KVAr
units, since temperature rise is limited, use of oil is
not considered necessary.
c) Power losses are much lower.

3.7 Capacitors and Capacitor Banks :

The basic construction of a capacitor.
Power capacitors consist of a number of basic elements
which are constructed by winding two layers of aluminium
foil interleaved by several layers of tissue, paper of mixed
dielectric of paper and plastics film.

In the actual winding process two aluminium foils are

would on the mandrel with one dielectric between the foils
and one of the outside of one foil. This ensures that a foil
will always be adjacent, in either direction, to a dielectric.

Two alternative methods of construction of the capacitor

element are possible.

(1) If the element is wound with aluminum foils, which

protrude beyond the edge of the dielectric, it is referred to
as an extended – foil element.

46
(2) If the foils remain within the width of the dielectric it is
called a buried – foil element. In the case of the extended
foils the layer of foil are ‘staggered’ to permit connections
to be made to the foil, after winding. In the case or the
buried-foil winding, tinned copper tabs are inserted during
the winding process to enable connections to be made.

3.7.1 Shunt Capacitor Bank:

Shunt capacitor banks (SCB) are mainly installed to

provide capacitive reactive compensation/ power factor
correction. The use of SCB s has increased because they
are relatively inexpensive, easy and quick to install and
can be deployed virtually anywhere in the network. Its
installation has other beneficial effects on the system such
as: improvement of the voltage at the load, better voltage
regulation (if they were adequately designed), reduction of
losses and reduction or postponement of investments in
transmission.

The main disadvantage of SCB is that its reactive power

output is proportional to the square of the voltage and
consequently when the voltage is low and the system
need them most, they are the least efficient.

47
3.7.1.1 The capacitor unit & bank configuration:

The capacitor unit, Fig. 1, is the building block of a shunt

capacitor bank. The capacitor unit is made up of individual
capacitor elements, arranged in parallel/ series connected
groups, within a steel enclosure. The internal discharge
device is a resistor that reduces the unit residual voltage
to 50V or less in 5 min. Capacitor units are available in a
variety of voltage ratings (240 V to 24940V) and sizes (2.5
kvar to about 1000 kvar).

48
3.7.1.2 Capacitor unit capabilities:

These standards stipulate that:

 Capacitor units should be capable of continuous
operation up to 110% of rated terminal rms voltage
and a crest voltage not exceeding 1.2 x √2 of rated
rms voltage, including harmonics but excluding
transients. The capacitor should also be able to carry
135% of nominal current.
 Capacitors units should not give less than 100% nor
more than 115% of rated reactive power at rated
sinusoidal voltage and frequency.
 Capacitor units should be suitable for continuous
operation at up to 135%of rated reactive power
caused by the combined effects of:
 Voltage in excess of the nameplate rating at
fundamental frequency, but not over 110% of rated
rms voltage.
 Harmonic voltages superimposed on the
fundamental frequency.
 Reactive power manufacturing tolerance of up to
115% of rated reactive power

49
3.7.1.3 Bank Configurations:

The use of fuses for protecting the capacitor units and it

location (inside the capacitor unit on
each element or outside the unit) is an important subject
in the design of SCBs. They also affect
the failure mode of the capacitor unit and influence the
design of the bank protection. Depending
on the application any of the following configurations are
suitable for shunt capacitor banks:

a) Externally Fused
An individual fuse, externally mounted between the
capacitor unit and the capacitor bank fuse bus, typically
protects each capacitor unit. The capacitor unit can be
designed for a relatively high voltage because the external
fuse is capable of interrupting a high-voltage fault. Use of
capacitors
with the highest possible voltage rating will result in a
capacitive bank with the fewest number of series groups.
A failure of a capacitor element welds the foils together
and short circuits the other capacitor elements connected
in parallel in the same group. The remaining capacitor
elements in the unit remain in service with a higher
voltage across them than before the failure and an
increased in
capacitor unit current. If a second element fails the
process repeats itself resulting in an even higher voltage
for the remaining elements. Successive failures within the
same unit will make the fuse to operate, disconnecting the
capacitor unit and indicating the failed one. Externally
fused SCBs are configured using one or more series
groups of parallel-connected capacitor units per phase
The available unbalance signal level decreases as the
number
50
of series groups of capacitors is increased or as the
number of capacitor units in parallel per series group is
increased. However, the kiloVar rating of the individual
capacitor unit may need to be smaller because a minimum
number of parallel units are required to allow the bank to
remain
in service with one fuse or unit out.

