ASSIGNMENT

FOR

INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL

(ENG 321)

TOPICS-
1. P, PI, PID Controllers
2. Cascade Control
3. Feed Forward Control
4. SCADA Systems

SUBMITTED BY- SUBMITTED TO-

1. SADHAN JYOTI DUTTA (117113) Er. ARUN SHARMA

1. P, PI, PID Controllers-
The term ‘control’ implies the restoration of a desirable state which has been disturbed by external or
internal influences. Control processes exist in the most diverse areas. In nature, for instance, control
processes serve to protect plants and animals against varying environmental conditions. In economics,
supply and demand control the price and delivery time of a product. In any of these cases, disturbances
may occur that would change the originally established state. It is the function of the control system to
recognize the disturbed state and correct it by the appropriate means. In a similar way as in nature and
economics, many variables must be controlled in technology so that equipment and systems serve their
intended purpose. In technology, the term ‘control’ is not only applied to the control process, but also to
the controlled system.
In control engineering, a controlled system is primarily characterized by its dynamic behavior which
also determines the scope and quality required to solve a control task. Frequently, the so-called step
response of the controlled system is used to reflect this dynamic behavior. The step response reveals
how the controlled variable reacts to a change in the manipulated variable. This is determined by
measuring the controlled variable after a step change in the manipulated variable.
Controllers and Control Elements-
A controller’s job is to influence the controlled system via control signal so that the value of the
controlled variable equals the value of the reference value. Controllers consist of a reference and a
control element. The reference element calculates the error (e) from the difference between reference
(w) and feedback variable (r), while the control element generates the manipulated variable (y) from the
error:

Controllers are classified according to their control signal response. Depending on the type of controller,
the control signal can either be continuous or discontinuous.
In continuous controllers, the manipulated variable can assume any value within the controller output
range. The characteristic of continuous controllers usually exhibits proportional (P), integral (I) or
differential (D) action, or is a sum of these individual elements.
In discontinuous controllers, the manipulated variable y changes between discrete values. Depending on
how many different states the manipulated variable can assume, a distinction is made between two-
position, three-position and multiposition controllers.
a) Proportional controller (P controller):
A P controller system is a type of linear feedback control system. The manipulated variable y of
a P controller is proportional to the measured error e.

The term describes a linear equation whose gradient is determined by KP.

The above fig shows a high Kp represents a strongly rising gradient, so that even small system deviations
can cause strong control actions.
Example: Proportional level control

The water in a tank is to be kept at a constant level, even if the output flow rate of the water is varied
via the drain valve (VA).
The illustrated controlling system is at steady state when the supplied as well
as the drained water flow rates are equally large the liquid level remains constant. If the drain valve
(VA) is opened a little further, the water level will start to fall. The float (SW) in the tank will descend
together with the water level. This will cause the rigid lever connected to the float to open the inlet valve
(VE). The increasing flow finally prevents the water level from dropping still lower so that the system
reaches a new equilibrium level. By displacing the pivot of the lever upward or downward, a different
stationary water level can be adjusted. If the individual components are sized properly, this type of
control process will prevent the tank from discharging or overflowing.
The above example shows the typical characteristics of proportional control action:
➢ In case of disturbances, steady-state error is always sustained: when the outlet flow rate
permanently changes, it is urgently required for the liquid level to deviate from the originally
adjusted set point to permanently change the position of the inlet valve (VE) as well.
➢ The system deviation decreases at high gain (high proportional action coefficient), but also
increases the risk of oscillation for the controlled variable. If the pivot of the lever is displaced
towards the float, the controller sensitivity increases. Due to this amplified controlling effect, the
supply flow changes more strongly when the level varies; too strong an amplification might lead
to sustained variations in the water level (oscillation).
b) Integral controller (I controller):
Integral control action is used to fully correct system deviations at any operating point. As long
as the error is nonzero, the integral action will cause the value of the manipulated variable to
change. Only when reference variable and controlled variable are equally large - at the latest,
though, when the manipulated variable reaches its system specific limit value (Umax, pmax, etc.)
is the control process balanced. Mathematics expresses integral action as follows: the value of
the manipulated variable is changed proportional to the integral of the error e.