b) Internally Fused
Each capacitor element is fused inside the capacitor unit.
The fuse is a simple piece of wire enough to limit the
current and encapsulated in a wrapper able to withstand
the heat produced by the arc. Upon a capacitor element
failure, the fuse removes the affected element only. The
other
elements, connected in parallel in the same group, remain
in service but with a slightly higher voltage across them.
illustrates a typical capacitor bank utilizing internally fused
capacitor units. In general, banks employing internally
fused capacitor units are configured with fewer capacitor
units in parallel and more series groups of units than are
used in banks employing externally fused capacitor units.

51
The capacitor units are normally large because a
complete unit is not expected to fail.

c) Fuseless Shunt Capacitor Banks:

The capacitor units for fuse less capacitor banks are
identical to those for externally fused described above. To
form a bank, capacitor units are connected in series
strings between phase and neutral, shown in The
protection is based on the capacitor elements (within the
unit) failing in a shorted mode, short- circuiting the group.
When the capacitor element fails it welds and the
capacitor unit
remains in service. The voltage across the failed capacitor
element is then shared among all the remaining capacitor
element groups in the series. For example, is there are 6
capacitor units in series and each unit has 8 element
groups in series there is a total of 48 element groups in
series. If one capacitor element fails, the element is
shortened and the voltage on the remaining elements is
48/47 or about a 2% increase in the voltage. The
capacitor bank continues in service; however, successive
failures of elements will lead to the removal of the bank.
52
The fuseless design is not usually applied for system
voltages less than about 34.5 kV. The reason is that there
shall be more than 10 elements in series so that the bank
does not have to be removed from service for the failure
of one element because the voltage across the remaining
elements would increase by a factor of about E (E – 1),
where E is the number of elements in the string. The
discharge energy is small because no capacitor units are
connected directly in parallel. Another advantage of
fuseless banks is that the unbalance protection does not
have to be delayed to coordinate with the fuses.

3.7.1.4 Capacitor Bank Design :

53
The protection of shunt capacitor banks requires
understanding the basics of capacitor bank design and
capacitor unit connections. Shunt capacitors banks are
arrangements of series/ paralleled connected units.
Capacitor units connected in paralleled make up a group
and series connected groups form a single-phase
capacitor bank.
As a general rule, the minimum number of units
connected in parallel is such that isolation of one capacitor
unit in a group should not cause a voltage unbalance
sufficient to place more than 110% of rated voltage on the
remaining capacitors of the group. Equally, the minimum
number of
series connected groups is that in which the complete
bypass of the group does not subject the others remaining
in service to a permanent overvoltage of more than 110%.

The maximum number of capacitor units that may be

placed in parallel per group is governed by a different
consideration. When a capacitor bank unit fails, other
capacitors in the same parallel group contain some
amount of charge. This charge will drain off as a high
frequency transient current that flows through the failed
capacitor unit and its fuse. The fuse holder and the failed
capacitor unit should withstand this discharge transient.

The discharge transient from a large number of paralleled

capacitors can be severe enough to rupture the failed
capacitor unit or the expulsion fuse holder, which may
result in damage to adjacent units or cause a major bus
fault within the bank. To minimize the probability of failure
of the expulsion fuse holder, or rupture of the capacitor
case, or both, the standards impose a limit to the total
54
maximum energy stored in a paralleled connected group
to 4659 kVar. In order not to violate this limit, more
capacitor groups of a lower voltage rating connected in
series with fewer units in parallel per group may be a
suitable solution. However, this may reduce the sensitivity
of the unbalance detection scheme. Splitting the bank
into 2 sections as a double Y may be the preferred
solution and may allow for better unbalance detection
scheme. Another possibility is the
use of current limiting fuses

The optimum connection for a SCB depends on the best

utilization of the available voltage ratings of capacitor
units, fusing, and protective relaying. Virtually all
substation banks are connected wye. Distribution
capacitor banks, however, may be connected wye or
delta. Some banks use an H configuration on each of the
phases with a current transformer in the connecting
branch to detect the unbalance.

3.7.2 Grounded Wye-Connected Banks :

55
Grounded wye capacitor banks are composed of series
and parallel-connected capacitor units per phase and
provide a low impedance path to ground. Fig. 5 shows
typical bank arrangements.
Advantages of the grounded capacitor banks include:
• Its low-impedance path to ground provides inherent self-
protection for lightning surge currents and give some
protection from surge voltages. Banks can be operated
without surge arresters taking advantage of the capability
of the capacitors to absorb the surge.
• Offer a low impedance path for high frequency currents
and so they can be used as filters in systems with high
harmonic content. However, caution shall be taken to
avoid resonance between the SCB and the system.
• Reduced transient recovery voltages for circuit breakers
and other switching equipment. Some drawbacks for
grounded wye SCB are:
• Increased interference on telecom circuits due to
harmonic circulation.

• Phase series reactors are required to reduce voltages

appearing on the CT secondary due to the effect of high
frequency, high amplitude currents.

56
3.7.3 Multiple Units in Series Phase to Ground –
Double Wye :

When a capacitor bank becomes too large, making the

parallel energy of a series group too great (above 4650
kvar) for the capacitor units or fuses, the bank may be
split into two wye sections. The characteristics of the
grounded double wye are similar to a grounded single wye
bank. The two neutrals should be directly connected with
a single connection to ground. The double Wye design
allows a secure and faster unbalance protection with a
simple uncompensated relay because any system zero
sequence component affects both wyes equally, but a
failed capacitor unit will appear as un unbalanced in the
neutral. Time coordination may be required to allow a
fuse, in or on a failed capacitor unit, to blow. If it is a fuse
less design, the time delay may be set short because no
fuse coordination is required. If the current through the
string exceeds the continuous current capability of the
capacitor unit, more strings shall be added in parallel.

3.7.4 Delta-connected Banks :

57
Delta-connected banks are generally used only at
distributions voltages and are configured with a single
series group of capacitors rated at line-to-line voltage.
With only one series group of units no over voltage occurs
across the remaining capacitor units from the isolation of a
faulted
capacitor unit. Therefore, unbalance detection is not
required for protection and they are not treated further in
this paper.

3.7.5 H Configuration :

Some larger banks use an H configuration in each phase

with a current transformer connected between the two
legs to compare the current down each leg. As long as all
capacitors are normal, no current will flow through the
current transformer. If a capacitor fuse operates, some
current will flow through the current transformer. This
bridge connection can be very sensitive. This
arrangement is used on large banks with many capacitor
units in parallel.

3.8 Switching and protection of Capacitor bank :

The protection of SCB’s involves: a) protection of the bank

against faults occurring within the bank including those
inside the capacitor unit; and, b) protection of the bank
against system disturbances and faults. This paper only
discusses relay based protection schemes that provide
alarm to indicate an unbalance within the bank and initiate
a shutdown of the bank in case of faults that may lead to

58
catastrophic failures. It does not deal with the means and
strategies to protect individual elements or capacitor units.
The protection selected for a capacitor bank depends on
bank configuration, whether or not the capacitor bank is
grounded and the system grounding.