How rapidly the manipulated variable increases/decreases depends on the error and the integral
time Tn(reciprocal of integral-action coefficient Ki). If the controller has a short integral time, the
control signal increases more rapidly as for controllers with long integral time (small integral-
action coefficient).
Example: Pneumatic I controller

The pneumatic I controller illustrated in Fig. 29 operates with a piston actuator. When the supply
nozzle in front of the jet divider is in mid-position, the piston remains where it is. In this
position, error equals zero because the forces of the set point spring FS and the pressure loaded
metal bellows FM cancel each other out completely.
A virtual control cycle helps us recognize the functional principle: When, due to an additional
consumer, the pressure p2 drops, the nozzle turns towards the upper piston chamber. The piston
slides downward, opening the valve until the equilibrium of forces is restored. The nozzle is then
again in mid-position, i.e. error equals zero and the valve plug remains in the new, wider open
position.
c) Derivative controller (D controller):
D controllers generate the manipulated variable from the rate of change of the error and not - as
P controllers - from their amplitude. Therefore, they react much faster than P controllers: even if
the error is small, derivative controllers generate - by anticipation, so to speak - large control
amplitudes as soon as a change in amplitude occurs. A steady-state error signal, however, is not
recognized by D controllers, because regardless of how big the error, its rate of change is zero.
Therefore, derivative-only controllers are rarely used in practice. They are usually found in
combination with other control elements, mostly in combination with proportional control.

The factor TV is the rate time, KD is the derivative-action coefficient. Both variables are a
measure for the influence of the D component: high values mean strong control action.
d) PI controllers:
In PI controllers, one P and one I controller are connected in parallel (Fig. 35). If properly
designed, they combine the advantages of both controller types (stability and rapidity; no steady-
state error), so that their disadvantages are compensated for at the same time.

The manipulated variable of PI controllers is calculated as follows:

The dynamic behavior is marked by the proportional-action coefficient KP and the reset time Tn.
Due to the proportional component, the manipulated variable immediately reacts to any error
signal e, while the integral component starts gaining influence only after some time. Tn
represents the time that elapses until the I component generates the same control amplitude that
 is generated by the P component (KP) from the start. As with I controllers, the reset time Tn must
be reduced if the integral-action component is to be amplified.
e) PID controller:
If a D component is added to PI controllers, the result is an extremely versatile PID controller.
As with PD controllers, the added D component- if properly tuned- causes the controlled variable
to reach its set point more quickly, thus reaching steady state more rapidly.

The manipulated variable y results from the addition of the differently weighted P, I and D
components and their associated coefficients:

The control response of PID controllers is favorable in systems with large energy storing
components (higher-order controlled systems) that require control action as fast as possible and
without steady-state error. The PID controller therefore exhibits the most sophisticated control
response.

2. Cascade Control-
Cascade control is one of the most successful methods for enhancing single-loop control performance. It
can dramatically improve the performance of control strategies, reducing both the maximum deviation
and the integral error for disturbance responses. Since the calculations required are simple, cascade
control can be implemented with a wide variety of analog and digital equipment.
Cascade uses an additional measurement of a process variable to assist in the control system. The
selection of this extra measurement, which is based on information about the most common disturbances
and about the process dynamic responses, is critical to the success of the cascade controller.
EXAMPLE OF CASCADE CONTROL-

Let us take an example of a process in a stirred-tank heat exchanger. The goal is to provide tight control
of the exit temperature. The conventional feedback controller, with integral mode, attempts to maintain
the exit temperature near its set point in response to all disturbances and ensures zero steady-state offset
for step like disturbances. Suppose that one particularly frequent and large disturbance is the heating oil
pressure. When this pressure increases, the initial response of the oil flow and the heat transferred is to
increase. Ultimately, the tank exit temperature increases, and the feedback controller reduces the control
valve opening to compensate for the increased pressure. While the effect of the disturbance is ultimately
compensated by the single-loop strategy, the response is slow because the exit temperature must be
disturbed before the feedback controller can respond.
Cascade control design considers the likely disturbances and tailors the control system to the
disturbance(s) that strongly degrades performance. Cascade control uses an additional, "secondary"
measured process input variable that has the important characteristic that it indicates the occurrence of
the key disturbance. The secondary variable is selected to be the heating oil flow, because it responds in
a predictable way to the disturbances in the oil pressure, which is not measured in this case. The control
objective (tight control of the outlet temperature) and the final element are unchanged.
 A few important features of the cascade structure should be emphasized. First, the flow controller is
much faster than the temperature controller. The improvement results from the much shorter dead time
in the secondary loop than in the original single-loop system. Shorter dead times improve single-
controller were not faster, the cascade design would have no advantage. Second, the temperature
controller with an integral mode remains in the design to ensure zero offset for all disturbance sources.
The primary controller is essential, because (1) the secondary variable may not totally eliminate the
effect of the disturbance, (2) other disturbances that are not affected by the cascade will also occur, and
(3) the ability to change the primary set point must be retained. Remember that the secondary variable is
selected for one (or a few) common disturbances; in the example, a heat exchanger feed temperature
disturbance would affect the tank outlet temperature but does not influence the heating oil measurement.
Finally, the judicious selection of the secondary variable has made the improvement possible without
using a model of the effect of pressure on exit temperature in the control calculation; the only models
used were the process models used to tune the two feedback controllers. As a result, cascade control is
not strongly sensitive to modelling errors, although large errors could lead to oscillations or instability in
one of the feedback controllers.