The connection of a capacitor bank causes an electric

transient due to the phenomena of electric charging of the
bank. Actually, there is an overcurrent at high frequency
(in its first instants equivalent to a short-time short-circuit)
whose amplitude is a function of the parameters of the
upstream network and of the characteristics of the bank.
Moreover, the switching implies an overvoltage whose
disturbance wave propagates through the network.The
entity of the overvoltage depends on the reactive power
Qc supplied by the capacitor bank and on the installation
point of the bank itself. In particular, two important
situations may occur :

 Installation immediately on the load side of a

transformer with apparent power Sr (supplied by a
network with infinitive power) and having a
percentage short circuit voltage Ucc%. In this case
there is an overvoltage whose value can be
calculated as follows :

 Installation at a point in the network with short-circuit

power Scc. In this case, the overvoltage can be
evaluated according to the relation :

59
The over currents which can be found at the moment of
switching in depend greatly both from the inductance of
the upstream network as well as from the number of
connected capacitor banks.
In the case of an individual bank, the peak of the
connection current depends strongly from the short-circuit
current Icc of the upstream network, influenced by the
typical inductance L0 of the network, according to the
relation:

The Standards IEC 62271-100 and IEC 60831-1 give the

formulas for the calculation of the inrush current peak. In
this case, it results:

since the connection inductance of the capacitor banks is

much lower than the inductance of the upstream network
L<<L0. Generally, in the installations, the peak value of the
current does not exceed the maximum value established
for capacitor banks (100 times the rated current of the
bank); if the peak value exceeds such maximum value or
it has to be reduced to guarantee the proper operation of
the switching devices, the use of limitation inductances in
series with the capacitor bank shall be necessary. In case
of connection of a bank when one or more banks are
already energized, it is necessary to provide in series with
60
each of them some limitation inductances because now
the peak current value is much higher due to the sudden
transfer of power from the bank/s already in service to the
bank being connected. The relations given by the above
mentioned Standards for the calculation of the peak
values are respectively:

 connection when one bank is already connected

When L1 = L and C1 = C then :

 connection when n banks are already connected :

When L1 = L2 = … = L and C1 = C2 = … = Cn = then :

61
The limitation inductances used are generally in air
without magnetic core and the values more often used
are: 50, 100 or 150 μH.

3.8.1 Switching and Protection :

A system for power factor correction is constituted

essentially by:

• a protective device;
• a switching device (contactor);
• one or more capacitors suitably connected;
• resistors for capacitor discharge.

In case of an automatic compensation system, also a

control station unit to command switching in/off of the
capacitors.

3.8.2 Choice of the protective device :

The devices used for the protection of capacitor banks

shall satisfy the following requirements and therefore
shall:

1. sustain the transient currents which occurs when

connecting and disconnecting the capacitor banks. In
particular, the instantaneous protections of the thermal
magnetic and electronic trip units shall not trip due to
inrush currents;

62
2. sustain the periodic or permanent overcurrents due
to the voltage harmonics and to the tolerance on the
rated capacitance value;

3. be coordinated with any external switching device

(contactors).

Furthermore, the making and breaking capacity of the

circuit-breaker shall be suitable to the short-circuit level
of the installation. The Standards IEC 60831-1 and IEC
60931-1 prescribe that:
 capacitors shall be able to operate under steady-
stateconditions with an r.m.s. current value up to
30% higher than their rated current Icn (this is due to
the possible presence of voltage harmonics in the
network);
 a tolerance of +10% on the capacitance for banks up
to 100 kvar and of 5% for banks exceeding 100 kvar
is admitted (Amendment 1 of the above mentioned
standards).

Therefore, a capacitor bank can absorb a maximum

current Icmax of:

where:
• Qc is the reactive power;
• Un is the rated line-to-line voltage;
63
• Icn is the rated current.

To summarize, depending on the rated reactive power of

the capacitor bank, to guarantee a correct protection
against overload:

• The rated current of the circuit-breaker shall be higher

than the above mentioned values;
• The setting of the overload protection shall be equal to
the given values.

The connection of a capacitor bank, comparable to a

making operation under short-circuit condition, is
associated with transient currents, at high frequency (1 to
15 kHz), of short duration (1 to 3 ms), with high peak (25
to 200.Icn).

For the protection of the capacitor bank:

• The circuit-breaker shall have an adequate making

capacity;
• The setting of the instantaneous protection against short-
circuit shall not cause unwanted tripping.

The second condition is usually respected:

• For thermal magnetic trip units, by setting the magnetic

protection I3 at values not lower than 10.Icmax

I3 ≥ 10.Icmax

• for electronic trip units, by setting in OFF the

instantaneous protection against short-circuit (I3 = OFF).

64
3.8.3 Choice of the switching device (contactor) :

Capacitors or capacitors banks are usually switched by a

contactor which shall be chosen so that it can operate
properly; more precisely, the contactor shall be sized so
that:

• It can sustain a current equal to the Icmax of the

capacitor
bank;
• It can sustain without damages the inrush current of
the capacitors.

Furthermore the contactor must be protected against

short-circuit by the protection device.

3.9 Capacitor Unbalance Protection:

The protection of shunt capacitor banks against internal

faults involves several protective devices/elements in a
coordinated scheme. Typically, the protective elements
found in a SCB for internal faults are: individual fuses (not
discuss in this paper), unbalance protection to provide
alarm/ tripand over current elements for bank fault
protection.

Removal of a failed capacitor element or unit by its fuse

results in an increase in voltage acrossthe remaining
elements/ units causing an unbalance within the bank. A

65
continuous over voltage(above 1.1pu) on any unit shall be
prevented by means of protective relays that trip the bank.
Unbalance protection normally senses changes
associated with the failure of a capacitor elementor unit
and removes the bank from service when the resulting
over voltage becomes excessive on the remaining healthy
capacitor units.
Unbalance protection normally provides the primary
protection for arcing faults within a capacitor bank and
other abnormalities that may damage capacitor elements/
units. Arcing faults may cause substantial damage in a
small fraction of a second. The unbalance protection
should have
minimum intentional delay in order to minimize the amount
of damage to the bank in the event of external arcing.
In most capacitor banks an external arc within the
capacitor bank does not result in enough change in the
phase current to operate the primary fault protection
(usually an over current relay)The sensitivity requirements
for adequate capacitor bank protection for this condition
may be very
demanding, particularly for SBC with many series groups.
The need for sensitive resulted in the development of
unbalance protection where certain voltages or currents
parameters of the capacitor bank are monitored and
compared to the bank balance conditions.
Capacitor unbalance protection is provided in many
different ways, depending on the capacitor bank
arrangement and grounding. A variety of unbalance
protection schemes are used for internally fused,
externally fused, fuse less, or un fused shunt capacitor.

The protection of shunt capacitor banks uses simple, well

known relaying principles such as over voltage, over
currents. However, it requires the protection engineer to
66
have a good Shunt Capacitor Bank Fundamentals and
Protection 17understanding of the capacitor unit, its
arrangement and bank design issues before embarking in
its protection. Un balance is the most important protection
in a shunt capacitor bank, as it provides fast and effective
protection to assure a long and reliable life for the bank.
To accomplish its goal ,un balance protection requires
high degree of sensitivity that might be difficult to achieve.

3.10 Determining Capacitor value :

 Example :

Power Factor1=74%
Actual Power=594 kw
Interested to boost up=97% ,Power Factor2=97%
Power Factor=KW/KVA
Cosq = kW / kVA
q = Cos-1 (PF1)
q = Cos-1 (74%) =42.27 o
The reactive power was about:
Tanq = kVAr / kW
kVAr = kW x tanq
kVAr = 594 kW x tan (42.27) = 540 kVAr
If the power factor were increased to 97%, the
reactive power would be about:
Cosq = kW / kVA
q = Cos-1 (PF2)
q = Cos-1 (97%) = 14.07 o
kVAr = kW x tanq
kVAr = 594 kW x tan (14.07) = 149 kVAr
Thus, the amount of capacitance required to boost
power factor from 74% to 97% :
67
 540 kVAr – 149 kVAr = 391 kVAr
So I recommended 400kvar
4. Synchronous Condenser:

Synchronous machines are excited by dc, and the power

factor may be controlled by controlling the field excitation.
The various synchronous machines available for power
factor correction comprise synchronous motors,
synchronous condensers, synchronous converters,
synchronous phase modifiers, phase advancers, and
synchronous-induction motors.