3. Feed Forward Control-

Feedforward uses the measurement of an input disturbance to the plant as additional information for
enhancing single-loop PID control performance. This measurement provides an "early warning" that the
controlled variable will be upset some time in the future. With this warning the feedforward controller
has the opportunity to adjust the manipulated variable before the controlled variable deviates from its set
point.
EXAMPLE OF FEED FORWARD CONTROL-

Let us again take the example of the process in a stirred-tank heat exchanger. The control objective is
still the maintenance of the outlet temperature very close to its set point, and the ma nipulated variable is
still the heating medium valve position. The only difference is that the heating oil pressure is not varying
significantly; thus, the cascade controller is not required, as shown in Figure 15.1. In this case, the inlet
temperature varies with sufficient amplitude to disturb the outlet temperature significantly. The
challenge is to design a feedforward controller that reduces or, in the ideal case, eliminates the effect of
the inlet temperature on the outlet temperature by adjusting the heating oil valve.
The approach to designing a feedforward controller is based on completely cancelling the effect of the
disturbance. The disturbance is shown as a step change to simplify the discussion, but the analysis and
resulting feedforward controller are applicable to any disturbance of arbitrary time dependence. The
change in the outlet temperature in response to the inlet temperature change, shown as curve A, is the
response that would occur without control. For perfect control, the outlet temperature would not change;
this is shown as curve B. To achieve perfect control the manipulated variable must be adjusted to
compensate for the disturbance—that is, to cause the mirror image of the disturbance so that the sum of
the two effects is zero. Thus, curve C shows the effect of the manipulated variable on the outlet
temperature; the sum of curves A and C is a zero disturbance to the controlled variable, which gives
perfect feedforward control. The feedforward control algorithm uses the measurement of the disturbance
to calculate the manipulated variable with the goal of perfect feedforward compensation.
The control calculation that achieves this goal can be derived by analyzing the block diagram of the
feedforward control system in Figure 15.3. The individual blocks account for the process Gpis), the
disturbance Gp(s), and the feedforward controller Gp(s). The equation that relates the measured
disturbance to the outlet variable is
4. SCADA Systems-
SCADA is “Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition”. Real-time industrial process control systems
used to centrally monitor and control remote or local industrial equipment such as motors, valves,
pumps, relays, sensors, etc. SCADA is Combination of telemetry and Data Acquisition.
SCADA is not just hardware but also software. It’s a concept. It’s a system as a combination of special
hardware, software and protocols. SCADA is used to control chemical plant processes, oil and gas
pipelines, electrical generation and transmission equipment, manufacturing facilities, water purification
and distribution infrastructure, etc. For example, in a SCADA system a PLC can be used to control the
flow of cooling water as part of an industrial process. At the same time the supervisor can use the Host
control function to set the temperature for the flow of water. It can also have alarms and can record the
flow of water temperature and report back. The RTUs and PLCs are responsible for data collection such
as meter readings, equipment status etc and communicate back to the SCADA system. This data can be
stored in a database for later analysis or monitored by a supervisor to take appropriate actions if
required.
SCADA is not a specific technology, but a type of application. SCADA stands for Supervisory Control
and Data Acquisition — any application that gets data about a system in order to control that system is a
SCADA application.
A SCADA application has two elements:
1. The process/system/machinery you want to monitor a control — this can be a power plant, a water
system, a network, a system of traffic lights, or anything else.
2. A network of intelligent devices that interfaces with the first system through sensors and control
outputs. This network, which is the SCADA system, gives you the ability to measure and control
specific elements of the first system.
A SCADA system performs four functions:
1. Data acquisition
2. Networked data communication
3. Data presentation
4. Control
These functions are performed by four kinds of SCADA components:
1. Sensors (either digital or analog) and control relays that directly interface with the
managed system.
2. Remote telemetry units (RTUs). These are small computerized units deployed in the
field at specific sites and locations. RTUs serve as local collection points for gathering
reports from sensors and delivering commands to control relays.
3. SCADA master units. These are larger computer consoles that serve as the central
processor for the SCADA system. Master units provide a human interface to the system
and automatically regulate the managed system in response to sensor inputs.
4. The communications network that connects the SCADA master unit to the RTUs in the
field.