An over-excited synchronous motor running on no load is

called the synchronous condenser or synchronous phase
advancer and behaves like a capacitor, the capacitive
reactance of which depends upon the motor excitation.
Power factor can be improved by using synchronous
condensers like shunt capacitors connected across the
supply. Synchronous converters are used where dc
supply is needed. The pf of induction motor of rating
exceeding 150 kw may be improved by equipping the set
with ac exciter or phase advancer which supplies the
exciting current to the rotor circuit at slip frequency.

The Synchronous Condenser (SC) dynamically provides

power factor correction without the use of static
components. As it is dynamic, the precise operation of
the Synchronous Condenser (SC)  excitation field will
produce the required pf VAR needed to correct the power
factor to the set level or desired amount without switching
transients. Also, as it is a Dynamic device, there is no
problem with harmonic currents produces by (VFD's), dirty
loads or static (solid state) drives. The Synchronous
Condenser (SC) uses rotary technology which improves

68
overall power quality by reducing voltage transients and
eliminating problems associated with harmonic distortion
which exist in all manufacturing processes.

A Series SC is an unloaded or lightly loaded synchronous

machine that will deliver the required reactive power
dynamically. The SC is connected to the power line and is
intentionally run in an overexcited condition. The level of
excitation is dependent on the amount of power factor
correction desired and the amount of power factor sensed
by the condenser controls. The condenser will adjust the
excitation level automatically to maintain the power factor
at the correct setting. Once the Series SC is installed, it
continuously monitors the power factor and produces the
right amount of VAR needed to correct any power factor
without switching transients and is not troubled by
harmonic currents produced by solid state motor drives.
The Series SC also helps overall power quality by
reducing voltage transients and by reducing the problems
associated with harmonic distortion found in many
manufacturing process. The Series SC is available from
100 kVAR to 10,000 kVAR modules, from 480 volts up to
15 KV. Applying a synchronous condenser for power
factor correction provides many advantages with no risks.
Correcting power factor with a condenser is much
smoother and will not adversely affect a system loaded
with current harmonics. The condenser is a low
impedance source and appears inductive to loads. In
addition the Series SC is easy to maintain (a simple
annual lubrication) and adapts easily to a plant's changing
loads. (Dynamic Correction) The SC has many user
friendly features such as the automatic restart after power
loss. The SC also has a state-of-the-art integrated touch
screen display and control interface. The controls are
designed to be friendly and easily understood so that the
69
user can control the SC from this panel. The touch screen
will display voltage, current, power factor, and power
information as a minimum.

 Correcting power factor with a condenser is much

smoother and will not adversely affect the system
loaded with current harmonics.
 The condenser is a low impedance source and
appears inductive to variable speed drives.
 The synchronous condenser is much kinder to the
site Diesel Generator set and presents it with a
predictable load.
 Two major advantage of using a synchronous
condenser are its long useful life and its record for
reliability. Synchronous condenser will deliver over
25 years of money saving service ( compare that
with average 5 years life span of capacitor bank ) .
 A rotary synchronous condenser requires less
maintenance than a capacitor bank. The condenser
simply requires a annual greasing performed with
the condenser running. Capacitors on the other
hand, require yearly, scheduled shut down to have
connections cleaned, tightened and to allowed
visual inspections for expansion that might lead to
bursting of the capacitors.

70
5.1 Power factor measurement :

Power factor can measure by using power factor meter

which is well known in power industry.Power factor can
also be calculated by installing watt meter along with the
Ampere meter and volt meter by using the power factor
basic formula.