The common architecture required for the SCADA products is as follows-

➢ Hardware Architecture-
The basic hardware of the SCADA system is distinguished into two basic layers: the
"client layer" which caters for the man machine interaction and the "data server layer"
which handles most of the process data control activities. The data servers communicate
with devices in the field through process controllers. Process controllers, e.g. PLC’s, are
connected to the data servers either directly or via networks or field buses that are
proprietary (e.g. Siemens H1), or non-proprietary (e.g. Profibus). Data servers are
connected to each other and to client stations via an Ethernet LAN in the fig which shows
typical hardware architecture.
 ➢ Software Architecture-
The SCADA products are multi-tasking and are based upon a real-time database (RTDB)
located in one or more servers. Servers are responsible for data acquisition and handling
like polling controllers, alarm checking, calculations, logging and archiving) on a set of
parameters, typically to which those are connected. However, it is possible to have
dedicated servers for particular tasks, e.g. historian, data logger, alarm handler. The
following fig. shows a SCADA architecture that is generic for the product.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GENERATION-

SCADA systems have evolved through 3 generations as follows:

• FIRST GENERATION: "MONOLITHIC"

In the first generation, computing was done by mainframe systems. Networks didn’t exist at the time SCADA
was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. Wide
Area Networks were later designed by RTU vendors to communicate with the RTU. The communication
protocols used were often proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system was redundant since a
back-up mainframe system was connected at the bus level and was used in the event of failure of the primary
mainframe system.
 • SECOND GENERATION: "DISTRIBUTED"

The processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN and they shared
information in real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task thus making the size and cost of each
station less than the one used in First Generation. The network protocols used were still mostly proprietary,
which led to significant security problems for any SCADA system that received attention from a hacker. Since
the protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers and hackers knew enough to determine
how secure a SCADA installation was. Since both parties had vested interests in keeping security issues quiet,
the security of a SCADA installation was often badly overestimated, if it was considered at all.

• THIRD GENERATION: "NETWORKED"

These are the current generation SCADA systems which use open system architecture rather than a vendor-
controlled proprietary environment. The SCADA system utilizes open standards and protocols, thus distributing
functionality across a WAN rather than a LAN. It is easier to connect third party peripheral devices like
printers, disk drives, and tape drives due to the use of open architecture. WAN protocols such as Internet
Protocol (IP) are used for communication between the master station and communications equipment. Due to
the usage of standard protocols and the fact that many networked SCADA systems are accessible from the
Internet, the systems are potentially vulnerable to remote cyber-attacks. On the other hand, the usage of
standard protocols and security techniques means that standard security improvements are applicable to the
SCADA systems, assuming they receive timely maintenance and updates.

HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE-

A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a human operator, and
through which the human operator controls the process.

An HMI is usually linked to the SCADA system's databases and software programs, to provide trending,
diagnostic data, and management information such as scheduled maintenance procedures, logistic information,
detailed schematics for a particular sensor or machine, and expert-system troubleshooting guides.

The HMI package for the SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system
maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface. These
representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light
in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a
skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway.
REFERENCES-
1. https://www.samsongroup.com/document/l102en.pdf
2. Comparative study of P, PI and PID controller for speed control of VSI-fed induction motor
https://www.ijedr.org/papers/IJEDR1402230.pdf
3. Control Systems by A. Nagoor Kani.
4. Process Control:Designing Processes and Control Systems for Dynamic Performance by Thomas E.
Marlin
5. NPTEL