Power factor=Actual Power/ Apparent power

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5.2 Details of Power factor measurement :

Here we will discuss the symbols and some equations

important for power factor measurement

5.2.1 Formula Symbols

C  Capacitance (farads)
fs System Frequency
F Frequency (Hertz)
I Current (amps)
I1, I2 Currents of bank or stages being switched and of bank or
stage already energized
Imax peak A peak value calculated without damping. In practical circuits
it will be about 90 percent of this value
Ih RMS current (amps) at harmonic (h)
Kvar Reactive Power (kvar)
kVAtx  Three-phase transformer rating
Ztx Nameplate impedance (%)
kVAr Three-phase capacitor bank rating
KVA Total Power (kVA)
kV kilovolts (kv)
KW Real Power (kw)
Leq Total equivalent inductance per phase between capacitor
banks or stages, in microhenrys
PF Power Factor (no unit)
P Real Power (KW)
Q Reactive Power (kvar)
S Total Power (KVA)
Subscript I  Initial
Subscript d Desired
Subscript Three Phase

Subscript Single Phase

 
Subscript Line to Neutral

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LN
Subscript Line to Line
LL
Subscript Short Circuit
SC
Th Single Frequency TIF at harmonic (h)
Vn Harmonic Voltage magnitude
Vrms Root mean square (rms) value of voltage
VLL Rated maximum voltage in kilovolts
I rms Root mean square (rms) value of current
Isc
Symmetrical rms short-circuit current, in amperes
Vpk
Peak magnitude
Xc Capacitive Reactance (ohms)
XC Capacitive reactance ()
XL Inductive reactance ()
R Resistance ()
Xn Filter inductor - reactance ()
N Harmonic at which filter is tuned
 Power factor angle

5.2.2 Formulas:

73
A) Capacitors Connected in Parallel

B) Capacitors Connected in Series

C) Capacitive Reactance Xc

D) Capacitance C

E) Capacitive Kilovars

F) Power Factor

74
G) Kvars Required to Change Power Factor

where,

= initial power factor angle

= final power factor angle

H) Equations for Total Power

good for both 3 phase and single phase calculations

I) Total Power

J) Equations For Reactive Power

75
K) Approximate Voltage Rise for Addition of Capacitors

where,

L) Released System Capacity for Power Factor Improvement

M) % Loss Reduction for Correcting Power Factor

N) Capacitor Current

O) Total Harmonic Distortion

76
P) Root Mean Square, RMS

Q) Displacement Power Factor

R) Total Power Factor, TPF

S) Resonant Frequency

T) I*T Product

U) Quality Factor, Q

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V) Crest Factor, CF

W) Inrush Current and Frequency Calculation for Single Capacitor

Bank Switching

X) Inrush Current and Frequency Calculation for Back-To-Back

Capacitor Bank Switching

6. Automatic power factor controller :

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 Buck + Boost Power Factor Controller :

Here we are going to propose a buck+boost power factor

controller circuit.

6.1 Principle Operation :

Boost converter is a conventional PFC circuit since its

input current can be programmed to follow the input
voltage. It has several advantages, such as a small EMI
filter due to its continuous input current, and a simple
circuit. The basic requirement is that the output voltage
must be higher than the input voltage. For a wide range
output voltage, as in this application, the converter outputs
lower voltage, below the input voltage, when the system
operates at low power level. A Boost converter can’t
accomplish this function. In order to achieve high power
factor for this operation condition, a Buck converter or the
converter which has Buck function has to be used. Fig.
below shows the proposedBuck+Boost converter.
Actually, this converter combines a buck converter with a
boost converter. The basic operation can be described as
follows:

Fig : The Buck-Boost PFC Circuit

79
6.2 Why use Buck + Boost for Single-Phase?
 Buck switch eliminates boost inrush problem
 Buck switch functions as prime-power disconnect
 Input current can be controlled
 Enhanced PLD immunity

6.3 Advantages of Buck+ Boosttopology :

 No restrictions on output voltage.

 Enables use of 450V caps and 600V silicon
regardless of line voltage.
 Enables operation from 277V while keeping output
voltage unchanged.
 Inherent control of input current.
 Permits use of fast blow line fuses (semiconductor
fuses).
 Permits N+1 operation from single line cord – fuses
clear before upstream CB.
 Permits operation from DC bus - no inrush current.
 Enhanced PLD immunity: Lightning strike and Ring
Wave.
 Buck switch functions as prime-power disconnect ie.
simplifiesHotplug.
 “Anti-Smoke” compliant.

6.4 “Anti-smoke” Compliance :

 Inherent protection against a shorted bulk cap or

boost FET.

80
  Buck switch limits fault current to a safe level and is
then turned off to isolate the fault.
 If a shorted buck switch causes an OV the boost
switch functions as crowbar to clear the input fuses.
 Input fuses are very fast-acting so this failure does
not make a big noise or smoke.

6.5 Disadvantages of Buck + Boost topology :

 Extra floating switch required.

 Increased complexity and cost.
 Discontinuous input current in Buck region.
 Bigger input filter.
 Filter not required if converter operates from low
voltage only.

6.6 Proposed Buck + Boost Power Factor Corrector:

81
 Figure: Buck + Boost PFC Circuit

6.7 Working Principle:

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor

82
(MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a transistor used
for amplifying or switching electronic signals. Metal oxide
field effect transistor, in electronics projects where you
need to switch a high-current DC device on and off with a
control voltage. The FQP50N06 MOSFET, for example,
can switch up to 60 volts DC at a maximum of 50 amps for
a total of 120 watts. To get a basic idea of how a
MOSFET works, you can use it to blink a light-emitting
diode. A low-frequency square wave oscillator provides
the control voltage.

A buck converter is a step-down DC to DC converter. Its

design is similar to the step-up boost converter, and like
the boost converter it is a switched-mode power
supply that uses two switches (a transistor and a diode),
an inductor and a capacitor. Here we use MOSFET for
functioning the switching operation. There is a pulsating
Voltage source which is connect to the gate of the
MOSFET. Our Main input source is Vsine source which
provide original ac voltage .

The operation of the buck converter is fairly simple, with a

capacitor and two switches (usually a transistor and
a diode) that control the capacitor. It alternates between
connecting the capacitor to source voltage to store energy
in the capacitor and discharging the capacitor into the
load.

For the purposes of analysis it is useful to consider an

idealized buck converter. In the idealized converter all the
components are considered to be perfect. Specifically the
switch and the diode have zero voltage drop when on and
zero current flow when off . Further it is assumed that the
input and output voltages do not change over the course
of a cycle.
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The output capacitor has enough capacitance to supply
power to the load (a simple resistance) without any
noticeable variation in its voltage. The voltage drop across
the diode when forward biased is zero. No commutation
losses in the switch nor in the diode.

In The Boost Converter we use MOSFET as a switch and

Diode to conduct pulse with the RLC circuit. MOSFET is
provided with pulsating voltage.

A low-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes low

frequency signals but attenuates (reduces
the amplitude of)signals with frequencies higher than
the cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for
each frequency varies from filter to filter. It is sometimes
called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in
audio applications. A low-pass filter is the opposite of
a high-pass filter. Here we use Low pass filter to eliminate
the high frequency .By using Low pass filter we can obtain
original ac voltage from a pulsating voltage. We observed
the output from the filter circuit to maintain the voltage and
current phase different same.

6.7.1 Graph:

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Current across (R5) for L=50uH

Voltage across (R5) for L=50uH

85
Input voltage(V5)

Input current I(V5)

86
Voltage across RLC

Current across RLC

87
 Voltage across (R5) for L=100uH

Current across (R5) for L=100uH

7. Our other Proposals :

88
We will now propose some other circuits that might work
for Power Factor Correction

7.1 A PFC with high power factor at low load or high

mains voltage :

7.2 PFC circuit with PWM Generator:

89
7.3 A PFC voltage regulator configuration with
reduced redundant power processing:

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91